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171-501: Somali National Alliance victory The Unified Task Force ( UNITAF ) was a United States-led, United Nations-sanctioned multinational force which operated in Somalia from 5 December 1992 until 4 May 1993. A United States initiative (code-named Operation Restore Hope ), UNITAF was charged with carrying out United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 to create a protected environment for conducting humanitarian operations in

342-483: A 24 August report his intention to increase the size of UNOSOM from 500 to 3,500 and deploy the extra troops in four operational zones across the country. According to Professor Stephen Hill, Sahnoun knew the announcement, "...threatened to undo all his long worked for local support, because it had been made ‘without consulting the Somali leaders and community elders," Following Ghali's decision, Sahnoun attempted to have

513-460: A System ( F-INSAS ), and is also upgrading and acquiring new assets for its armoured, artillery, and aviation branches. Until the independence of India , the "Indian Army" was a British-commanded force defined as "the force recruited locally and permanently based in India, together with its expatriate British officers"; the "British Army in India" referred to British Army units posted to India for

684-531: A crucial tactical and strategic advantage over India. On 20 October, Chinese soldiers attacked India from both the northwest and northeast; and captured large portions of Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh. As the fighting moved beyond disputed territories, China called on the Indian government to negotiate; however, India remained determined to regain lost territory. With no agreement in sight, China unilaterally withdrew its forces from Arunachal Pradesh. The reasons for

855-585: A few confrontations over the methods and mandates employed by some contingents. For example, the Italian contingent was accused of bribing local militias to maintain peace, whilst the French Foreign Legion troops were accused of over-vigorous use of force in disarming militiamen. The Canadian contingent of the operation was known by the Canadian operation name Operation Deliverance . "The deck

1026-912: A humanitarian venture to an American-led war in Somalia. The alliance further called for a negotiated settlement to end the conflict. The four month long conflict overturned much of the re-conciliatory process that had been made since the start of the intervention. A major turning point in UNOSOM and SNA fortunes came during the 12 July 1993 'Bloody Monday' . The raid had been conducted by the American Quick Reaction Force of UNOSOM II on what UN forces alleged to be an SNA command and control center. U.S. AH-1 Cobra helicopters killed up to 70 Somali clan elders and civilians, many of whom were reportedly not associated with Aidid. The raid has been noted for turning popular sentiment firmly against

1197-734: A hydrogen bomb, which Pakistan lacked. Diplomatic tensions eased after the Lahore Summit was held in 1999. However, the sense of optimism was short-lived. In mid-1999, Pakistani paramilitary forces and Kashmiri insurgents captured the deserted, but strategic, Himalayan heights in the Kargil district of India. These had been vacated by the Indian Army during the onset of the inhospitable winter and were to be reoccupied in spring. The troops that took control of these areas received important support, of both arms and supplies, from Pakistan. Some of

1368-664: A major component of national power, alongside the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force . The independent Indian army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan and one with China . Other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay , Operation Meghdoot , and Operation Cactus . The army has conducted large peacetime exercises such as Operation Brasstacks and Exercise Shoorveer, and it has also been an active participant in numerous United Nations peacekeeping missions . The Indian Army

1539-783: A major engagement with the militia would note that often the most one would see of a shooter would be a barrel and a head. Colonel R.D. Hooker, Jr., the Chief of Staff of the Army Chair at the National War College , expressed the belief that the capabilities of the SNA militia, along with the civilian irregulars who fought alongside them, were underappreciated by General William F. Garrison and his special operations staff officers at Task Force Ranger. Despite appearing poorly equipped and lacking discipline by American standards, many of

1710-667: A major refugee crisis there. In early 1971, India declared its full support for the Bengali freedom fighters, known as Mukti Bahini , and Indian agents were extensively involved in covert operations to aid them. On 20 November 1971, the Indian Army moved 14 Punjab Battalion of the 45th Cavalry regiment, into Garibpur, a strategically important town in East Pakistan, near India's border, and successfully captured it . The following day, more clashes took place between Indian and Pakistani forces. Wary of India's growing involvement in

1881-435: A month-long skirmish, both Indian Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi and Pakistan Prime Minister Imran Khan agreed on a peace offer on 22 March 2019 ending hostilities and vowed to fight against terrorism together. India has been the largest troop contributor to UN peacekeeping missions since its inception. So far, India has taken part in 43 Peacekeeping missions, with a total contribution exceeding 160,000 troops and

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2052-480: A national reconciliation government and an eventual multi-party democracy . The SNA would ultimately become the core of the Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC), formed in 2001, which would be incorporated into the internationally recognized Transitional National Government in 2002. During the mid to late 1980s various insurgencies of growing intensity would begin opposing

2223-592: A permanent military presence in the region. However, beginning in the 1950s, Pakistan began sending mountaineering expeditions to the glacier. By the early 1980s, the Government of Pakistan was granting special expedition permits to mountaineers and United States Army maps showed Siachen as a part of Pakistan. This practice gave rise to the term oropolitics . India, possibly irked by these developments, launched Operation Meghdoot in April 1984. An entire battalion of

2394-589: A princely state under the rule of the Nizam of Hyderabad , chose to remain independent. The ensuing stand-off between the Government of India and the Nizam ended on 12 September 1948, when India's then Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel ordered Indian troops to secure Hyderabad State. During five days of fighting, the Indian Army, backed by an Indian Air Force squadron of Hawker Tempest aircraft, routed

2565-400: A quarter of a million Somali lives, a claim which has been disputed by other observers who have noted that there is minimal evidence to suggest that UNITAF had had any significant impact on mortality. Operation Continue Hope provided support of UNOSOM II to establish a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations by providing personnel, logistical, communications, intelligence support,

2736-510: A quick reaction force, and other elements as required. Navy ships were involved, from the unit USS Peleliu Amphibious Readiness Group . The ships included the ship USS Anchorage , USS Peleliu , USS Duluth , USS Frederick . The Marine units from 11th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) were involved. The USS Anchorage docked at the port of Mogadishu and spent several days there. Over 60 Army aircraft and approximately 1,000 aviation personnel operated in Somalia from 1992 to 1994. No disarmament of

2907-506: A secure environment for humanitarian relief operations in Somalia". The Security Council urged the Secretary-General and member states to make arrangements for "the unified command and control" of the military forces that would be involved. UNITAF has been considered part of a larger state building initiative in Somalia, serving as the military arm to secure the distribution of humanitarian aid. However, UNITAF cannot be considered

3078-628: A series of failed negotiations, the People's Liberation Army attacked Indian Army positions on the Thag La ridge. This move by China caught India by surprise, and on 12 October Nehru gave orders for the Chinese to be expelled from Aksai Chin. However, poor coordination among various divisions of the Indian Army, and the late decision to mobilise the Indian Air Force in vast numbers, gave China

3249-437: A significant number of police personnel having been deployed. In 2014, India was the third largest troop contributor (TCC), with 7,860 personnel deployed, of which 995 were police personnel, including the first UN Female Formed Police Unit , serving with ten UN peacekeeping missions. As of 30 June 2014 , 157 Indians have been killed during such missions. The Indian army has also provided paramedical units to facilitate

3420-718: A state building initiative due to its specific, limited and palliative aims, which it nonetheless exercised forcefully. The primary objective of UNITAF was security rather than larger institution building initiatives. The vast bulk of UNITAF's total personnel strength was provided by the United States (some 25,000 out of a total of 37,000 personnel). Other countries that contributed to UNITAF were 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment from Australia (January-May 1993), Bangladesh , Belgium , Botswana , Canada , Egypt (one battalion), Ethiopia, France (brigade HQ and one battalion), Germany , Greece (medical company at Waajid),

