Livonia , known in earlier records as Livland , is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea . It is named after the Livonians , who lived on the shores of present-day Latvia .
186-713: By the end of the 13th century, the name was extended to most of present-day Estonia and Latvia, which the Livonian Brothers of the Sword had conquered during the Livonian Crusade (1193–1290). Medieval Livonia, or Terra Mariana , reached its greatest extent after the Saint George's Night Uprising (1343-1345), which forced Denmark to sell the Duchy of Estonia (northern Estonia conquered by Denmark in
372-535: A crusade to "defend the Christians of Livonia ". Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King Valdemar II unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa . The German Livonian Brothers of the Sword , who had previously subjugated Livonians , Latgalians , and Selonians , started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over the next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of
558-645: A referendum was held where 78.4% of voters (including Soviet citizens) supported full independence. During the coup attempt in Moscow , Estonia declared restoration of independence on 20 August 1991. Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the United Nations . The last units of the Russian Army left Estonia in 1994. Tallinn Tallinn ( / ˈ t æ l ɪ n / )
744-646: A " mutual assistance treaty " was signed on 28 September 1939, allowing the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia. On 14 June 1940 the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia, shooting down the airliner Kaleva . On 16 June, the USSR presented another ultimatum demanding free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance
930-541: A 15-minute walk or bike ride but the concept was left out of the green capital program and other parts of the 12 million euro program amount to a collection of temporary and one-off projects without any structural and lasting changes. Tallinn is situated on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland , in north-western Estonia. The largest lake in Tallinn is Lake Ülemiste (9.44 km (3.6 sq mi)), which serves as
1116-485: A brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia. During World War I , over 100,000 Estonian men were mobilized into the Imperial Russian Army . Of these, approximately 8,000 to 10,000 perished, and one in five suffered injuries. In the turmoil of war, ideas for establishing an Estonian national army began to take root, while the shortages and hardships on
1302-504: A chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia. Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with Ivan IV , proved a suitable figurehead for this faction. The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops ( Hofleute ) under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 ( Battle of Pärnu and Siege of Reval ), in 1570–1571 ( Siege of Reval ; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came
1488-597: A first layer of argillite followed by first layer of sandstone and siltstone and then another layer of argillite also followed by sandstone and siltstone. In other places of the city, hard sedimentary rock is only to be found beneath Quaternary sediments at depths reaching as much as 120 m below sea level. Underlying the sedimentary rock are the rocks of the Fennoscandian Craton including gneisses and other metamorphic rocks with volcanic rock protoliths and rapakivi granites . These rocks are much older than
1674-531: A major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Tallinn, but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last maakond (county) to surrender. After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named Terra Mariana ; later on it became known simply as Livonia . Northern Estonia became the Danish Duchy of Estonia , while
1860-418: A major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights. At the end of the 19th century, Russification began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to
2046-626: A moderate faction within the independence movement, and the Estonian National Independence Party , which became the first non-communist political party legally registered in the Soviet Union. The parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia asserted the primacy of Estonian laws with the Sovereignty Declaration on 16 November 1988, inspiring similar declarations across other Soviet republics . On 23 August 1989, approximately two million people formed
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#17327653686102232-433: A new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated Russification policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic Russians and other Soviet citizens were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into a minority in their own homeland. Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in
2418-554: A period of alternating Scandinavian and Teutonic rulers. Due to the strategic location by the sea, its medieval port became a significant trade hub , especially in the 14–16th centuries, when Tallinn grew in importance as the northernmost member city of the Hanseatic League . Tallinn Old Town is one of the best-preserved medieval cities in Europe and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In 2012, Tallinn had
