153-497: Oscar II (Oscar Fredrik; 21 January 1829 – 8 December 1907) was King of Sweden from 1872 until his death in 1907 and King of Norway from 1872 to 1905. Oscar was the son of King Oscar I and Queen Josephine . He inherited the Swedish and Norwegian thrones when his brother died in 1872. Oscar II ruled during a time when both countries were undergoing a period of industrialization and rapid technological progress. His reign also saw
306-414: A Legislative Body and Tribunate which were selected from indirectly elected candidates, and a Senate and Council of State which were effectively nominated by the executive. The new constitution was approved by plebiscite on 7 February 1800. The official count was over three million in favour and 1,562 against. Lucien, however, had doubled the count of the "yes" vote to give the false impression that
459-716: A Seventh Coalition , which defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died of stomach cancer in 1821, aged 51. Napoleon is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history and Napoleonic tactics are still studied at military schools worldwide. His legacy endures through the modernizing legal and administrative reforms he enacted in France and Western Europe, embodied in
612-525: A coup d'état that purged royalists from the legislative councils on 4 September—the Coup of 18 Fructidor . This left Barras and his republican allies in control again but more dependent upon Bonaparte who finalized peace terms with Austria by the Treaty of Campo Formio . Bonaparte returned to Paris on 5 December 1797 as a hero. He met Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , France's Foreign Minister, and took command of
765-696: A "fictitious nature" and therefore "highly unsatisfactory". Thus, the monarch lost all formal executive powers, becoming a ceremonial and representative figurehead . The monarch, while explicitly referred to as the "Head of State" ( Statschefen ) in the 1974 Instrument of Government, is not even the nominal chief executive. The Instrument of Government of 1974 does grant the person serving as king or queen regnant absolute immunity from criminal (but not civil) charges for as long as he or she remains in office. The monarch therefore cannot be prosecuted or otherwise held to account for his or her actions, both official and private, in judicial proceedings. None of
918-630: A bridgehead in 1628 . Brandenburg was torn apart by a quarrel between the Protestants and the Catholics. When Gustavus Adolphus began his push into northern Germany in June–July 1630, he had just 4,000 soldiers. But he was soon able to consolidate the Protestant position in the north, using reinforcements from Sweden and money supplied by France at the Treaty of Bärwalde . Gustavus Adolphus
1071-494: A caretaker government, supported by the conservatives, led by legal scholar Hjalmar Hammarskjöld , which remained in power longer than expected due to the outbreak of World War I (in which Sweden remained neutral ) and increased defence spending was no longer a controversial issue. Nevertheless, in the year of the outbreak of the Russian Revolution , social tensions continued to rise; the general election in 1917 gave
1224-445: A combination of amnesties for those who lay down their arms and brutal repression of those who continued to resist. Bonaparte also improved state finances by securing loans under a promise to defend private property, raising taxes on tobacco, alcohol and salt, and extracting levies from France's satellite republics. Bonaparte believed that the best way to secure his regime was by a victorious peace. In May 1800, he led an army across
1377-484: A complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He became a supporter of the Jacobins and joined the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations to secede. He was given command over a battalion of Corsican volunteers and promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and a dispute between his volunteers and
1530-482: A cousin of Charles Frederick, of the same house of Holstein-Gottrop, and a descendant of a sister of Charles X Gustav of Sweden was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the Hat faction (Swedish: Hattarna ). The Hat faction wanted to obtain better conditions at the Treaty of Åbo from Empress Elizabeth of Russia , who had adopted his nephew as her heir . His mother, Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach (1682–1755),
1683-483: A crown prince previously elected in January 1810, Charles August , suddenly had died of a stroke during a military exercise. Although the 19th century Bernadotte monarchs that would follow Charles XIV John 's reign tried to defend the power and privileges they still had, the tide incrementally turned against "personal regal rule" ( Swedish : personlig kungamakt ) with the growth of the liberals, social democrats, and
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#17327724154451836-667: A group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them. Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone , and their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809. En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached Hospitaller Malta on 9 June 1798, then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller . Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surrendered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with
1989-581: A judge and a priest at the Temple at Uppsala (see Germanic king ). However, there are thousands of runestones commemorating commoners, but no known chronicle about the Swedish kings prior to the 14th century (though a list of kings was added in the Västgöta Law ), and there is a relatively small number of runestones that are thought to mention kings: Gs 11 ( Emund the Old – reigned 1050–1060), U 11 ( Håkan
2142-475: A larger edition, in three volumes, appeared in 1885–88. His Easter hymn and some other of his poems are familiar throughout the Scandinavian countries. His work on Charles XII of Sweden were translated into English in 1879. In 1881 he founded the world's first open-air museum , at Bygdøy , located next to his summer residence near Oslo (then known as Christiania). In 1885 he published his Address to
2295-486: A majority consensus in Swedish political discourse on the role of the monarchy within the constitutional framework. The official motive for the radical changes which came to pass in 1975 was for it to be as descriptive as possible of the workings of the state and clear on how decisions actually are made. Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer further remarked on the 1973 government bill that any continued pretensions of royal involvement in government decision making would be of
2448-483: A majority of those eligible to vote had approved the constitution. Historians have variously described Bonaparte's new regime as "dictatorship by plebiscite," "absolutist rule decked out in the spirit of the age," and "soft despotism." Local and regional administration was reformed to concentrate power in the central government, censorship was introduced, and most opposition newspapers were closed down to stifle dissent. Royalist and regional revolts were dealt with by
2601-746: A military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies in the War of the First Coalition , scoring decisive victories and becoming a national hero. He led an invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798 which served as a springboard to political power. In November 1799, Napoleon engineered the Coup of 18 Brumaire against the Directory , and became First Consul of the Republic. He won the Battle of Marengo in 1800, which secured France's victory in
2754-486: A period of time, the King gave Boström a free hand to select his own ministers without much royal involvement. It was an arrangement (unintentional by both the King and Boström) that furthered the road to parliamentarism. A distinguished writer and musical amateur himself, King Oscar did much to encourage the development of education throughout his dominions. In 1858 a collection of his lyrical and narrative poems, Memorials of
2907-627: A plebiscite since the Revolution. France had regained her overseas colonies under Amiens but did not control them all. The French National Convention had voted to abolish slavery in February 1794, but, in May 1802, Bonaparte reintroduced it in all the recovered colonies except Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe which were under the control of rebel generals. A French military expedition under Antoine Richepanse regained control of Guadeloupe and slavery