3591-424: A staunch critic of Aidid. As the conference began, Aidid sought assistance from UNOSOM ambassador Lansana Kouyate , who proposed air transport for delegates and a 14-day accommodation. However, he was called back to New York and replaced by April Glaspie , following which UNOSOM retracted its offer. Aidid resorted to private aircraft to transport delegates. Following the aircraft incident, Aidid would publicly rebuke

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3762-477: A survey of Northeast Africa by the World Bank and UN ranking Somalia second only to Sudan as the top prospective producer. However, no American and UN troops were deployed in proximity to the major oil exploration areas in the northeastern part of the country or the autonomous Somaliland region in the northwest. The intervention happened twenty-two months after the fall of Barre's regime. Other critics explain

3933-625: A tentative military coalition that had existed between different rebel organizations would morph into the politico-military organization known as the SNA. The alliance would include Aidid's breakaway wing of the USC , the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), the Somali Southern National Movement (SSNM) and Somali Democratic Movement (SDM). The organization professed the goal of working toward forming

4104-689: A total of 150-190 tanks during the conflict. The decision to return to pre-war positions, following the Tashkent Declaration , caused an outcry in New Delhi. It was widely believed that India's decision to accept the ceasefire was due to political factors, not military, since it was facing considerable pressure from the United States and the United Nations to cease hostilities. The 1967 Sino-Indian skirmish, also known as

4275-733: A tour of duty. The "Army of India" meant the combined Indian Army and the British Army in India. In 1776, a Military Department was created within the government of the East India Company at Calcutta . Its main function was to record orders that were issued to the army by various departments of the East India Company for the territories under its control. With the Charter Act of 1833, the Secretariat of

4446-504: A victory over the UN. After the cessation of hostilities between the SNA and UNOSOM, Acting Special Representative Lansana Kouyate (replacing Adm. Johnathan Howe ) successfully launched an initiative to normalize relations in March 1994. Numerous points of contention between the respective organizations were discussed at length and understandings were reached, facilitating the normalization of

4617-593: Is an artillery battalion but operated as a provisional infantry battalion while in Somalia), arrived soon after the airport was secured. Elements of BLT 2/9's India Co, and 1/7 went on to secure the airport in Baidoa and the city of Bardera , while BLT 2/9's Golf Company, and elements of the Belgian Special Forces, conducted an amphibious landing at the port city of Kismayo . Air support was provided by

4788-653: Is celebrated on 15 January every year in India, in recognition of Lieutenant General K. M. Cariappa 's taking over as the first "Indian" Chief of the Army Staff and Commander-in-Chief, Indian Army from General Sir Roy Bucher , on 15 January 1949. With effect from 26 January 1950, the date India became a republic, all active-duty Indian Army officers formerly holding the King's Commission were recommissioned and confirmed in their substantive ranks. Immediately after independence, tensions between India and Pakistan erupted into

4959-545: The 10th Mountain Division (referred to as ARFOR Somalia), as well as Air Force and Navy personnel and units. There were also special operations forces components, in addition to the forces provided by countries contributing to the US-led, combined coalition. The national contingents were co-ordinated and overseen by U.S. Central Command , however, the relationship between CentCom and the contributing nations varied. There were

5130-585: The Battle of Mogadishu , on 6 October 1993, President Clinton ordered all US military forces in Somalia to cease actions against the Somali National Alliance, except in self defence. According to SNA personnel, an estimated 900 fighters had died since the war had started in June. In the wake of a high-profile incident where crowds desecrated the bodies of several US troops killed during the battle,

5301-839: The Cho La incident , was a military conflict between Indian troops and members of the Chinese People's Liberation Army who, on 1 October 1967, invaded Sikkim , which was then a protectorate of India. On 10 October, both sides clashed again. Defence minister Sardar Swaran Singh assured the Indian people that the government was taking care of developments along the border. Indian losses were 88 killed, and 163 wounded, while Chinese casualties were 300 killed and 450 wounded in Nathula , and 40 in Chola. The Chinese Army left Sikkim after this defeat. Under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi , during

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5472-704: The Indian Armed Forces . The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head is the Chief of Army Staff (COAS). The Indian Army was established on 1 April 1895 alongside the long established presidency armies of the East India Company , which too were absorbed into it in 1903. Some princely states maintained their own armies which formed the Imperial Service Troops which, along with

5643-524: The Indian Army (brigade HQ at Baidoa and three battalions), Ireland (transport company), Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, elements of No. 40 Squadron RNZAF from New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe. For UNITAF, "the task of organizing and subordinating the units became largely a negotiation between

5814-662: The Indian National Army , which was allied with the Empire of Japan . It was raised by a former colonel of the Indian Army, General Mohan Singh, but was later led by Subhas Chandra Bose and Rash Bihari Bose . With the fall of Singapore in 1942, about 40,000 Indian soldiers were captured. When given the choice, over 30,000 joined the Indian National Army. Those who refused became POWs and were mostly shipped to New Guinea. After initial success, this army

5985-645: The Indian National Congress in return for its support but reneged on them after the war, following which the Indian Independence movement gained strength. The " Indianisation " of the Indian Army began with the formation of the Prince of Wales Royal Indian Military College at Dehradun, in March 1912, to provide education to the scions of aristocratic and well-to-do Indian families and to prepare selected Indian boys for admission into

6156-830: The Kumaon Regiment was airlifted to the glacier. Pakistani forces responded quickly, and clashes between the two followed. The Indian Army secured the strategic Sia La and Bilafond La mountain passes, and by 1985 more than 2,600 km (1,000 sq mi) of territory claimed by Pakistan was under Indian control. The Indian Army continues to control all of the Siachen Glacier and its tributary glaciers. Pakistan has made several unsuccessful attempts to regain control over Siachen. In late 1987, Pakistan mobilised about 8,000 troops and garrisoned them near Khapalu , aiming to capture Bilafond La . However, they were repulsed by Indian Army personnel guarding Bilafond. During

6327-597: The Royal Military College, Sandhurst . Cadets were given a King's commission, after passing out, and were posted to one of the eight units selected for Indianisation. Because of the slow pace of Indianisation, with just 69 officers being commissioned between 1918 and 1932, political pressure was applied, leading to the formation of the Indian Military Academy in 1932 and greater numbers of officers of Indian origin being commissioned. On

6498-665: The Somali National Alliance and called for the reunification of Somaliland with Somalia. Fighting between the two factions broke out in Hargeisa in November 1994, which the forces of President Egal would eventually win, ending Aidids aspirations of incorporating the SNM into an SNA government. In April 1995 Osman Ali Atto would announce Aidid's signature no longer represented the SNA. By June of that year Aidid

6669-713: The Somali National Alliances short-lived predecessor, a military coalition known as the Somali Liberation Army (SLA), was formed. Brigadier General Mohamed Farah Aidid would be elected chairman of the SLA that same day. The coalition was created with the express goal of preventing Barre from retaking the capital and to further push the last remnants of his troops out of Somalia. Fierce back and forth fighting between SLA forces (led by General Aidid) and SNF forces loyal to President Barre in

6840-499: The Somali Salvation Alliance (SSA) led by Aidids prime rival Ali Mahdi Muhammad and aided by the break away faction led by Osman Ali Atto , would seize control of the strategic Baledogle Airfield from SNA. Three days later on 28 July 1996, the SNA launched a counter-offensive and engaged in a four-hour battle to recapture the airfield. Following intense exchange of fire between the two sides, which involved

7011-517: The US Army noted that SNA forces displayed remarkable fire and movement tactics in their six to eight-man squads during engagements against UNOSOM II forces, despite their general lack of marksmanship . The SNA's full-time fighters were noted to be adept at utilizing urban concealment. Often shooting would come from building interiors or concealed rooftops in locations difficult to locate before hostile activity. An American soldier who participated in