2604-562: A series of three offensives against Muscovy, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook Polotsk ; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took Velikie Luki , and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the Siege of Pskov . Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike Sweden and Poland. He came to an agreement with John III in 1580, giving him
2790-529: A single parish. By the 13th century, Estonia was divided into eight major counties – Harjumaa , Järvamaa , Läänemaa , Revala , Saaremaa , Sakala , Ugandi , and Virumaa – as well as several smaller, single-parish counties. These counties operated as independent entities and only formed loose alliances for defense against foreign threats. Estonia's culture during this period was split into two primary regions. Northern and western coastal areas maintained close connections with Scandinavia and Finland , while
2976-428: A supreme deity worshiped by the islanders of Saaremaa. Sacred groves , particularly those of oak trees, played a significant role in pagan worship practices. Christianity – both Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy – started to be introduced by foreign traders and missionaries since the 10th and 11th century, but most of the population retained their indigenous beliefs. In 1199, Pope Innocent III declared
3162-421: A toponym Kolyvan , which has been discovered from later East Slavic chronicles. However, a number of historians have considered connecting any of al-Idrisi's placenames with modern Tallinn erroneous, unfounded, or speculative. The first archaeological traces of a small hunter-fisherman community's presence in what is now Tallinn's city centre are about 5,000 years old. The comb ceramic pottery found on
3348-526: A trade intermediary between Novgorod and western Hanseatic cities, while Tartu filled the same role with Pskov . Many artisans' and merchants guilds were formed during the period. Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Tallinn and Tartu often defied other rulers of the medieval Livonian Confederation . The Reformation began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by
3534-620: A trading post on the site of the future city of Riga , which Bishop Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201. The Livonian Chronicle of Henry from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a fief by the Hohenstaufen ( de facto but not known as) the King of Germany, Philip of Swabia ( r. 1198–1208 ), to Bishop Albert of Riga (Albert of Buxhoeveden), nephew of Hartwig II ,
3720-728: A verdict until April 1236, when the Sword Brothers were tasked to return Reval to the Danish king. The terms of the agreement were not finalised until the Treaty of Stensby (7 June 1238), when the Livonian Sword Brothers, crushed at Saule and now submitted to the Teutonic Order , relinquished their claims to Reval and much of northern Estonia to Denmark, and to share future territorial gains with two-thirds for
3906-621: A very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs. Sweden lost Swedish Livonia, Swedish Estonia and Ingria to the Russian Empire almost 100 years later, by the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. The Livonian Voivodeship ( Lithuanian : Livonijos vaivadija ; Polish : Województwo inflanckie )
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#17327653686104092-570: A war between Bishop William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł ), the last Livonian Master, Gotthard Kettler , secularized the Order and converted to Lutheranism . In the southern part of the Brothers' lands, he set up the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of
4278-1187: A year. Snowfall is common during the winters, which are cloudy and characterised by low amounts of sunshine, ranging from only 20.7 hours of sunshine per month in December to 58.8 hours in February. At the winter solstice , daylight lasts for less than 6 hours and 5 minutes. Spring starts out cool, with freezing temperatures common in March and April, but gradually becomes warmer and sunnier in May, when daytime temperatures average 15.4 °C (59.7 °F), although nighttime temperatures still remain cool, averaging −3.7 to 5.2 °C (25.3 to 41.4 °F) from March to May. In early spring, freezing temperatures are common in March and snowfall can occur in April. Summers are warm with daytime temperatures hovering around 19.2 to 22.2 °C (66.6 to 72.0 °F) and nighttime temperatures averaging between 9.8 to 13.1 °C (49.6 to 55.6 °F) from June to August. The warmest month
4464-410: Is appointed by the city government. The function of the "district governments", however, is not directly governing, but just limited to providing advice to the city government and the city council on issues related to the administration of respective districts. The districts are administratively further divided into 84 asum (subdistricts or "neighbourhoods" with officially defined borders). The city
4650-475: Is governed by the Tallinn City Council which consists of 79 members elected to four year terms via party list. The mayor is elected by the city council. The population of Tallinn on 1 January 2024 was 457,572. It is the primate and most populous city in Estonia, the 3rd most populous city in the three Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), as well as the 59th most populous city in