3060-838: A political compromise reached at the summer resort of Torekov in 1971 (hence known as the Torekov compromise , Swedish : Torekovskompromissen ) by representatives of four of the parties in the Riksdag (the Social Democrats , the Centre Party , the Liberal People's Party , and the Moderate Party , that is all the parties except the Communists ). It mandated that the monarchy would remain largely as it
3213-566: A series of victories. The Republic, however, was bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular. Despite the failures in Egypt, Bonaparte returned to a hero's welcome. The Directory discussed Bonaparte's desertion but was too weak to punish him. Bonaparte formed an alliance with Talleyrand and leading members of the Council of Five Hundred and Directory: Lucien Bonaparte, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès , Roger Ducos and Joseph Fouché to overthrow
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#17327724154453366-516: A temporary increase of French power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings. In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee ). Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns of Arish , Gaza , Jaffa , and Haifa . The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal. Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, so he ordered
3519-584: A typical Corsican of the time. In January 1779, at age 9, Napoleon moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun to improve his French (his mother tongue was the Corsican dialect of Italian). Although he eventually became fluent in French, he spoke with a Corsican accent and his French spelling was poor. In May, he transferred to the military academy at Brienne-le-Château where he
3672-423: A war with Denmark ( Kalmar War ) in the last year of his reign. Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father when he ascended to the throne. From 1612, when Count Axel Oxenstierna was appointed Lord High Chancellor , which he remained until Gustavus Adolphus's death, the two men struck a long and successful partnership and complemented each other well: In Oxenstierna's own words, his "cool" balanced
3825-426: Is Stockholm Palace , while Drottningholm Palace serves as the monarchy's private residence. Other notable residences include Gripsholm Castle and Ulriksdal Palace , as well as others throughout Sweden. Several large palaces and a considerable section of the Swedish capital of Stockholm have been at the disposal of the monarch since 1809. Scandinavian peoples have had kings since prehistoric times. As early as
3978-625: Is best characterized by foreign wars : first a lengthy campaign within Poland and then with Denmark. In the latter case, the risky 1658 March across the Belts which resulted in the Treaty of Roskilde , would prove to be the largest permanent territorial gain Sweden ever had: Skåne , Blekinge and Bohuslän now became Swedish provinces and have remained so ever since. Charles X Gustav was not satisfied, as he wanted to crush Denmark once and for all, but
4131-447: Is generally regarded as a constitutional monarch who stayed out of politics and controversy. In 1954, a royal commission began work on whether Sweden should undergo constitutional reform to adapt the 1809 Instrument of Government to current political realities, or whether a new one should be written; ultimately the latter idea was chosen. The future role of the monarchy was settled in a manner well known within Swedish political discourse:
4284-755: The Conspiration des poignards (Dagger plot) in October 1800 and the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise two months later, gave him a pretext to arrest about 100 suspected Jacobins and royalists, some of whom were shot and many others deported to penal colonies. After a decade of war, France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing the Revolutionary Wars to an end. Under
4437-702: The 1659 Assault on Copenhagen did not prove successful for the Swedes, largely due to the Dutch naval intervention to the aid of the Danes. Charles X Gustav died in Gothenburg in 1660 and as the Crown passed to his five-year-old son Charles XI , a new regency government would assume the responsibilities of the state. The regency government, composed of aristocrats and led by Chancellor Count Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie ,
4590-631: The Black Death , the union weakened, and Scania was captured by Denmark. In 1397, after the Black Death and domestic power struggles, Queen Margaret I of Denmark united Sweden (then including Finland ), Denmark and Norway (then including Iceland ) in the Union of Kalmar with the approval of the Swedish nobility . Continual tension within each country and the union led to open conflict between
4743-492: The Cabinet Council ( skifteskonselj ) in a session that establishes the new government following a general election or major cabinet reshuffle and also chairs information councils ( informationskonselj ) approximately four times a year to get information from the assembled Government, apart from that given by ministers in individual audiences or through other means. Formally, it is the explicit responsibility of
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4896-634: The Estates in 1599. In 1604, the Estates finally recognized the regent and de facto ruler as King Charles IX. His short reign was one of uninterrupted warfare. The hostility of Poland and the breakup of Russia involved him in overseas contests for the possession of Livonia and Ingria , the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611) and the Ingrian War , while his pretensions to claim Lapland brought on
5049-577: The Fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794, Bonaparte's association with leading Jacobins made him politically suspect to the new regime. He was arrested on 9 August but released two weeks later. He was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions as part of France's war with Austria and, in March 1795, he took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by
5202-639: The French Republican calendar —he fired on the rebels with canister rounds (later called: "a whiff of grapeshot "). About 300 to 1,400 rebels died in the uprising. Bonaparte's role in defeating the rebellion earned him and his family the patronage of the new government, the French Directory . On 26 October, he was promoted to commander of the Army of the Interior, and in January 1796 he
5355-593: The Maison Bonaparte home in Ajaccio , where Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769. He had an elder brother, Joseph , and, later, six younger siblings: Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline , and Jérôme . Five more siblings were stillborn or did not survive infancy. Napoleon was baptized as a Catholic , under the name Napoleone di Buonaparte . In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione , Nabulio , Napolionne , and Napulione . Napoleon
5508-543: The Napoleonic Code . He established a system of public education, abolished the vestiges of feudalism , emancipated Jews and other religious minorities, abolished the Spanish Inquisition , enacted the principle of equality before the law for an emerging middle class, and centralized state power at the expense of religious authorities. His conquests acted as a catalyst for political change and
5661-784: The Northeast Passage , the sea route between Europe and Asia through the Arctic Ocean , and the first voyage to circumnavigate Eurasia. The political events which led up to the peaceful dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905 could hardly have been attained but for the tact and patience of the king himself. He was dethroned on 7 June 1905 by the Storting and renounced the Norwegian throne on 26 October. He declined, indeed, to permit any prince of his house to become king of Norway, but better relations between
5814-659: The Peninsular War . In 1809, the Austrians again challenged France in the War of the Fifth Coalition , in which Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after winning the Battle of Wagram . In summer 1812, he launched an invasion of Russia , which ended in the catastrophic retreat of his army that winter. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russia in the War of the Sixth Coalition , in which Napoleon