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7182-531: The United Jihad Council (an umbrella group for all extremists) rejected Pakistan's plan for a draw-down, deciding instead to fight on. The Indian Army launched its final attacks in the last week of July. As soon as the Dras sub-sector had been cleared of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on 26 July, which has since been celebrated as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India. By the end of

7353-648: The United Nations on Radio Mogadishu for interference in Somali internal affairs. Aidid invited Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Somalia, Adm. Johnathan Howe to open the conference, which was refused. The differences between Aidid and the UN proved to be to great, and the conference proceeded without the United Nations participation. On the 2 June 1993 the conference between Gen. Aidid and Col. Abdullahi Yusuf successfully concluded. Admiral Howe would be invited to witness

7524-531: The Washington based independent NGO Refugee Policy Group, only 10,000 to 25,000 lives of the approximately 100,000 rescued by international assistance had been saved by the UNITAF and UNOSOM II interventions, and according to Professor Alex de Waal the true figure may have been even lower. Figures like Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali and American diplomat Chester Crocker claimed that the intervention saved

7695-465: The line-of-sight . At many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the Pakistan soldiers, who were out of visible range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults, which were slow and took a heavy toll, given the steep ascents that had to be made on peaks as high as 5,500 m (18,000 ft). Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of

7866-530: The president's rule in 1971, the Indian Army and the Indian police launched Operation Steeplechase , a gigantic "counter-insurgency" operation against the Naxalites , which resulted in the death of hundreds of Naxalites and the imprisonment of more than 20,000 suspects and cadres, including senior leaders. The army was also assisted by a brigade of para commandos and the Indian paramilitary . The operation

8037-656: The regime of Siad Barre that had ruled Somalia since 1969. Human rights abuses and atrocities by the regime during events such as the Mogadishu riots of July 1989 inflamed insurgency. Formed in 1987, the United Somali Congress (USC) led by Gen. Mohamed Farah Aidid , played a leading role in toppling the government in Mogadishu in January 1991. The USC would split following a clash over the leadership of

8208-462: The Americans failed to realize that the SNA was deliberately executing a military philosophy of attrition to achieve victory in spite of significant losses, much like the North Vietnamese guerrillas. He would further note that Vietnam and the UNOSOM conflict reflected strikingly similar kill ratios. Helicopter gunships used during the conflict, especially the AH-1 Cobra and AH-6 Little Bird , would inflict heavy losses on SNA forces. Following

8379-415: The Bengali rebellion, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a preemptive strike on 10 Indian air bases—at Srinagar , Jammu , Pathankot , Amritsar , Agra , Adampur , Jodhpur , Jaisalmer , Uttarlai , and Sirsa —at 17:45 hours on 3 December. However, this aerial offensive failed to accomplish its objectives and gave India an excuse to declare a full-scale war against Pakistan the same day. By midnight,

8550-418: The British Army to a new century. In the 20th century, the Indian Army was a crucial adjunct to the forces of the British Empire in both world wars . 1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War I (1914–1918) with the Allies , in which 74,187 Indian troops were killed or missing in action. In 1915 there was a mutiny by Indian soldiers in Singapore. The United Kingdom made promises of self-governance to

8721-454: The Council of 29 November 1992 (S/24868) concerning the establishment of an operation to create such a secure environment". Resolution 794 was unanimously adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 3 December 1992, and they welcomed the United States offer to help create a secure environment for humanitarian efforts in Somalia. President George H. W. Bush responded to this by initiating Operation Restore Hope on 4 December 1992, under which

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8892-422: The Hyderabad State forces. Five Indian Army infantry battalions and one armoured squadron were engaged in the operation. The following day, Hyderabad was proclaimed part of India. Major General Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri , who led the operation, and accepted the surrender of the Nizam's forces on 18 September 1948, was appointed the military governor of Hyderabad, to restore law and order, and served until 1949. During

9063-457: The Indian Army formed the land component of the Armed Forces of the Crown of India, responsible for the defence of the Indian Empire. The Imperial Service Troops were merged into the Indian Army after independence . The units and regiments of the Indian Army have diverse histories and have participated in several battles and campaigns around the world, earning many battle and theatre honours before and after Independence. The primary mission of

9234-401: The Indian Army is to ensure national security and national unity, to defend the nation from external aggression and internal threats, and to maintain peace and security within its borders . It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during natural calamities and other disturbances, such as Operation Surya Hope , and can also be requisitioned by the government to cope with internal threats. It is

9405-502: The Indian Army met with considerable success in the northern sector. After launching prolonged artillery barrages against Pakistan, India was able to capture three important mountain positions in Kashmir. By 9 September, the Indian Army had made considerable inroads into Pakistan. India had its largest haul of Pakistani tanks when an offensive by Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division was blunted at the Battle of Asal Uttar , which took place on 10 September near Khemkaran. The biggest tank battle of

9576-435: The Indian Army was spending an estimated US$ 2 million a month to support its personnel stationed in the region. The Indian Army has played a crucial role in fighting insurgents and terrorists within the nation. The army launched Operation Blue Star and Operation Woodrose in the 1980s to combat Sikh insurgents. The army, along with some paramilitary forces , has the prime responsibility of maintaining law and order in

9747-417: The Indian Army, accompanied by the Indian Air Force , launched a major three-pronged assault into East Pakistan. The Indian Army won several battles on the eastern front including the decisive Battle of Hilli . The operation also included a battalion-level airborne operation on Tangail, which resulted in the capitulation of all resistance within five days. India's massive early gains were attributed largely to

9918-416: The Indian Army. Goa, Daman, and Diu became a part of the Republic of India. The cause of this war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed by India as part of Kashmir, and by China as part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. China's construction of this road

10089-482: The Indo-Bangladesh allied force and forced Pakistani forces to surrender, one day after the conclusion of the Battle of Basantar . After Pakistan's Lt General A. A. K. Niazi signed the Instrument of Surrender , India, as a part of the allied forces, took more than 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war . By the time of the signing, 11,000 Pakistani soldiers had been killed in action, while India suffered 3,500 battle-related deaths. In addition, Pakistan lost 220 tanks during

10260-439: The Korean War, although deciding against sending combat forces, India sent its 60th Parachute Field Ambulance unit to aid the UN troops fighting against the North Korean invasion of South Korea, as part of the 1st Commonwealth Division . In the aftermath of the war, an Indian infantry brigade formed the Custodian Force of India, some of whose soldiers were also part of the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission , which assisted in

10431-452: The Middle East. Some 87,000 Indian soldiers died in the war. By the end of the war, it had become the largest volunteer army in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in August 1945. In the African and Middle East campaigns , captured Indian troops were given a choice to join the German Army , to eventually "liberate" India from Britain, instead of being sent to POW camps . These men, along with Indian students who were in Germany when

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10602-467: The North West Frontier), Bengal, Madras (including Burma), and Bombay (including Sind, Quetta and Aden). The Indian Army was a critical force for maintaining the primacy of the British Empire , both in India and throughout the world. Besides maintaining internal security, the Army fought in many other theatres: Third Anglo-Afghan war; the Boxer Rebellion in China; in Abyssinia and in the First and Second World Wars . The Kitchener Reforms brought

10773-439: The Pakistani advance until the Indian Air Force directed its fighters to engage the Pakistani tanks. By the time the battle had ended, 38 Pakistani tanks and 100 armoured vehicles were either destroyed or abandoned. About 200 Pakistani troops were killed in action, while only two Indian soldiers died. Pakistan suffered another major defeat on the western front at the Battle of Basantar , which was fought from 4 to 16 December. During

10944-399: The Pakistani forces had a clear line-of-sight to lay down indirect artillery fire on NH 1A, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians. This was a serious problem for the Indian Army as the highway was its main supply route. Thus, the Indian Army's priority was to recapture peaks near NH 1A. This resulted in Indian troops first targeting the Tiger Hill and Tololing complex in Dras. This