4836-421: Is mainly due to the location between a more maritime and a more continental climate and the variation in the duration of sunshine as a consequence of its high latitude. Riga and Helsinki took second and third places. . Tallinn is subdivided into eight administrative linnaosa (districts). Each district has a linnaosa valitsus (district government) which is managed by a linnaosavanem (district elder) who
5022-630: Is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. Analysis indicates that during the Livonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as
5208-557: Is one of the least populous members of the European Union and NATO . Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for quality of life , education , press freedom , digitalisation of public services and the prevalence of technology companies. The name Estonia ( Estonian : Eesti [ˈeˑstʲi] ) has been connected to Aesti , a people first mentioned by Ancient Roman historian Tacitus around 98 CE. Some modern historians believe he
5394-638: Is situated in Hiiu , Nõmme District, in the south-west of the city. A large limestone cliff runs through the city. It can be seen at Toompea, Lasnamäe , and Astangu . However, the hill at Toompea is not geologically part of the larger limestone cliff. The rocks and sediments underneath Tallinn are of different composition and age. Youngest are the Quaternary deposits. The materials of these deposits are till , varved clay , sand, gravel, and pebbles that are of glacial , marine and lacustrine origin. Some of
5580-690: Is spoken by fewer than 100 individuals as a second language, and is understood to be fast approaching extinction . The last native Livonian speaker died in June 2013. The unofficial anthem of the Livonians, " Min izāmō ", shares the melody of the Finnish and Estonian national anthems . Estonia – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) – [ Legend ] Estonia , officially
5766-652: Is starkly evident in the archaeological record, with a sharp drop in the number of sites and grave finds, indicating a severe population decline and slow recovery. North Estonian coast was strategically located on the route from the Varangians to the Greeks , making Estonia a trade hub while also being both a target and starting point for many raids. Coastal Estonians, particularly Oeselians from Saaremaa , adopted Viking lifestyle. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in
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5952-662: Is the Pulli settlement ; according to radiocarbon dating , it was settled around 11,000 years ago. The earliest human habitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to the Kunda culture . Around 5300 BCE, ceramics appear of the neolithic period, known as Narva culture . This was followed by the Comb Ceramic culture around 3900 BC, bringing early agriculture and sophisticated religious art. Starting from around 2800 BC
6138-522: Is the capital and most populous city of Estonia . Situated on a bay in north Estonia, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea , Tallinn has a population of about 457,000 (as of 2024) and administratively lies in the Harju maakond (county). Tallinn is the main governmental, financial, industrial, and cultural centre of Estonia. It is located 187 km (116 mi) northwest of
6324-575: Is the only regulated exchange in Estonia. Port of Tallinn is one of the biggest ports in the Baltic sea region, whereas the largest cargo port of Estonia, the Port of Muuga , which is operated by the same business entity, is located in the neighboring town of Maardu . Old City Harbour has been known as a convenient harbour since the medieval times, but nowadays the cargo operations are shifted to Muuga Cargo Port and Paldiski South Harbour . As of 2010, there
6510-424: Is to this day, the most populous district of Tallinn. The official language of Tallinn is Estonian. As of 2011, 50.1% of the city's residents were native speakers of Estonian, whereas 46.7% had Russian as their first language . While English is the most frequently used foreign language by the residents of Tallinn, there are also a significant number of native speakers of Ukrainian and Finnish . The pie chart to
6696-673: Is usually July, with an average of 17.6 °C (63.7 °F). During summer, partly cloudy or clear days are common and it is the sunniest season, ranging from 255.6 hours of sunshine in August to 312.1 hours in July although precipitation is higher during these months. At the summer solstice , daylight lasts for more than 18 hours and 40 minutes. Autumn starts out mild, with a September average daily mean of 12.0 °C (53.6 °F) and increasingly becomes cooler and cloudier in November. In
6882-455: Is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time. The Great Depression put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing Vaps movement spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency. On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, Konstantin Päts , extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that
7068-561: The Archbishop of Bremen , who sailed (1200) with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east as part of the Livonian Crusade . Bishop Albert founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword ( Latin : Fratres militiæ Christi Livoniae , German: Schwertbrüderorden ) in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. Albert did so in order to aid