5967-456: The Riksdag of the Estates , through Västerås arvförening , designated the sons of King Gustav I as the heirs to the Throne. Tax reforms took place in 1538 and 1558, whereby multiple complex taxes on independent farmers were simplified and standardised throughout the district and tax assessments per farm were adjusted to reflect ability to pay. Crown tax revenues increased, but more importantly
6120-574: The Royal Family undertake a variety of official, unofficial and other representative duties within Sweden and abroad. The monarch and his or her family play a central role in state visits to Sweden and conduct state visits to other nations on behalf of Sweden. Other members of the Royal Family may also represent the country abroad at lesser functions. Many of the Swedish general flag flying days have direct royal connections; among them are
6273-775: The Sultan of Mysore , an enemy of the British. Bonaparte assured the Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions". The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to the Indian subcontinent . In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences . His Egyptian expedition included
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6426-607: The War of the Second Coalition , and in 1803 sold the territory of Louisiana to the United States . In December 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French, further expanding his power. The breakdown of the Treaty of Amiens led to the War of the Third Coalition by 1805. Napoleon shattered the coalition with a decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz , which led to the dissolution of
6579-428: The absolute monarchy in Sweden, which his grandfather King Charles XI had created, made that marriage clause irrelevant. When Charles Frederick was confronted with Ulrika Eleonora, he was forced by Arvid Horn to greet her as queen. He asked to be granted the title Royal Highness and to be recognised as her heir, but when her husband, Frederick of Hesse , instead was given the title, he left Sweden in 1719. In 1723, he
6732-522: The economic sciences . Eriksgata was the name of the traditional journey of newly elected medieval Swedish kings through important provinces to have their election confirmed by local Things . The actual election took place at the Stone of Mora in Uppland and participation was originally restricted to the people of that area; hence, the need of having the election confirmed by the other parts of
6885-669: The heir apparent is crown prince ( kronprins ) or crown princess ( kronprinsessa ). The wife of a crown prince would also receive a corresponding title, but not the husband of a crown princess. The traditional official title used until 1980 for other dynastic male heirs was hereditary prince ( arvfurste ), although the word prince ( prins ) was used in constitutional legal texts such as the Act of Succession and also colloquially and informally. Female dynasts are titled princess ( prinsessa ). Napoleon I Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte ; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I ,
7038-462: The name days of the King (28 January), the Queen (8 August), and the Crown Princess (12 March); the birthdays of the King (30 April), the Queen (23 December), and the Crown Princess (14 July); and Gustavus Adolphus Day ( Swedish : Gustav Adolfsdagen ), on 6 November, in memory of King Gustavus Adolphus , who was killed on that date ( old style ) in 1632 in the Battle of Lützen . None of these flag days are public holidays , however. Perhaps
7191-418: The prime minister (who, since 1975, is elected by the Riksdag ) was transferred to the Speaker of the Riksdag ; the prime minister appoints and dismisses the other ministers at his or her discretion. Furthermore, bills passed by the Riksdag become law without royal assent : the prime minister or any other cabinet minister signs them "On Behalf of the Government" ( På regeringens vägnar ). Although
7344-430: The 12th century, the consolidation of Sweden was still affected by dynastic struggles between the Erik and Sverker clans, which ended when a third clan married into the Erik clan and the House of Bjälbo was established on the throne. That dynasty formed pre- Kalmar Union Sweden into a strong state, and finally King Magnus Eriksson (reigned 1319–1364) even ruled Norway (1319–1343) and Scania (1332–1360). Following
7497-417: The 1720 Instrument in Government was later replaced by the 1772 Instrument of Government in a self-coup orchestrated by the King. On 17 September 1809 in the Treaty of Fredrikshamn , as a result of the poorly managed Finnish War , Sweden had to surrender Finland to Russia. King Gustav IV Adolf and his descendants were deposed in a coup d'état led by dissatisfied army officers. The childless uncle of
7650-400: The 1st century CE, Tacitus wrote that the Suiones had a king, but the order of Swedish regnal succession up until King Eric the Victorious (died 995), is known almost exclusively through accounts in historically controversial Norse sagas (see Mythical kings of Sweden and Semi-legendary kings of Sweden ). Originally, the Swedish king had combined powers limited to that of a war chief,
7803-414: The Academy of Music , and a translation of one of his essays on music appeared in Literature in May 1900. He had a valuable collection of printed and manuscript music, which was readily accessible to the historical student of music. Being a theater lover, he commissioned a new opera house to be built by Axel Anderberg for the Royal Swedish Opera which was inaugurated on 19 September 1898. It remains as
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#17327724154457956-428: The Army of England for the planned invasion of Britain. After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that France's naval strength was not yet sufficient to confront the British Royal Navy. He decided on a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain's access to its trade interests in India . Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East and join forces with Tipu Sultan ,
8109-413: The Austrians at Hohenlinden in December. The Austrians capitulated and signed the Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801. The treaty reaffirmed and expanded earlier French gains at Campo Formio. Bonaparte's triumph at Marengo increased his popularity and political authority. However, he still faced royalist plots and feared Jacobin influence, especially in the army. Several assassination plots, including
8262-722: The Austrians sued for peace. The preliminary peace of Leoben , signed on 18 April, gave France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries , and promised to partition the Republic of Venice with Austria. Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender , ending 1,100 years of Venetian independence. He authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark . In this Italian campaign, Bonaparte's army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons, and 170 standards . The French army fought 67 actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte's tactics. Bonaparte extracted an estimated 45 million French pounds from Italy during
8415-476: The Austrians, laying siege to Mantua . The Austrians launched offensives against the French to break the siege, but Bonaparte defeated every relief effort, winning the Battle of Castiglione , the Battle of Bassano , the Battle of Arcole , and the Battle of Rivoli . The French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli, Austria lost 43% of its soldiers dead, wounded or taken prisoner. The French then invaded
8568-413: The Brother Peoples"). His coronation as Swedish monarch was celebrated in Storkyrkan in Stockholm on 12 May 1873, and his coronation as Norwegian monarch two months later in the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 18 July 1873. While the King, his family and the Royal Court resided mostly in Sweden, Oscar II made the effort of learning to be fluent in Norwegian and from the very beginning realized
8721-421: The Corsican assembly had condemned him and his family, the Buonapartes fled to Toulon on the French mainland. Bonaparte returned to his regiment in Nice and was made captain of a coastal battery. In July 1793, he published a pamphlet, Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire ), demonstrating his support for the National Convention which was now heavily influenced by the Jacobins. In September, with