11115-424: The Port of Mogadishu and Mogadishu International Airport, establishing a foothold for additional incoming troops. Echo and Golf Company assaulted the airport by helicopter and Amphibious Assault Vehicles , while Fox Company secured the port with an economy of force rubber boat assault. The 1st Marine Division's Air Contingency Battalion (ACB), 1st Battalion, 7th Marines , as well as 3rd Battalion, 11th Marines (3/11

11286-409: The Portuguese colonies, which was accomplished by small contingents of Indian troops. After a brief conflict that lasted twenty-six hours—during which 31 Portuguese soldiers were killed, the Portuguese Navy frigate NRP Afonso de Albuquerque was destroyed, and over 3,000 Portuguese were captured—Portuguese General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva surrendered to Major General Kunhiraman Palat Kandoth of

11457-448: The SNA also committed its forces to numerous sustained engagements with UN forces during the conflict. According to historian Stephen Biddle , "...for conventional armies, sustained firefights are expected; for guerrillas , they are not. Yet the SNA did sustain such firefights." He furthers notes that among the most notable of these sustained engagements in Mogadishu were: Significantly outgunned by UNOSOM II and Task Force Ranger ,

11628-428: The SNA and Ali Mahdi's Somali Salvation Alliance (SSA). The accord would collapse following Ethiopian pressure on the SSA to pull out of the agreement after signing. During reconciliation talks among Somali leaders in Kenya in December 2001, it was agreed that the Somali National Alliance would be folded into the Transitional National Government (TNG). The TNG proposed to the Transitional National Assembly that

11799-417: The SNA and UNOSOM II would engage in a four month long war until the 3-4 October 1993 Battle of Mogadishu . The 5 June clash would result in the deaths of 25 Pakistani army peacekeepers and consequently would result in the passing of UNSCR 837 by the United Nations Security Council the following day. Directly naming the SNA, the resolution called for the arrest and punishment of those responsible for

11970-402: The SNA from the Iranian government. He would return to Somalia that same month with two aircraft loaded with Iranian weaponry and equipment, most notably twenty-three shoulder-fired anti-aircraft weapons . Indian Army 1 April 1895 ; 129 years ago  ( 1895-04-01 ) ( as British Indian Army ) The Indian Army is the land-based branch and largest component of

12141-402: The SNA had been previously composed of, and supported by Rahanweyn groups, they withdrew support following an invasion of Rahanweyn territory by the SNA. In May 1996, Huddur in the Bakool Region would fall to SNA forces. The next month on 6 April the RRA drove out the SNA, claiming to have killed 3 at the loss of 2 of their own soldiers in the fight to retake the town. On 25 July 1996,

12312-464: The SNA issued a public appeal on 7 October. Despite the "wanton destruction and suffering beyond human comprehension" inflicted by US and UN forces, the alliance urged respect towards the deceased, injured, and prisoners of war; in accordance with Islamic principles. SNA official Professor Mohamed Siad Issa would remark in an interview with Dutch newspaper Algemeen Dagblad , "With regard to the dead pilot, we regret what happened. We are against desecrating

12483-477: The SNA on 10 August 1992, but his ability to impose decisions on the organization was limited, as a council of elders held decision-making power for most significant issues. Osman Ali Atto would serve as the chief financier of the SNA. Following the organizations creation, Aidid would strive to add the Isaaq based Somali National Movement (SNM) and Darod based Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) to

12654-518: The SNA. If this goal were to be achieved, it would leave his prime rival Ali Mahdi as the only major remaining holdout to a unified national government. Aidid would later claim that the SNA was the only faction in Somalia that had, "...risen above clan and local loyalties." Estimates of the strength of the SNA forces in Somalia ranged from around 5,000 to 10,000, with presumably 1,500 deployed in Mogadishu according to historian Stephen Biddle . Estimates of SNA numerical strength are complicated due to

12825-641: The SNA. It was believed that both nations had decided to help establish a Somali government with Aidid as president. In 1994 the SNA would suffer its first serious fracture when chief financier Osman Ali Atto and SNA forces loyal to him would break with the Aidid to ally with Ali Mahdi's SSA. That same year, the Somali National Movement (SNM) also suffered a serious fracture between President Ibrahim Egal of Somaliland and his predecessor Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur . Tuur had allied himself with

12996-586: The SNF ousted the SNA forces in Kismayo led by Col. Omar Jess. On 7 May 1993, three days after UNOSOM II took control of Kismayo from UNITAF , the SNA made an attempt to retake the city. During the assault the Belgian peacekeepers stationed in the town intervened, considering the assault to take Kismayo an attack on their positions and consequently repelled the SNA forces. The fall of Kismayo to Gen. Morgan infuriated

13167-444: The Siachen Glacier region, Saltoro Kangri , could be viewed as strategically important for India because of its height, which would enable Indian forces to monitor Pakistani or Chinese movements in the area. Maintaining control over Siachen poses several logistical challenges for the Indian Army. Several infrastructure projects were constructed in the region, including a helipad at an elevation of 6,400 m (21,000 ft). In 2004,

13338-506: The Somali National Alliance. To the SNA the incident was viewed as blatant U.N. partiality, as UNITAF had failed to prevent Morgan from seizing the city and UNOSOM had then fought SNA forces who had tried to retake it. In early May, Gen. Aidid and Col. Abdullahi Yusuf of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) agreed to convene a peace conference for central Somalia. In light of recent conflict between

13509-434: The Somali public. Biddle notes that on account of this, the SNA had little difficulty rallying and mobilizing public support to confront UNOSOM II and US forces. In September 1993, the major Arab newspaper Al-Hayat reported that numerous Islamic factions had joined the fight alongside the SNA after having initially distanced themselves from the war. According to Al-Hayat , independent sources in Mogadishu had confirmed that

13680-583: The UN Secretary-General Mohammed Sahnoun successfully persuaded Aidid to enlarge the UN deployment. On 12 August, the Somali National Alliance signed an agreement allowing for the deployment of another 500 UN peacekeepers. However, as part of that agreement Sahnoun promised Aidid that any further deployments would require the consent of SNA leadership. To the surprise of both the SNA and UN Special Representative Mohammed Sahnoun , Secretary-General Boutros Ghali announced in

13851-505: The UNOSOM intervention. Troops were shot at, aid ships attacked and prevented from docking, cargo aircraft were fired upon and aid agencies, public and private, were subject to threats, looting and extortion. By November, General Mohamed Farrah Aidid had grown confident enough to defy the Security Council formally and demand the withdrawal of peacekeepers, as well as declaring hostile intent against any further UN deployments. In

14022-484: The United States would assume command in accordance with Resolution 794. Larry Freedman, a CIA paramilitary officer from the Special Activities Division , became the first U.S. casualty of the conflict in Somalia when his vehicle struck an anti-tank mine . He had been inserted prior to official U.S. presence on a special reconnaissance mission, serving as a liaison between the U.S. Embassy and

14193-475: The addition of civilian volunteers or other part-time combatants who supplemented SNA forces in battles, particularly against UNOSOM II . The most probable count of full-time SNA fighters across the country was likely less than 5,000. Soon after its formation the organization was considered to be one of the most powerful factions involved in the Somali Civil War . Most of the SNA's military leadership

14364-607: The alliance and was given a six month mandate. At the time the organization was noted to be the most powerful faction in the country. By 1994 the two principal factions contending for power in southern Somalia were the SNA and Ali Mahdi's Somali Salvation Alliance (SSA), also known as the 'Group of 12'. An October 1994 Central Intelligence Agency report assessed that the governments of both Meles Zenawi in Ethiopia and Isaias Afwerki in Eritrea had decided to arm and support