7254-642: The Baltic Way , a human chain spanning Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, to demonstrate unity in pursuit of independence. In 1989, the Estonian Citizens' Committees began registering citizens according to jus sanguinis – those whose citizenship traced back to the pre-war republic. This led to the formation of the Congress of Estonia , a grassroots parliament dedicated to achieving independence through legal continuity and sovereignty. In March 1991,
7440-768: The Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence. In 1418, the Archbishop of Riga , Johannes Ambundii , organised the five ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia (Livonian Order, Courland, Ösel–Wiek, Dorpat and Riga) into the Livonian Confederation . A diet or Landtag
7626-601: The Bishopric of Riga in the conversion of the pagan Curonians , Livonians , Semigallians , and Latgalians living on the shores of the Gulf of Riga . The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks ". Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and the Militia of Christ of Livonia. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to
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7812-570: The Corded Ware culture appeared; this included new activities like primitive farming and animal husbandry. The Comb Ceramic and Corded Ware cultures coexisted in Estonia for a millennium, before eventually blending into a Bronze Age Estonian culture. Archaeological estimates place the population within Estonian territory at a modest level, with approximately 6,000 inhabitants in 3900 BC, rising to around 10,000 by 2000 BC. The Bronze Age saw
7998-543: The Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping land reform expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly liberal constitution establishing Estonia as a parliamentary democracy. In 1924, the Soviet Union organised a communist coup attempt , which quickly failed. Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925,
8184-564: The Estonian Waffen-SS division . Thousands of Estonians escaped to Finland, where many volunteered to fight together with Finns against Soviets . The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, heightening fears of renewed Soviet occupation. The Estonian Self-Administration declared a general mobilization in January, invoking pre-war Estonian legislation, with the support of all major pre-war political parties and
8370-554: The Estonian War of Independence . The Red Army came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the Estonian Army , led by Johan Laidoner , went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few weeks. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in the spring of 1919, the Estonian army, in co-operation with White Russian forces, advanced into Russia and Latvia . In June 1919, Estonia defeated
8556-729: The Forest Brothers , launching an insurgency against Soviet forces. By mid-July, the Forest Brothers' uprising succeeded in liberating South Estonia ahead of the advancing German army, allowing local institutions of the pre-war Republic of Estonia to resume operation. The USSR fully evacuated Tallinn by late August, suffering massive losses in the process, and German forces completed their capture of Estonia's islands by December. Many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this proved to be in vain. A puppet Estonian Self-Administration
8742-722: The German Landeswehr which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of Kārlis Ulmanis there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a major offensive against Narva in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia. In April 1919,
8928-677: The Holy Roman Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland ... the East Sea (Ostsee- Baltic Sea ) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned, that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere . At stake
9114-461: The Kingdom of Poland also began direct negotiations with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died. The chances for success of Magnus , (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570). In 1560 he had been recognised as their sovereign by the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and by the Bishopric of Courland , and as their prospective ruler by
9300-409: The Learned Estonian Society and other scientific societies, supported Estonian-language education and founded the first newspapers in the Estonian language. They also began to value and collect the Estonian folklore , including surviving pre-Christian myths and traditions. Another sign of a rising Estonian national consciousness was a mass movement in South Estonia to convert to Eastern Orthodoxy in
9486-616: The Northern Seven Years' War (1563-1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the Free City of Lübeck , Denmark, and Poland. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became insane and his brother Johan took his place as King John III of Sweden . Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland, began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Sigismund II Augustus of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , know that he
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#17327653686109672-518: The Novgorod Slavs who migrated to the area, expanding westward. Kievan Rus attempted to subjugate Estonia in the 11th century, with Yaroslav the Wise capturing Tartu around 1030. This foothold lasted until 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it. In 1187, Estonians, Curonians and Karelians sacked Sigtuna , which was a major city of Sweden at the time. In the early centuries AD, Estonia's first political and administrative subdivisions began to take shape. The primary units were