8874-403: The Estates to sign the 1719 Instrument of Government , which ended the absolute monarchy and made the Riksdag of the Estates the highest organ of the state and reduced the role of monarch to a figurehead . The Age of Liberty ( Swedish : frihetstiden ) with its parliamentary rule, dominated by two parties – the Caps and the Hats – had begun. Ulrika Eleonora had had enough after a year on
9027-461: The French garrison in Ajaccio. In February 1793, Bonaparte took part in the failed French expedition to Sardinia . Following allegations that Paoli had sabotaged the expedition and that his regime was corrupt and incompetent, the French National Convention outlawed him. In early June, Bonaparte and 400 French troops failed to capture Ajaccio from Corsican volunteers and the island was now controlled by Paoli's supporters. When Bonaparte learned that
9180-505: The French who were gradually driven back. Late in the afternoon, however, a full division under Desaix arrived on the field and reversed the tide of the battle. The Austrian army fled leaving behind 14,000 casualties. The following day, the Austrians signed an armistice and agreed to abandon Northern Italy. When peace negotiations with Austria stalled, Bonaparte reopened hostilities in November. A French army under General Moreau swept through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory over
9333-420: The Holy Roman Empire . In the War of the Fourth Coalition , Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806, marched his Grande Armée into Eastern Europe, and defeated the Russians in 1807 at the Battle of Friedland . Seeking to extend his trade embargo against Britain , Napoleon invaded the Iberian Peninsula and installed his brother Joseph as King of Spain in 1808, provoking
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#17327724154459486-406: The Italian form "Napoleone di Buonaparte." Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy. He went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the Kingdom of Sardinia in Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene. In a series of victories during the Montenotte campaign , he knocked the Piedmontese out of the war in two weeks. The French then focused on
9639-447: The King's "heat". The war against Russia (the Ingrian War ) ended in 1617 with the Treaty of Stolbovo , which excluded Russia from the Baltic Sea. The final inherited war, the war against Poland , ended in 1629 with the Truce of Altmark , which transferred the large province of Livonia to Sweden and freed the Swedish forces for subsequent intervention in the Thirty Years' War in Germany, where Swedish forces had already established
9792-421: The Kingdom of Sardinia. The French army carried out Bonaparte's plan in the Second Battle of Saorgio in April 1794, and then advanced to seize Ormea in the mountains. From Ormea, it headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge . After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine the country's intentions towards France. After
9945-409: The Mamluks' Egyptian cavalry. Twenty-nine French and approximately 2,000 Egyptians were killed. The victory boosted the French army's morale. On 1 August 1798, the British fleet under Sir Horatio Nelson captured or destroyed all but two vessels of the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile , preventing Bonaparte from strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean. His army had succeeded in
10098-437: The Realm which makes up the written constitution ). The monarch and the members of the royal family undertake a variety of official, unofficial and other representational duties within Sweden and abroad. The current king of Sweden is Carl XVI Gustaf , while his heir is Crown Princess Victoria . The Swedish monarch has numerous residences, primarily state-owned but some privately owned; their official residence and workplace
10251-434: The Red – late 11th century) and U 861 ( Blot-Sweyn – reigned c. 1080). About 1000 A.D., the first king known to rule both Svealand and Götaland was Olof Skötkonung , but further history for the next two centuries is obscure, with many kings whose tenures and actual influence/power remains unclear. The Royal Court of Sweden, however, does count Olof's father, Eric the Victorious, as Sweden's first king. The power of
10404-445: The Royal Navy. From 1794, Bonaparte was in a romantic relationship with Désirée Clary whose sister Julie Clary had married Bonaparte's elder brother Joseph. In April 1795, Bonaparte was assigned to the Army of the West , which was engaged in the War in the Vendée —a civil war and royalist counter-revolution in the Vendée region. As an infantry command, it was a demotion from artillery general and he pleaded poor health to avoid
10557-454: The Swedes and the Danes in the 15th century. The union's final disintegration in the early 16th century led to prolonged rivalry between Denmark-Norway and Sweden (with Finland) for centuries to come. Catholic bishops had supported the King of Denmark , Christian II , but he was overthrown in a rebellion led by nobleman Gustav Vasa , whose father had been executed at the Stockholm bloodbath . Gustav Vasa (hereinafter referred to as Gustav I)
10710-452: The Swedish Fleet , published anonymously, obtained the second prize of the Swedish Academy . His "Contributions to the Military History of Sweden in the Years 1711, 1712, 1713", originally appeared in the Annals of the academy, and were printed separately in 1865. His works, which included his speeches, translations of Herder 's Cid and Goethe 's Torquato Tasso , and a play, Castle Cronberg , were collected in two volumes in 1875–76, and
10863-421: The Swedish monarchy being popular. In recent years, however, some of the most serious criticism ever published has taken place about the way his monarchy has developed under the current king's fifty-year reign. Sweden in the present day is a representative democracy in a parliamentary system based on popular sovereignty , as defined in the current Instrument of Government (one of the four Basic Laws of
11016-631: The Swedish provinces and called them an Eriksgata , while those visits bear little resemblance to the medieval tradition. The full title of the Swedish monarch from 1523 to 1973 was: Translated as " By the Grace of God , King of the Swedes, the Goths , and the Wends " or "By the Grace of God, King of Sweden, of the Goths and Vandals ". During the reign of the House of Holstein-Gottorp from 1751 to 1818,
11169-602: The Swiss Alps into Italy, aiming to surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Bonaparte was still in Egypt. After a difficult crossing over the Alps, the French captured Milan on 2 June. The French confronted an Austrian army under Michael von Melas at Marengo on 14 June. The Austrians fielded about 30,000 soldiers while Bonaparte commanded 24,000 troops. The Austrians' initial attack surprised
11322-670: The United Kingdom by his outspoken and generous support of Britain at the time of the Second Boer War (1899–1902), expressed in a declaration printed in The Times of 2 May 1900, when continental opinion was almost universally hostile. He remained a strong supporter of the Navy throughout his life, and frequently visited ships of the fleet. When the coastal defence ship Oscar II was launched, he even signed his name on
11475-817: The United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States in 1889 he appointed the Chief Justice of Samoa under the Treaty of Berlin , and he was again called on to arbitrate in Samoan affairs in 1899. In 1897 he was empowered to appoint a fifth arbitrator if necessary in the Venezuelan dispute, and he was called on to act as umpire in the Anglo-American arbitration treaty that was quashed by the United States Senate . He won many friends in
11628-652: The Vendée campaign. He sought a transfer to Constantinople to offer his services to Sultan Selim III . The request was eventually granted, but he never took up the post. On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention. Paul Barras , a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction , knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and made him second in command of
11781-452: The campaign, another 12 million pounds in precious metals and jewels, and more than 300 paintings and sculptures. During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He founded two newspapers: one for the troops in his army and one for circulation in France. The royalists attacked him for looting Italy and warned that he might become a dictator. Bonaparte sent General Pierre Augereau to Paris to support