14535-473: The alliance announced that they were creating a "joint administrative body" to make security arrangements in order to reduce banditry and that they further rejected recent proposals to send 500 UN troops to Somalia. Instead they appealed to the UN to aid the creation of a 6,000 man strong police service to maintain security and Aidid would announce that he agreed with the deployment of 40 UN military observers to Mogadishu. By August 1992, Special Representative of

14706-504: The approval of CINCCENT and the JCS—to reduce US forces and redeploy them to their home bases. In his words, Lieutenant General Robert B. Johnston [commander I MEF] “knew his mission had been accomplished” and was waiting for the UN to assume the greater mission formally. However, United Nations Security Council Resolution 814 authorizing UNOSOM II was not passed until late March, and the first staff members were not in place and ready to start

14877-517: The arriving military forces while providing intelligence for both. The first Marines of UNITAF landed on the beaches of Somalia on 9 December 1992 amid a media circus . The press "seemed to know the exact time and place of the Marines' arrival" and waited on the airport runway and beaches to capture the moment. Critics of U.S. involvement argued that the U.S. government was intervening so as to gain control of oil concessions for American companies, with

15048-401: The attack was claimed by a Pakistan -based militant group, Jaish-e-Mohammed . India blamed Pakistan for the attack and promised a robust response, while the latter condemned the attack and denied having any connection to it. Twelve days later, in the early morning of 26 February 2019, India carried out a cross-border airstrike near Balakot , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , Pakistan. After over

15219-431: The attack, effectively creating a state of war between the SNA and UNOSOM II. General Mohamed Farah Aidid, as the leader of the SNA, emerged as a focal target. A manhunt, initiated by UNOSOM and later reinforced by US special forces, was launched to apprehend Aidid. However, he successfully managed to evade capture. On 4 July 1993 the SNA demanded a UNOSOM withdrawal, asserting that the mission's mandate had shifted from

15390-556: The battle compared to India's 69. In 1972, the Simla Agreement was signed between the two countries, although subsequent incidences of heightened tensions have resulted in continued military vigilance on both sides. The Siachen Glacier , although a part of the Kashmir region, was not demarcated on maps prepared and exchanged between the two sides in 1947. In consequence, before the 1980s neither India nor Pakistan maintained

15561-515: The battle, about 23 Indian soldiers lost their lives, while more than 150 Pakistani troops perished. Further unsuccessful attempts to reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in 1990, 1995, 1996, and 1999, most notably in Kargil in the latter year. India continues to maintain a strong military presence in the region, despite inhospitable conditions. The conflict over Siachen is regularly cited as an example of mountain warfare . The highest peak in

15732-399: The battle, about 66 Pakistani tanks were destroyed and 40 more were captured. Pakistani forces destroyed only 11 Indian tanks. By 16 December, Pakistan had lost sizeable territory on both the eastern and western fronts. On 16 December 1971, under the command of Lt. General J. S. Arora , elements of the three corps of the Indian Army that had invaded East Pakistan entered Dhaka as a part of

15903-525: The casualty figures variously from 35 to 70 killed. Partial footage of the strikes was released to the Indian media on 27 June 2018 as proof of the strike. The incident triggered the 2016–2018 India-Pakistan border conflict , which ended on 16 June 2018 with both India and Pakistan agreeing on a ceasefire. Following the 14 February 2019 Pulwama attack in Jammu and Kashmir , which killed 40 Indian Central Reserve Police Force personnel. Responsibility for

16074-468: The civil war continued afterwards. As UNITAF's mandate was to protect the delivery of food and other humanitarian aid, the operation was regarded as a success. United Nations Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali determined that the presence of UNITAF troops had a "positive impact on the security situation in Somalia and on the effective delivery of humanitarian assistance." An epidemiological survey determined approximately 10,000 lives had been saved by

16245-457: The coalition would publicly announce that it would never accept the deployment of foreign troops on Somali soil, but welcomed and requested humanitarian aid. Following the defeat of Siad Barre's forces, on 16 June 1992 the SLA was phased out and the politico-military organization known as the Somali National Alliance was founded by the same four rebel groups of the SLA in the town of Bardere . The Somali Liberation Army would instead morph into

16416-535: The combined helicopter units of HMLA-267 , HMH-363 , HMH-466 , HMM-164 , and HC-11's DET 10. Concurrently, various Somali factions returned to the negotiating table in an attempt to end the civil war. This effort was known as the Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia and it resulted in the Addis Ababa Agreement signed on 27 March 1993. The conference, however, had little result as

16587-407: The command of member states but authorised by the Security Council to carry out operations in Somalia. The goal of this deployment was "to prepare the way for a return to peacekeeping and post-conflict peace-building". Following this recommendation, on 3 December 1992 the Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 794 , authorizing the use of "all necessary means to establish as soon as possible

16758-712: The conflict stood at about 3,000. On 18 September 2016, a fedayeen attack was made by four armed militants on an army base near the town of Uri . Nineteen Indian Army soldiers were killed. India accused Jaish-e-Muhammad , a Pakistan-based terrorist organisation. On 29 September 2016, the India Army announced that it conducted " surgical strikes " against militant launch pads across the Line of Control , in Pakistani-administered Kashmir , and inflicted "significant casualties". Indian media reported

16929-588: The contrary, the Somali people have the right to self-determination. He went on to appeal to the U.S. Congress and people to stop Clinton killing the Somali people and opposing their unity and wishes, which is damaging the image of the American people, of human rights , and the cooperation between the Somali and American peoples. He called on them to work towards settling the matter peacefully and justly - transcript of SNA broadcast 2nd of September 1993 Brig. General Ed Wheeler and Lt. Colonel Craig Roberts from

17100-483: The critical posts in his headquarters were manned by Americans by May 1993, and it was observed that very few nations involved had any representation in the UN military command structure. In addition to this the representative of the UN Secretary-General in Somalia and head of UNOSOM II, retired US Admiral Jonathan Howe , staffed his headquarters with twenty-eight US officers in key positions. Months into

17271-463: The danger to U.S. troops appeared to be limited. Acting Secretary of State Eagleburger described the situation in Somalia as "a tragedy of massive proportions, and, underline this, one that we could do something about.” The operation began on 6 December 1992, when Navy SEALs and special warfare combatant-craft crewmen from Naval Special Warfare Task Unit TRIPOLI began conducting beach and port hydrographic and reconnaissance survey operations in

17442-525: The dead but we cannot stem the wrath of the people which has been caused by the appearance of UNOSOM." The next month on 16 November 1993, the United Nations Security Council instructed Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali to "suspend arrest actions" and announced the release of all SNA prisoners of war . The following day Mohamed Farah Aidid announced that the decision had proved that the Somali National Alliance had achieved

17613-495: The defeat, Barres forces were routed into southern Somalia until they were pushed out into Kenya by the SLA on 29 April 1992. According to the SLA, over 500 of Barres troops were taken as prisoners of war and then turned over to the Red Cross. On 14 May 1992, the SLA seized the strategically important southern port city of Kismayo , and three days later former President Barre would flee to Nigeria . Early on in June 1992

17784-444: The deployment postponed until he could renegotiate with the SNA, which UN headquarters refused. The large scale international military intervention in late 1992 mobilized nationalist opposition to foreign troops in Somalia, which contributed to a significant growth of support for the SNA, which loudly decried perceived U.N. colonial practices. Major disagreements between the UN and the Somali National Alliance began soon after

17955-422: The division level are permanent regiments that are responsible for their own recruiting and training. The army is an all-volunteer force and comprises more than 80% of the country's active defence personnel. It is the largest standing army in the world , with 1,237,117 active troops and 960,000 reserve troops. The army has embarked on an infantry modernisation program known as Futuristic Infantry Soldier As

18126-585: The establishment of UNOSOM II, centering on the perceived true nature of the operations political mandate. In May 1993, relations between the SNA and UNOSOM would rapidly deteriorate following two significant events. During the March Addis Ababa conference , the Somali National Front smuggled weapons into strategic port city of Kismayo . Although the city was nominally controlled by the SNA and UNITAF forces, Gen. Hersi Morgan of