9858-553: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 under the Union of Lublin . Eric XIV of Sweden did not like this, and the Northern Seven Years' War between the Free City of Lübeck , Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II of Denmark and Magnus von Lyffland of the Œsel-Wiek did not fare well. But, in 1569, Erik XIV became insane and his brother John III of Sweden took his place. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Zygmunt II August , know that he
10044-425: The Republic of Estonia , is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe . It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland , to the west by the sea across from Sweden , to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia . The territory of Estonia consists of the mainland , the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa , and over 2,300 other islands and islets on
10230-497: The Scandinavian and German languages as Reval ( Latin : Revalia ). Reval was in official use in Estonia until 1918. In international use, the English and German-language ( Reval ; German: [ˈʁeːval] ) as well as the Russian analog Revel ( Ревель ) were all gradually replaced by the Estonian name after the country became independent in 1918. At first, both Estonian forms, Tallinna and Tallinn , were used. Tallinna in Estonian denotes also
10416-516: The Soviet air force . During the most destructive Soviet bombing raid on 9–10 March 1944 , over a thousand incendiary bombs were dropped on the town, causing widespread fires, killing 757 people, and leaving over 20,000 residents of Tallinn without shelter. After the German retreat in September 1944, the city was occupied again by the Soviet Union . During the 1980 Summer Olympics , the sailing (then known as yachting) events were held at Pirita , north-east of central Tallinn. Many buildings, such as
10602-417: The Tallinn TV Tower , "Olümpia" hotel, the new Main Post Office building, and the Regatta Centre, were built for the Olympics. In 1991, the independent democratic Estonian nation was restored and a period of quick development as a modern European capital ensued. Tallinn became the capital of a de facto independent country once again on 20 August 1991. The Old Town became a World Heritage Site in 1997, and
10788-405: The Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Peter the Great confirmed German as the exclusive official language. Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the Partitions of Poland . In 1796, the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia (Russian: Лифляндская губе́рния / Liflyandskaya guberniya , Latvian : Vidzemes guberņa , Estonian : Liivimaa kubermang ). From 1845 to 1876,
10974-415: The Wielbark culture and Dollkeim-Kovrovo cultures. Historical sources identify these people as Goths and Aesti . There is some speculation that the name Estonia may have originated from the Aesti tribes. In the 4th century, Gothic ruler Ermanaric claimed to have subjugated the territories corresponding to Estonia, but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. The Late Antique Little Ice Age
11160-405: The bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master. Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from Novgorodian attacks in his letter of 24 November 1232; however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. ( Sweden eventually took over Finland after the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.) In
11346-417: The genitive case of the name, as in Tallinna Sadam ('the Port of Tallinn '). Henry of Livonia , in his chronicle ( c. 1229 ), called the town with the name that is also known to have been used up to the 13th century by Scandinavians: Lindanisa (or Lyndanisse in Danish , Lindanäs in Swedish and Ledenets in Old East Slavic ). In 1154, a town called قلون ( Qlwn or Quwri )
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#173276536861011532-425: The interwar period , Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II , however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied ; first by the Soviet Union in 1940 , then Nazi Germany in 1941, and ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit ( Estonian SSR ). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation, Estonia's de jure state continuity
11718-492: The persuasions of Kettler to the burghers. King Eric's brother and future King Johan married the Polish princess Catherine Jagiellon in 1562. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles that they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to Finland , Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent. Shortly after that, Erik XIV quickly lost any allies that he
11904-486: The sovereignty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, nor recognized by Denmark). The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to The Bishopric of Courland , and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. Sweden was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626–1629 Polish–Swedish War . The area, usually known as Swedish Livonia , became