11934-630: The civil rights of women and children in France, reintroduced a hereditary monarchy and nobility, and violently repressed popular uprisings against his rule. Napoleon's family was of Italian origin. His paternal ancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a minor Tuscan noble family who emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century and his maternal ancestors, the Ramolinos, descended from a noble family from Lombardy . Napoleon's parents, Carlo Maria Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino , lived in
12087-586: The day to inform not only the head of state, but also the speaker and representatives of the opposition parties in the Riksdag, on foreign affairs issues in a confidential manner. While the monarch is no longer the commander-in-chief ( högste befälhavare ) of the Swedish Armed Forces , as he once was under the 1809 Instrument of Government, he is the foremost representative of the Swedish defence establishment and holds supreme rank in each of
12240-653: The death of King Gustav I in 1560, he was succeeded by his oldest son Eric XIV . His reign was marked by Sweden's entrance into the Livonian War and the Northern Seven Years' War . The combination of Eric's developing mental disorder and his opposition to the aristocracy led to the Sture Murders in 1567 and the imprisonment of his brother John (III) , who was married to Catherine Jagiellon , sister of King Sigismund II of Poland . In 1568 Eric
12393-407: The death of his father, Sigismund tried to rule Sweden from Poland , leaving Sweden under the control of a regent – his paternal uncle (Gustav I's youngest son) Charles (IX) – but was unable to defend his Swedish throne against the ambitions of his uncle. In 1598 Sigismund and his Swedish-Polish army were defeated at the Battle of Stångebro by the forces of Charles, and he was declared deposed by
12546-415: The deceased Wilhelm, Duke of Nassau , by his second wife Princess Pauline Friederike Marie of Württemberg , and a half-sister of Adolf , the then reigning Duke of Nassau and future Grand Duke of Luxembourg . Upon the death of his father, King Oscar I, in 1859, Prince Oscar became heir-presumptive to the thrones of Sweden and Norway, as his eldest brother King Charles XV of Sweden/Charles IV of Norway
12699-657: The defence budget cuts made by Prime Minister Karl Staaff and the cabinet just before the First World War in event known as the Courtyard Crisis accompanied by the Peasant armament support march ( Swedish : bondetåget ), it was seen as a deliberate provocation by conservatives and reactionaries against the uncodified norm of a parliamentary system supported by the liberals and the social democrats, leading to Staaff's resignation. Gustaf V then appointed
12852-432: The development of nation states . However, he is controversial due to his role in wars which devastated Europe, his looting of conquered territories, and his mixed record on civil rights. He abolished the free press, ended directly elected representative government, exiled and jailed critics of his regime, reinstated slavery in France's colonies except for Haiti , banned the entry of blacks and mulattos into France, reduced
13005-466: The economy recovering, Bonaparte became increasingly popular, both domestically and abroad. In May 1802, the Council of State recommended a new plebiscite asking the French people to make "Napoleon Bonaparte" Consul for life. (It was the first time his first name was officially used by the regime.) About 3.6 million voted "yes" and 8,374 "no." 40%-60% of eligible Frenchmen voted, the highest turnout for
13158-403: The essential difficulties in the maintenance of the union between the two countries . His acute intelligence and his aloofness from the dynastic considerations affecting most European sovereigns (both his paternal and maternal grandfathers were French military commanders who served under Napoleon I ) gave the king considerable weight as an arbitrator in international questions. At the request of
13311-470: The expansion of the franchise. The daughter of Gustav IV Adolph , Princess Sofia Wilhelmina (21 May 1801 – 1865) married Grand Duke Leopold of Baden , and their granddaughter Victoria of Baden married the Bernadotte king Gustaf V of Sweden . The present King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden is thus Gustav IV's heir through his grandfather, Gustav VI Adolf . When King Gustav V publicly objected to
13464-537: The forces defending the convention in the Tuileries Palace . Bonaparte had seen the massacre of the King's Swiss Guard during the Insurrection of 10 August 1792 there three years earlier and realized that artillery would be the key to its defence. He ordered a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat , to seize cannons and Bonaparte deployed them in key positions. On 5 October 1795— 13 Vendémiaire An IV in
13617-648: The former king was almost immediately elected as King Charles XIII . The Instrument of Government of 1809 put an end to royal absolutism by dividing the legislative power between the Riksdag (primary) and the king (secondary), and vested executive power in the king when acting through the Council of State . The present Bernadotte dynasty was established in September 1810 when the Riksdag, convened in Örebro , elected French Marshal and Prince of Pontecorvo Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte as crown prince. This took place because Charles XIII had no legitimate heir, and
13770-411: The garrison and some 1,500–5,000 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning. Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days. Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men. 1,500 were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thousands perished from disease—mostly bubonic plague . He failed to reduce the fortress of Acre , so he marched his army back to Egypt in May. Bonaparte
13923-456: The governance of the realm are vested in him. Carl XVI Gustaf became king on 15 September 1973 on the death of his grandfather Gustaf VI Adolf and because of his father's early death has become the longest reigning monarch in Swedish history. His King's Golden Jubilee was celebrated in 2023. Leading up to that year and including it, beginning already in 2018, some of the most serious criticism ever published took place about Carl Gustaf and
14076-789: The government. On 9 November 1799 ( 18 Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar), the conspirators launched a coup, and the following day, backed by grenadiers with fixed bayonets, forced the Council of Five Hundred to dissolve the Directory and appoint Bonaparte, Sieyès and Ducos provisional consuls. On 15 December, Bonaparte introduced the Constitution of the Year VIII , under which three consuls were appointed for 10 years. Real power lay with Bonaparte as First Consul, and his preferred candidates Cambacérès and Charles-François Lebrun were appointed as second and third consuls who only had an advisory role. The constitution also established
14229-609: The gradual decline of the Union of Sweden and Norway , which culminated in its dissolution in 1905 . In 1905, the throne of Norway was transferred to his grandnephew Prince Carl of Denmark under the regnal name Haakon VII. When Oscar died in 1907, he was succeeded in Sweden by his eldest son, Gustaf V . Oscar Fredrik was born at the Royal Palace in Stockholm on 21 January 1829, the third of four sons of Crown Prince Oscar and Josephine of Leuchtenberg . Upon his birth, he
14382-531: The heartlands of the House of Habsburg . French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen in 1796, but Charles withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning of Bonaparte's assault. In their first encounter, Bonaparte pushed Charles back and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning the Battle of Tarvis in March 1797. Alarmed by the French thrust that reached Leoben , about 100 km from Vienna,
14535-423: The help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti , Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces sent to recapture the port of Toulon which was occupied by British and allied forces. He quickly increased the available artillery and proposed a plan to capture a hill fort where republican guns could dominate the city's harbour and force the British to evacuate. The successful assault on
14688-496: The home of that institution. Oscar II once told playwright Henrik Ibsen that his Ghosts was "not a good play". As he was dying, he requested that the theatres not be closed on account of his death. His wishes were respected. Oscar was also particularly interested in mathematics. In 1889 he set up a contest, on the occasion of his 60th birthday, for "an important discovery in the realm of higher mathematical analysis". The contest listed four potential areas of research, one of which