18297-529: The eve of World War II , the officer corps consisted of roughly 500 Indians holding regular commissions against approximately 3,000 British officers. In World War II Indian soldiers fought alongside the Allies . In 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men (in addition there were 44,000 men in British units in India in 1939), whose mission

18468-476: The exchange of prisoners of war and was headed by Lieutenant General K. S. Thimayya . Even though the British and French vacated all their colonial possessions in the Indian subcontinent , Portugal refused to relinquish control of its colonies of Goa , Daman, and Diu . After repeated attempts by India to negotiate were spurned by Portuguese prime minister and dictator, António de Oliveira Salazar , on 12 December 1961 India launched Operation Vijay to capture

18639-619: The face of mounting public pressure and frustration, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali presented several options to the Security Council . Diplomatic avenues having proved largely fruitless, he recommended that a significant show of force was required to bring the armed groups to heel. Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations allows for "action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security." Boutros-Ghali believed

18810-587: The fertile inter-riverine areas of southern Somalia would consequently result in the devastating 1992 famine . Looting of grain stores in the region carried out by the Somali National Front prompted many Rahanweyn communities to begin joining the SNA during 1992. According to SNA accounts of the final clashes, SNF forces outnumbered the Somali Liberation Army coalition over six times, but were ambushed and encircled when they left their base in Baidoa and came within 50km from Mogadishu. Following

18981-429: The fighters had accrued years of combat experience while also demonstrating both determination and courage in numerous engagements with UNOSOM II well before the Battle of Mogadishu . SNA militia were widely observed to have significant shortcomings in small-arms marksmanship , weak fire discipline, and poor heavy weapons maintenance. SNA ambushes on convoys were noted to be frequently initiated with premature fire at

19152-421: The final quarter of 1992, the situation in Somalia continued to worsen. Factions were splintering into smaller factions, and then splintered again. Agreements for food distribution with one party were worthless when the stores had to be shipped through the territory of another. Three hundred thousand Somalis had already starved to death, and 1.5 million were at risk of starvation. Some elements were actively opposing

19323-522: The first Indo-Pak War of 1947–49 (and the future third COAS), was first an acting major-general and then an acting lieutenant-general during the conflict while holding the substantive rank of major, and only received a substantive promotion to lieutenant-colonel in August 1949. Gopal Gurunath Bewoor , the future ninth COAS, was an acting colonel at his promotion to substantive major from substantive captain in 1949, while future Lieutenant General K. P. Candeth

19494-418: The first of three full-scale wars between the two nations over the then princely state of Kashmir . The Maharaja of Kashmir wanted to have a standstill position. Since Kashmir was a Muslim majority state, Pakistan wanted to make Kashmir a Pakistani territory. As a result, Pakistan invaded Kashmir on 22 October 1947, causing Maharaja Hari Singh to look to India, specifically to Lord Mountbatten of Burma ,

19665-406: The government of the East India Company was reorganised into four departments, including a Military Department. The army in the presidencies of Bengal , Bombay and Madras functioned as respective Presidency Armies until 1 April 1895, when they were unified into a single force known as the Indian Army . For administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands, namely Punjab (including

19836-543: The governor-general, for help. He signed the Instrument of Accession to India on 26 October 1947. Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar from dawn on 27 October. This contingent included General Thimayya who distinguished himself in the operation and in the years that followed became a Chief of the Indian Army. An intense war was waged across the state and former comrades found themselves fighting each other. Pakistan suffered significant losses. Its forces were stopped on

20007-549: The heights under their control, which also included the Tiger Hill , overlooked the vital Srinagar – Leh Highway ( NH 1A ), Batalik , and Dras . Once the scale of the Pakistani incursion was realised, the Indian Army quickly mobilised about 200,000 troops, and Operation Vijay was launched. However, since the heights were under Pakistani control, India was at a clear strategic disadvantage. From their observation posts ,

20178-457: The intervention as the administration's way to maintain the size and expenditures of the post-Cold War military establishment, to deflect criticism for the president's failure to act in Bosnia , or to leave office on a high note. To many in the administration, the intervention seemed like an optimal case for the use of military force – the chances of success seemed high, while the political risks and

20349-406: The intervention the SNA would repeatedly utilize anti- colonial , anti-imperialist and anti-American rhetoric in publications, statements and radio broadcasts: Chairman Mohamed Farah Aidid called on the Somali people never to accept the colonialist device of divide-and-rule being applied by the United States and UNOSOM to divide the Somali people and realize their imperialist ambitions. On

20520-542: The intervention to the extent where, "...even forces loyal to Ali Mahdi began to display open contempt for UNOSOM II ." Following the raid the conflict escalated and by mid-July firefights between UNOSOM forces and SNA militia were occurring almost daily. The SNA's strategy towards UNOSOM was primarily coercive as it lacked the ability to eliminate the heavily armed foreign presence. Consequently militia forces never seriously attempted to overrun UN bases or severe their supply lines. The chosen method to confront UNOSOM II

20691-457: The killing of American troops in Mogadishu with a remote control bomb in August 1993, the deployment of 'Task Force Ranger' under Operation Gothic Serpent was authorized by US President Bill Clinton to capture or kill Gen. Mohamed Farah Aidid and associated leadership within the SNA. The heavy-handed methods used in June and July by UNOSOM II , along with the commencement of Ranger and Delta raids within Mogadishu in August, alienated much of

20862-429: The lead UN vehicle, alerting the rest of the column to the attack before entering the kill zone . Significant amounts of SNA heavy weapons and armoured vehicles seized by the UN were discovered to be inoperable or in poor condition due to substandard maintenance and lack of parts. While SNA militia did engage in guerrilla warfare against US/UN forces (short-duration firefights, hit and run tactics, ambushes , etc.),

21033-582: The line formed which is now called the Line of Control (LOC). An uneasy peace, sponsored by the UN, returned by the end of 1948, with Indian and Pakistani soldiers facing each other across the Line of Control, which has since divided Indian-held Kashmir from that part held by Pakistan. Several UN Security Council resolutions were passed, with Resolution 47 calling for a plebiscite to be held in Kashmir to determine accession to India or Pakistan, only after Pakistan withdrew its army from Kashmir. A precondition to

21204-503: The majority of night military operations were being organized by an assortment of Somali Islamic groups present in the city during 1993. A major Somali Islamist militant organization, Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya , also began participating in the insurgency against UN forces in this period. Aidid did not publicly take direct credit for these night operations as the SNA generally did not participate, but reportedly made efforts to appear that he had directed them for propaganda purposes. During

21375-435: The military intervention. While UNITAF saw a dramatic increase in the scope of the military intervention, no more lives were saved compared to UNOSOM I . The primary reason was due to the sharp decline in mortality rates during October 1992, before the large scale deployment of troops. Studies on the intervention noted that UNITAF had the effect of speeding up the famines conclusion by about a month. According to an assessment by

21546-487: The military wing of the newly founded SNA. Primary clan composition of the SNA: The SNA was the first major inter-clan and inter-factional political alliance of the Somali Civil War . The organization professed the aim of working toward forming a national reconciliation government and an eventual multi-party democracy. Mohammed Farah Aidid would be elected to serve as the first chairman and nominal leader of

21717-668: The militia resorted to innovative tactics that exposed US military weaknesses which were later heavily exploited by the Iraqi insurgency . Somali National Alliance tactics during the conflict inspired the Ba'athist paramilitary force Fedayeen and the Iraqi Republican Guard (especially regarding the use of technicals ). SNA tactics during the conflict would reportedly also inspire the strategy and tactics various other Middle East state and non-state actors . Two days after