14841-556: The influence of the aristocracy by nationalizing estates and properties which had been handed out to them by his predecessors, introducing the Allotment system ( Swedish : indelningsverket ) which would form the basis of the armed forces until the 20th century, and with the support of the Estates he was declared in 1680 an absolute monarch . Charles XI was succeeded by his son, Charles XII , who would prove to be an extremely able military commander, defeating far larger enemies with
14994-614: The island of Corsica to a family of Italian origin, Napoleon moved to mainland France in 1779 and was commissioned as an officer in the French Royal Army in 1785. He supported the French Revolution in 1789, and promoted its cause in Corsica. He rose rapidly through the ranks after winning the siege of Toulon in 1793 and defeating royalist insurgents in Paris on 13 Vendémiaire in 1795. In 1796, Napoleon commanded
15147-460: The king was greatly strengthened by the introduction of Christianity during the 11th century, and the following centuries saw a process of consolidation of power into the hands of the king. The Swedes traditionally elected a king from a favored dynasty at the Stones of Mora , and the people had the right to elect the king as well as to depose him. The ceremonial stones were destroyed around 1515. In
15300-441: The liberals and social democrats greatly strengthened representation in both Riksdag chambers and a conservative government was no longer a defensible option. Following the definite breakthrough of parliamentarism in 1917, with the appointment of the coalition government of liberals and social democrats led by professor Nils Edén , the political influence of the King was considerably reduced and an unwritten constitutional precedent
15453-598: The loss of only three men. Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July. He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks , Egypt's ruling military caste. This helped the French practise their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from the pyramids . Bonaparte's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of
15606-426: The modern constitutional monarchy. The Swedish monarchy has been one of the key features in the development of Swedish culture, having for centuries patronized the arts and sciences. Several of Sweden's most prestigious academies and cultural institutions are under Swedish royal protection. This historical role politically, militarily and culturally, in spite of the country's otherwise liberal leanings, has resulted in
15759-527: The monarchical head of state of Sweden , by law a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system . There have been kings in what now is the Kingdom of Sweden for more than a millennium. Originally an elective monarchy , it became a hereditary monarchy in the 16th century during the reign of Gustav Vasa , though virtually all monarchs before that belonged to a limited and small number of political families which are considered to be
15912-735: The most globally known ceremony in which the Royal Family annually participate is the Nobel Prize award ceremony held at the Stockholm Concert Hall (and the subsequent banquet in the Stockholm City Hall ), where the monarch hands out the Nobel Prizes on behalf of the Nobel Foundation for outstanding contributions to mankind in physics , chemistry , literature , physiology or medicine , and
16065-551: The new system was perceived as fairer. A war with Lübeck in 1535 resulted in the expulsion of the Hanseatic traders , who previously had had a monopoly on foreign trade. With its own burghers in charge, Sweden's economic strength grew rapidly, and by 1544 Gustav controlled 60% of the farmlands in all of Sweden. Sweden now built the first modern army in Europe, supported by a sophisticated tax system and an efficient bureaucracy. At
16218-405: The only brand to have once obtained his "royal permission" ) as well as gingerbread cookies ( pepparkakor ) and other bakery products made by Göteborgs Kex in Sweden. The culinary creation Veal Oscar was named in his honor supposedly for his fondness for its ingredients: veal cutlet, crab meat, Béarnaise sauce, and asparagus. King of Sweden The monarchy of Sweden is centred on
16371-565: The other members of the royal family or the employees the Royal Court enjoy similar immunity. At the request of the Speaker of the Riksdag, the monarch opens the annual session of the Riksdag ( Riksmötets öppnande ) in the chamber of the Riksdag building . The king or queen regnant also receives Letters of Credence of foreign ambassadors sent to Sweden and signs those of Swedish ambassadors sent abroad. The monarch also chairs
16524-412: The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, but spent long periods of leave in Corsica which fed his Corsican nationalism. In September 1789, he returned to Corsica and promoted the French revolutionary cause. Paoli returned to the island in July 1790, but he had no sympathy for Bonaparte, as he deemed his father a traitor for having deserted the cause of Corsican independence. Bonaparte plunged into
16677-542: The position on 16–17 December led to the capture of the city. Toulon brought Bonaparte to the attention of powerful men including Augustin Robespierre , the younger brother of Maximilien Robespierre , a leading Jacobin. He was promoted to brigadier general and put in charge of defences on the Mediterranean coast. In February 1794, he was made artillery commander of the Army of Italy and devised plans to attack
16830-452: The posting. During this period, he wrote the romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie , about a soldier and his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte's own relationship with Clary. In August, he obtained a position with the Bureau of Topography where he worked on military planning. On 15 September, Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for refusing to serve in
16983-535: The prime minister to keep the monarch informed on the affairs of the realm; the failure to do so following the 2004 tsunami disaster in the Indian Ocean (in which many Swedes perished) gave rise to wide criticism of Prime Minister Göran Persson for his handling of the matter. The monarch also chairs the Advisory Council on Foreign Affairs ( Utrikesnämnden ), a body that enables the government of
17136-514: The realm. The Eriksgata gradually lost its importance when, as of the 14th century, representatives of other parts of Sweden began to participate in the election. After 1544, when hereditary monarchy was instituted, that meant that the Eriksgata had little practical importance. The last king to travel the Eriksgata according to the old tradition was Charles IX , whose reign began in 1604. Later, kings, up until present times, have made visits to all
17289-484: The regency, Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna wrote the 1634 Instrument of Government , which although never approved by any monarch, continued to have an important normative role in the state administration. Christina early on showed an interest in literature and the sciences and famously brought René Descartes to Sweden. Sweden continued to be involved in the Thirty Years' War during reign of Christina and that conflict
17442-474: The royal dynasties of Sweden. The official continuous count usually begins with the kings who ruled both Svealand and Götaland as one kingdom. Sweden's monarchy is amongst the oldest in the world, with a regnal list stretching back to the tenth century, starting with Eric the Victorious ; the Swedish monarchy has, for the past thousand years, undergone cycles of decline and strengthening, culminating in
17595-517: The rule of the Riksdag of the Estates and reinstate absolute monarchy in Sweden. He nearly lost his throne in consequence. On the second occasion during the December Crisis of 1768 , under the guidance of his eldest son, Gustav , he succeeded in overthrowing the "Cap" (Swedish: Mössorna ) senate, but was unable to make any use of his victory. Adolf Frederick's son, King Gustav III , was more successful in restoring royal authority. In 1772,
17748-458: The same time, he broke with the papacy and established a reformed state church : the Church of Sweden . Throughout his reign, Gustav I suppressed both aristocratic and peasant opposition to his ecclesiastical policies and efforts at centralisation, which to some extent laid the foundation for the modern Swedish unitary state . Legally Sweden has only been a hereditary monarchy since 1544 when
17901-536: The school is that he led junior students to victory against senior students in a snowball fight, which allegedly showed his leadership abilities. But the story was only told after Napoleon had become famous. In his later years at Brienne, Napoleon became an outspoken Corsican nationalist and admirer of Paoli. In September 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the École militaire in Paris where he trained to become an artillery officer. He excelled at mathematics, and read widely in geography, history and literature. However, he
18054-537: The service arms. He ranks as a four star admiral in the Swedish Navy and general in the Swedish Army and Air Force . As part of his court, the monarch has a military staff , which is headed by a senior officer (usually a general or admiral, retired from active service) and includes active duty military officers serving as aides-de-camp to the monarch and his or her family. The monarch and members of
18207-806: The small but highly professional Swedish army. His defeat of the Russians at Narva when just 18 years old was to be his greatest victory. However his campaigning at the head of his army during the Great Northern War would ultimately lead to catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Poltava after which he spent several years in Turkey (now Moldova) . Some years later he was killed at the Siege of Fredriksten during an attempt to invade Norway. The Swedish Age of Greatness ( Swedish : stormaktstiden ) had ended. Charles XII's sister, Ulrika Eleonora , now claimed
18360-478: The temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for France, despite the fact that he had received no explicit orders from Paris. The army was left in the charge of Jean-Baptiste Kléber . Unknown to Bonaparte, the Directory had sent him orders to return from Egypt with his army to ward off a possible invasion of France, but these messages never arrived. By the time that he reached Paris in October, France's situation had been improved by
18513-685: The throne and abdicated in favor of her husband, Frederick , who had little interest in the affairs of state and was elected King by the Estates as King Frederick I, resulting in the 1720 Instrument of Government : content-wise almost identical to the one from 1719. Despite having many extra-marital affairs, Frederick I never sired a legitimate heir to the throne. After the death/impending death of King Frederick without heirs, Charles Frederick's heir, Charles Peter Ulrich, had become untenable in Sweden, as he had been taken to Russia by his aunt Elizabeth I of Russia , nominated as heir/Grand Duke, and became Emperor Peter III of Russia . In 1743, Adolf Frederick,
18666-573: The throne over her nephew and son of her elder sister, Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (see genealogy chart above). Charles Frederick had the claim of seniority within the family, but Ulrica Eleonora claimed that her elder sister had not "acquired the consent of the Parliamentary Estates " for her marriage to his father, according to laws of succession laid down in Norrköpings arvförening . The duke's party asserted that
18819-588: The throne upon his unequal marriage in 1888 to a former lady-in-waiting , Ebba Munck af Fulkila , and was granted the title of Prince Bernadotte first in Sweden, and from 1892 in Luxembourg , where he also was created Count of Wisborg as an hereditary title for his marital progeny ( Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg , was the half-brother of his mother, Queen Sophia). The other sons of Oscar II were Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland who married Princess Ingeborg of Denmark ; and Prince Eugén, Duke of Närke , who
18972-580: The title Heir to Norway ( Arvinge till Norge ) was also used, as well as other titles connected to the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp . When, after the Napoleonic Wars , Norway was in personal union with Sweden, the title included King of Norway , in older Swedish spellings: Sweriges, Norriges, Göthes och Wendes Konung . Upon his accession, Carl XVI Gustaf chose for his title simply Sveriges Konung (King of Sweden). The customary title of
19125-621: The treaty, Britain agreed to withdraw from most of the colonies it had recently captured from France and her allies, and France agreed to evacuate Naples. In April, Bonaparte publicly celebrated the peace and his controversial Concordat of 1801 with Pope Pius VII under which the Pope recognized Bonaparte's regime and the regime recognized Catholicism as the majority religion of France. In a further step towards national reconciliation (known as "fusion"), Bonaparte offered an amnesty to most émigrés who wished to return to France. With Europe at peace and
19278-671: The two countries were restored before his death. Oscar II died in Stockholm on 8 December 1907 at 9:10 am. On 6 June 1857 he married in Wiesbaden-Biebrich , Duchy of Nassau (located in present-day Hessen , Germany ) Princess Sophia Wilhelmina , the youngest daughter of Duke William of Nassau and Princess Pauline of Württemberg . They had four sons: His eldest son Gustaf was Duke of Värmland and succeeded him as King Gustaf V of Sweden from 1907 until 1950, married Princess Victoria of Baden and they had three sons. His second son, Prince Oscar, lost his rights of succession to
19431-469: The unwritten precedent was set in 1917, when Gustaf V had little choice but to support the idea of a parliamentary system and promised Prime Minister Nils Edén to stop seeking advice from secret advisors other than the duly appointed cabinet ministers and not to interfere in politics again; the Torekov compromise, struck in 1971 by the four major parties at the time, provided, and continues to provide,
19584-493: The vessel's aft main gun tower. The office of Prime Minister of Sweden was instituted in 1876. Louis De Geer became the first head of government in Sweden to use this title. The most known and powerful first minister of the Crown during the reign of Oscar was the conservative estate owner Erik Gustaf Boström . Boström served as Prime Minister in 1891–1900 and 1902–1905. He was trusted and respected by Oscar II, who had much difficulty approving someone else as prime minister. Over
19737-517: The way the monarchy has developed during his reign. When, on 1 January 1975, it replaced the Instrument of Government of 1809 as part of the Constitution of Sweden , the Instrument of Government of 1974 ( Swedish : 1974 års regeringsform ) transformed the advisory Council of State ( Statsrådet ) into the collegial Government ( Regeringen ), to which all executive power was transferred. Responsibility for nominating and dismissing
19890-682: Was a French military officer and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led a series of successful campaigns across Europe during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1796 to 1815. He was the leader of the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, then of the French Empire as Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815. Born on
20043-402: Was a descendant of earlier royal dynasties of Sweden, great-granddaughter of Princess Catherine of Sweden , mother of King Charles X of Sweden . On his mother's side, Adolf Frederick was descended from King Gustav Vasa and Christina Magdalena , a sister of Charles X of Sweden . He succeeded as King Adolf Frederick 8 years later on 25 March 1751. During his 20-year reign, Adolf Frederick
20196-421: Was alleged to have ordered plague-stricken men to be poisoned with opium to speed the retreat. Back in Egypt on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir . Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs. He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in the War of the Second Coalition . On 24 August 1799, fearing that the Republic's future was in doubt, he took advantage of
20349-573: Was appointed head of the Army of Italy. Within weeks of the Vendémiaire uprising , Bonaparte was romantically involved with Joséphine de Beauharnais , the former mistress of Barras. Josephine had been born in the French colonies in the Lesser Antilles , and her family owned slaves on sugar plantations The couple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony. Bonaparte now habitually styled himself "Napoleon Bonaparte" rather than using