21888-685: The new government between Aidid and Ali Mahdi Muhamed . Reports that former President Siad Barres organization, the Somali National Front (SNF), was planning to retake Mogadishu led to the creation of a coalition consisting of four rebel groups: Aidids wing of the United Somali Congress (USC), the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM) and the Somali Southern National Movement (SSNM). On 17 April 1992

22059-433: The number of cabinet members and parliamentarians be increased to make way for a broader-based government and on 20 January 2002, the assembly would pass the motion. Beginning in 1993, the SNA would receive foreign diplomatic and material support from various African and Middle East states such as: In early January 1995 Abdirahman Agaweyne, an SNA representative, reportedly travelled abroad in order to solicit support for

22230-515: The operation, following the 5 June 1993 killings of the Pakistanis and the passing of UNSCR 837 , the US would effectively take lead of the mission. Somali National Alliance Following the 1991 split in the United Somali Congress (USC) between Mohamed Farah Aidid and his primary rival Ali Mahdi Muhammad and the routing of Barre's forces out of Somalia and into Kenya during 1992,

22401-465: The operations. Despite UNOSOM II being composed of a coalition of twenty-seven countries, most of the decision makers were still Americans, giving the United States significant control over much of the operation. Marine Lt. Gen. Robert B. Johnston , head of UNITAF, would state that although in his view UNITAF had been success US efforts and losses would be in vain if UNOSOM II was also not successful. UNOSOM II Force Commander Cevik Bir openly admitted that

22572-487: The partition period, was disbanded. Headquarters Delhi and the East Punjab Command were formed to administer the area. The departure of virtually all senior British officers following independence, and their replacement by Indian officers, meant many of the latter held acting ranks several ranks above their substantive ones. For instance, S. M. Shrinagesh , the ground-forces commander of Indian forces during

22743-458: The peace agreement, but again declined. The Galkacyo peace accord successfully ended large scale conflict in the Galgadud and Mudug regions of Somalia. The contention between the Somali National Alliance and UNOSOM from this point forward would begin to manifest in anti-UNOSOM propaganda broadcast from SNA controlled Radio Mogadishu . Following the 5 June 1993 attack on the Pakistanis ,

22914-412: The relationship between the UN and the SNA. That same year the UNOSOM forces began withdrawing, completing the process by 1995. The withdrawal of UNOSOM forces weakened Aidids prominence within the SNA, as the war had served to unify the alliance around a common foreign enemy. In January 1994, Aidid was re-elected as chairman by an SNA congress in Mogadishu attended by 200 high ranking officials of

23085-434: The resolution was for Pakistan and India to return to a state of "as was" before the conflict . Pakistan would withdraw all tribesmen and Pakistani nationals brought in to fight in Kashmir. Pakistan refused to pull back, and there could be no further dialogue on fulfilling the UN resolution. Tensions between India and Pakistan, largely over Kashmir, have never been eliminated. After the partition of India, Hyderabad State ,

23256-521: The ridges they had lost. According to official accounts, an estimated 75%–80% of the enemy-occupied area, and nearly all the high ground, was back under Indian control. Following the Washington Accord of 4 July, where Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt; but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian side of the LOC. In addition,

23427-486: The rivalling factions within Somalia was undertaken. This meant that the situation stayed stable only for the time UNITAF's overwhelming presence was deterring the fighting. Therefore, the mandate to create a "secure environment" was not achieved in a durable fashion. The Canadian Airborne Regiment was disbanded due to its conduct at UNITAF that was revealed during an investigation into the Somalia Affair . UNITAF

23598-480: The signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 814 , which marked the transfer of power from UNITAF to UNOSOM II , a United Nations led force. The major change in policy that the transition from UNITAF to UNOSOM II entailed is that the new mandate included the responsibility of nation-building on the multinational force. On 3 May 1993, UNOSOM II officially assumed command, and on 4 May 1993 it assumed responsibility for

23769-479: The southern half of the country. Faced with a humanitarian disaster in Somalia, exacerbated by a complete breakdown in civil order, the United Nations had created the UNOSOM I mission in April 1992. However, the complete intransigence of the local faction leaders operating in Somalia and their rivalries with each other meant that UNOSOM I could not be performed. The mission never reached its mandated strength. Over

23940-404: The speed and flexibility with which Indian armoured divisions moved across East Pakistan. Pakistan launched a counterattack against India on the western front. On 4 December 1971, A Company of the 23rd Battalion of India's Punjab Regiment intercepted the Pakistani 51st Infantry Brigade near Ramgarh, Rajasthan. The Battle of Longewala ensued, during which A Company, though outnumbered, thwarted

24111-494: The supplying governments and the JTF staff." The U.S. Central Command (USCINCCENT) established Joint Task Force (JTF) Somalia to perform Operation Restore Hope. The I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) staff made up the core of the JTF headquarters. (The name of this command started as CJTF Somalia but changed to United Task Force-UNITAF). The CJTF commanded Marine forces from I MEF (referred to as MARFOR Somalia) and Army forces from

24282-501: The task begun by UNITAF for the restoration of peace and stability in Somalia. The new mandate would also empower UNOSOM II to assist the Somali people in rebuilding their economic, political and social life, through achieving national reconciliation so as to recreate a democratic Somali State. UNOSOM II was established by the Security Council in Resolution 814 on 26 March 1993 and formally took over two months later. One day prior to

24453-493: The time had come for employing this clause and moving on from peacekeeping. However, Boutros-Ghali felt that such action would be difficult to apply under the mandate for UNOSOM. Moreover, he realised that solving Somalia's problems would require such a large deployment that the UN Secretariat did not have the skills to command and control it. Accordingly, he recommended that a large intervention force be constituted under

24624-415: The transition until April." Prior to Resolution 794, the United States had approached the UN and offered a significant troop contribution to Somalia, with the caveat that these personnel would not be commanded by the UN. Resolution 794 did not specifically identify the U.S. as being responsible for the future task force, but mentioned "the offer by a Member State described in the Secretary-General's letter to

24795-581: The troubled Jammu and Kashmir region, under Northern Command. The Indian Army sent a contingent to Sri Lanka in 1987 as a part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force . The Indian Army also successfully conducted Operation Golden Bird in 1995, as a counter-insurgency operation in northeast India. In 1998, India carried out nuclear tests ; and a few days later, Pakistan responded with nuclear tests of its own, giving both countries nuclear deterrence capability, although India had tested

24966-543: The two countries. In 1962, the Indian Army was ordered to move to the Thag La ridge , located near the border between Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh and about 5 kilometres (3 miles) north of the disputed McMahon Line. Meanwhile, Chinese troops had also made incursions into Indian-held territory, and tensions between the two reached a new high when Indian forces discovered the road constructed by China in Aksai Chin. After

25137-508: The two, the initiative was seen a major step towards halting the Somali Civil War . Gen. Aidid , having initiated the talks with Col. Yusuf, considered himself the conference chair, setting the agenda. Beginning 9 May, elder delegations from their respective clans, Habr Gidr and Majerteen , met. While Aidid and Yusuf aimed for a central Somalia-focused conference, they clashed with UNOSOM, which aimed to include other regions and replace Aidid's chairmanship with ex-President Abdullah Osman ,

25308-434: The uncertain operating environment required using nonlinear, simultaneous forcible entry operations along multiple lines of operation from selected afloat and ashore basing throughout the amphibious operations area. The MEU's ground combat element , Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines (2/9) along with Delta Battery 2nd Battalion 12th Marines, performed simultaneous ship to objective amphibious assaults on

25479-538: The use RPG-7's , machine guns , and anti-aircraft missiles, the SNA successfully regained control of the base. After the death of Gen. Mohammed Farah Aidid in 1996, his son, Hussein Mohamed Farah Aidid , was elected by an 80-member SNA cabinet and leadership council at Villa Somalia . Following Aidid's death, in 1997 the Cairo Accord was signed by major Somali factions, most notably between