20502-598: Was appointed junior lieutenant in July 1845. Later he studied at Uppsala University , where he distinguished himself in mathematics. On 13 December 1848, was made an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . On 6 June 1857, Prince Oscar married Princess Sophia of Nassau at the Biebrich Palace , the ducal residence of the Duchy of Nassau . Princess Sophia was the youngest daughter of
20655-533: Was born one year after the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France. His father fought alongside Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican war of independence against France. After the Corsican defeat at the Battle of Ponte Novu in 1769 and Paoli's exile in Britain, Carlo became friends with the French governor Charles Louis de Marbeuf , who became his patron and godfather to Napoleon. With Mabeuf's support, Carlo
20808-430: Was but would become entirely ceremonial, without any residual political powers left. Following the required double Riksdag votes that took place in 1973 and 1974, a new Instrument of Government was brought into effect. The monarch's functions and duties, as defined in the 1974 Constitution Act, include heading the special cabinet council held when there is a change of government, but no executive powers with respect to
20961-473: Was created Duke of Östergötland . At birth, he was fourth in the succession to the Swedish throne after his father and older brothers, but as a younger son had no immediate prospect of inheriting the throne. During his childhood he was placed in the care of the royal governess, Countess Christina Ulrika Taube. Prince Oscar entered the Royal Swedish Navy as a midshipman at the age of eleven, and
21114-535: Was decisively defeated at the Battle of Leipzig . The coalition invaded France and captured Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April 1814. They exiled him to the Mediterranean island of Elba and restored the Bourbons to power . Ten months later, Napoleon escaped from Elba on a brig, landed in France with a thousand men, and marched on Paris, again taking control of the country. His opponents responded by forming
21267-501: Was dethroned and succeeded by John III. In domestic politics John III showed clear Catholic sympathies, inspired by his queen, creating friction with the Swedish clergy and nobility. He reintroduced several Catholic traditions previously abolished, and his foreign policy was affected by his family connection to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , where his eldest son had been made King Sigismund III in 1587. Following
21420-660: Was elected King of Sweden by the estates of the realm , assembled in Strängnäs on 6 June 1523. Inspired by the teachings of Martin Luther , Gustav I used the Protestant Reformation to curb the power of the Roman Catholic Church . In 1527 he persuaded the estates of the realm , assembled in the city of Västerås , to confiscate church lands, which comprised 21% of the country's farmland. At
21573-404: Was granted the title Royal Highness in his absence, but his pro-Russian policy at that time made him impossible as heir to the Swedish throne. His marriage in 1725 to Anna , the daughter of Peter of Great, did not help his case. His mother, and later Hedwig Eleonora, both supported and worked for his right to be considered heir of Sweden after his childless uncle. Ulrika Eleonora was forced by
21726-516: Was killed at the 1632 Battle of Lützen . Queen Maria Eleonora and the king's ministers took over the government of the Realm on behalf of Gustavus Adolphus' underage daughter Christina , until she reached the age of majority . Gustavus Adolphus is often regarded by military historians as one of the greatest military commanders of all time, with innovative use of combined arms . Christina succeeded her father aged six. A regency government ruled in her name until she turned 18 years of age. During
21879-413: Was little more than a figurehead , the real power being with the Riksdag of the Estates , often distracted by party strife. Twice he endeavored to free himself from the tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1756. Stimulated by his consort Louisa Ulrika of Prussia (sister of Frederick the Great ), he tried to regain a portion of the attenuated prerogative through the Coup of 1756 to abolish
22032-490: Was more interested in feathering their own nests rather than working in the interest of the country at large. When Charles XI came of age in 1672, the effectiveness of the armed forces had seriously deteriorated and the country was ill-prepared as the King of Denmark, Christian V , invaded to settle old scores . The Danes were ultimately unsuccessful in their attempts, and Charles XI undertook several measures to prevent what had just almost happened from occurring again: reducing
22185-470: Was named Corsican representative to the court of Louis XVI and Napoleon obtained a royal bursary to a military academy in France. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child. Later in life, Napoleon said, "The future destiny of the child is always the work of the mother." Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to
22338-467: Was poor at French and German. His father's death in February 1785 cut the family income and forced him to complete the two-year course in one year. In September he was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace and became the first Corsican to graduate from the École militaire . Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment . He served in Valence and Auxonne until after
22491-410: Was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms, and poor French. He became reserved and melancholic, applying himself to reading. An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor". One story of Napoleon at
22644-423: Was set that would remain in effect until 1975. Only during World War II , in the so-called Midsummer crisis (regarding the issue whether neutral Sweden should permit rail transport of German troops from Norway passing through to Finland ), did Gustaf V allegedly try to intervene in the political process by threatening to abdicate . King Gustaf VI Adolf succeeded his elderly father who died in 1950, and he
22797-453: Was settled at the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , and the Swedish monarch received representation at the Imperial Diet due to the German conquests ( Bremen-Verden and Swedish Pomerania ) that were made. Having decided not to marry, Christina abdicated the throne on 5 June 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles X Gustav , went abroad, and converted to Roman Catholicism . The Estates elected Charles X Gustav as their new King, and his short reign
22950-459: Was the n-body problem in celestial mechanics , relevant to the stability of the solar system . Henri Poincare , a professor at the University of Paris , won by submitting an entry showing that even the 3-body problem was unstable, the seminal result in what is now called chaos theory . King Oscar II was an enthusiast of Arctic exploration. Along with Swedish millionaire Oscar Dickson and Russian magnate Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Sibiryakov , he
23103-425: Was the patron of a number of pioneering Arctic expeditions in the 1800s. Among the ventures the king sponsored, the most important are Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld 's explorations to the Russian Arctic and Greenland , and Fridtjof Nansen 's Polar journey on the Fram . Oscar was also a generous sponsor of the sciences and personally funded the Vega Expedition , which was the first Arctic expedition to navigate through
23256-400: Was well known as an artist and remained a bachelor all his life. Oscar II is also suspected to have had several extramarital children, of which at least five are named: However, unlike his father, Oscar II never officially recognized any illegitimate children of his. The name and portrait of Oscar II have been used as a trademark for King Oscar sardines in Norway since 1902 (which remains
23409-447: Was without a legitimate heir, having lost his only son, Prince Carl Oscar, Duke of Södermanland , to pneumonia in 1854. His second elder brother, Prince Gustaf, Duke of Uppland , had died of typhoid fever already in 1852. Oscar II became King on 18 September 1872, upon the death of his brother, Charles XV who died without an heir. At his accession, he adopted as his motto Brödrafolkens väl / Broderfolkenes Vel ("The Welfare of
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