25650-595: The vicinity of the landing beach, airport, and harbor. These operations lasted three days. In the early hours of 8 December 1992, elements of the 4th Psychological Operations Group attached to the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) conducted leaflet drops over the capital city of Mogadishu . At 0540, on 9 December, the MEU performed a combined methods of entry amphibious assault into the city of Mogadishu and surrounding areas from USS  Tripoli , USS  Juneau , and USS  Rushmore . Although initially unopposed,

25821-653: The war broke out, made up what was called the Free India Legion . They were originally intended as pathfinders for German forces in Asia but were soon sent to help guard the Atlantic Wall . Few who were part of the Free India Legion ever saw any combat, and very few were ever stationed outside Europe. At its height, the Free India Legion had over 3,000 troops in its ranks. Indian POWs also joined

25992-704: The war ended. Despite frequent calls for its release, the Henderson-Brooks report remains classified. Neville Maxwell has written an account of the war. A second confrontation with Pakistan took place in 1965. Although the war is described as inconclusive, India had the better of the war and was the clear winner in tactical and strategic terms. Pakistani president Ayub Khan launched Operation Gibraltar in August 1965, during which Pakistani paramilitary troops infiltrated into Indian-administered Kashmir and attempted to ignite anti-India agitation in Jammu and Kashmir . Pakistani leaders believed that India, which

26163-456: The war was the Battle of Chawinda , the largest tank battle in history after World War II . Pakistan's defeat at the Battle of Asal Uttar hastened the end of the conflict. At the time of the ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000. On the other hand, it was estimated that more than 3,800 Pakistani soldiers were killed in the conflict. About 200–300 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or captured by India. India lost

26334-611: The war, India had resumed control of all the territory south and east of the Line of Control, as was established in July 1972 per the Shimla Accord . By the time all hostilities had ended, the number of Indian soldiers killed during the conflict stood at 527, while more than 700 regular members of the Pakistani Army had been killed. The number of Islamist fighters, also known as Mujahideen, killed by Indian armed forces during

26505-460: The withdrawal are disputed, with India claiming various logistical problems for China and diplomatic support from the United States, while China stated that it still held territory it had staked a claim on. The dividing line between the Indian and Chinese forces was named the Line of Actual Control . The poor decisions made by India's military commanders, and the political leadership, raised several questions. The Henderson-Brooks and Bhagat committee

26676-713: Was a major force in the First and Second World Wars , particularly in the Western Front and the Middle Eastern theatre during World War I , and the South-East Asian Theatre and the East African and North African campaigns during World War II . The Indian Army is operationally and geographically divided into seven commands , with the basic field formation being a division . Below

26847-399: Was an acting brigadier (substantive captain) at the same time. In April 1948, the former Viceroy's Commissioned Officers (VCO) were re-designated Junior Commissioned Officers, while the former King's Commissioned Indian Officers (KCIO) and Indian Commissioned Officers (ICO), along with the former Indian Other Ranks (IOR), were respectively re-designated as Officers and Other Ranks. Army Day

27018-434: Was cleared, the Indian Army turned to drive the invading force back across the Line of Control. The Battle of Tololing , among others, slowly tilted the war in India's favour. Nevertheless, some Pakistani posts put up a stiff resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140), which fell only later in the war. As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in posts that were in

27189-597: Was coercive pain infliction; by killing UN soldiers, the SNA aimed to impose cumulative costs on the UN, which would eventually compel a withdrawal. US Army Brig. General Ed Wheeler noted that during the conflict Gen. Aidid (a graduate of Russia's Frunze Military Academy ) would lecture his subordinate officers about the lessons of the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War . In the view former professor of strategic studies and NSC director Jonathan Stevenson,

27360-602: Was defeated, along with the Japanese; but it had a huge impact on the Indian independence movement. Upon the Partition of India and Indian independence in 1947, four of the ten Gurkha regiments were transferred to the British Army. The rest of the Indian Army was divided between the newly created Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan . The Punjab Boundary Force , which had been formed to help police Punjab during

27531-501: Was internal security and defence against a possible Soviet threat through Afghanistan. As the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battlefronts as soon as possible. The most serious problem was the lack of equipment. Indian units served in Burma, wherein 1944–45, five Indian divisions were engaged along with one British and three African divisions. Even larger numbers operated in

27702-460: Was made up of former Somali National Army personnel, many of whom possessed combat experience. Militia troops were primarily equipped with light infantry weaponry, like the AK-47 assault rifle . Experienced fighters supplemented the main forces with RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenade launchers , sniper rifles , mortars , land mines , recoilless rifles and machine guns . In late July 1992

27873-474: Was one of the triggers of the conflict. Small-scale clashes between Indian and Chinese forces broke out as India insisted on the disputed McMahon Line being regarded as the international border between the two countries. Chinese troops claimed not to have retaliated to the cross-border firing by Indian troops, despite sustaining losses. China's suspicion of India's involvement in Tibet created more rifts between

28044-427: Was only intended as a transitional body. Once a secure environment had been restored, the suspended UNOSOM mission would be revived, albeit in a much more robust form. On 3 March 1993, the Secretary-General submitted to the Security Council his recommendations for effecting the transition from UNITAF to UNOSOM II . He noted that despite the size of the UNITAF mission, a secure environment was not yet established and there

28215-680: Was organised in October 1969, and Lieutenant General J.F.R. Jacob was told by Govind Narain , the Home Secretary , that "there should be no publicity and no records". Jacob's request to be presented with written orders was also refused by the then Army Chief Sam Manekshaw . An independence movement broke out in East Pakistan which was crushed by Pakistani forces. Due to large-scale atrocities committed against them, thousands of Bengalis took refuge in neighbouring India causing

28386-484: Was removed from chairmanship of the alliance during a vote conducted by the SNA congress, to be replaced by Atto . In response, later that same month Aidid would declare himself President of Somalia prompting a joint statement from Ali Mahdi and Osman Atto condemning his declarations. Around this period the SNA would find itself enter conflict with the Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA). Though

28557-515: Was soon followed by more attacks on the Batalik–Turtok sub-sector, which provided access to Siachen Glacier. Point 4590, which had the nearest view of the NH 1A, was successfully recaptured by Indian forces on 14 June. Though most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared of the enemy by mid-June, some posts near Dras endured sporadic shelling until the end of the war. Once the NH 1A area

28728-400: Was soon set up by the government of India to determine the causes of the poor performance of the Indian Army. Its report criticised the decision not to allow the Indian Air Force to target Chinese transport lines, out of fear of a Chinese aerial counterattack on Indian civilian areas. Much of the blame was placed on the then–defence minister, Krishna Menon , who resigned from his post soon after

28899-461: Was stacked against UNOSOM II, to some extent, from the beginning. The US was anxious to leave, feeling they had accomplished their somewhat limited objectives, but the UN was far from ready to receive the baton. The US, which had planned for a five or six weeks mission when it agreed to head UNITAF, was ready to turn over the command by mid-January. As the UNITAF commander was able to assign humanitarian relief sectors (HRS) to non-US forces, he began—with

29070-509: Was still no effective functioning government or local security/police force. The Secretary-General concluded therefore, that, should the Security Council determine that the time had come for the transition from UNITAF to UNOSOM II, the latter should be endowed with enforcement powers under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter to establish a secure environment throughout Somalia. The operation would therefore seek to complete

29241-505: Was still recovering from the Sino-Indian War , would be unable to deal with a military thrust and a Kashmiri rebellion. India reacted swiftly and launched a counter-offensive against Pakistan. In reply, on 1 September Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam , invading India's Chamb-Jaurian sector. In retaliation, the Indian Army launched a major offensive all along its border with Pakistan, with Lahore as its prime target. Initially,

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