12090-421: The 1219 battle of Lyndanisse. The Icelandic Njal's saga —composed after 1270, but describing events between 960 and 1020—mentions an event that occurred somewhere in the area of Tallinn and calls the place Rafala (probably a derivation of Rävala , Revala , or some other variant of the Estonian name of the adjacent medieval Estonian county ). Soon after the Danish conquest in 1219, the town became known in
12276-430: The 13th century when Christianity was forcibly imposed on the local population. Danish rule of Tallinn and northern Estonia started in 1219. In 1285, Tallinn, then known more widely as Reval, became the northernmost member of the Hanseatic League – a mercantile and military alliance of German-dominated cities in Northern Europe. The king of Denmark sold Reval along with other land possessions in northern Estonia to
12462-468: The 13th century) to the State of the Teutonic Order in 1346. Livonia, as understood after the retreat of Denmark in 1346, bordered on the Gulf of Finland in the north, Lake Peipus and Russia to the east, and Lithuania to the south. As a consequence of the Livonian War (1558–1583), the territory of Livonia was reduced to the southern half of Estonia and the northern half of Latvia. The indigenous inhabitants of Livonia were various Finnic tribes in
12648-430: The 1530s onward the regular religious services were held in Estonian. Early Estonian-language Protestant texts emerged, including Wanradt–Koell Catechism in 1535. During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of Muscovy , Sweden, and Poland–Lithuania consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order. In 1558, Tsar Ivan
12834-432: The 1840s, following a famine and a promise for being rewarded with land. By the 1850s, several leading figures were promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the political affirmation of the Estonian identity. In 1857, Johann Voldemar Jannsen started publishing one of
13020-425: The 1860s, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the Society of Estonian Literati and the Estonian Students' Society , and the first national song festival , held in 1869 in Tartu. Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language. The national epic Kalevipoeg was published in 1857, and 1870 saw the first performances of Estonian theatre . In 1878
13206-432: The 1940 Soviet annexation. In 1980, Tallinn hosted the sailing events for the Moscow Olympics , an occasion that triggered international boycotts in protest of both the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the occupation of the Baltic states. Though the Olympics brought economic investments to Tallinn, many Estonian exiles and Western nations condemned the events held on occupied soil. The introduction of perestroika by
13392-548: The 1960s, however, some Estonians living in the northern regions covertly began watching Finnish television broadcasts, offering glimpses into life outside the Iron Curtain . Soviet security forces in Estonia enjoyed vast powers to suppress dissent, but despite harsh repression, underground resistance endured. In the late 1970s, Moscow's ideological pressure intensified with a new wave of Russian immigration, and Karl Vaino , an official from Moscow who barely spoke Estonian,
13578-479: The 1960s. The Soviet regime also intensified its policy of collectivisation , forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched a campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with operation Priboi – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the gulag system in Siberia. Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking
13764-531: The 20th century and the indigenous Setos were converted to Eastern Orthodoxy . Initially, the Estonian nobles who accepted baptism were able to retain their power and influence by becoming vassals of the Danish king or the church; they intermarried with newcomer Crusader familiers and over the centuries become Germanised , leading to the ethnogenesis of the Baltic Germans . The Estonian pagans rose several times against foreign Christian rule. During
13950-754: The Baltic Sea". One of Tallinn's sister cities is the Silicon Valley town of Los Gatos, California . Skype is one of the best-known of several Estonian start-ups originating from Tallinn. Many start-ups have originated from the Institute of Cybernetics . In recent years, Tallinn has gradually been becoming one of the main IT centres of Europe, with the Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCD COE) of NATO , eu-LISA ,
14136-464: The Baltic governorates of Estonia , Livonia, and Courland — an area roughly corresponding to the historical medieval Livonia — were administratively subordinated to a common Governor-General . Amongst the holders of this post were Count Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov and Count Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov . Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of World War I , when it
14322-701: The Battle of Saule in 1236 the Lithuanians and Semigallians decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order . They continued, however, to function in all respects ( rule , clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself de jure subject to
14508-575: The Danish king and one third for the Livonian Order. The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the Teutonic Knights (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1418 to 1561. After being defeated by Lithuanian forces in the 1236 Battle of Saule , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290,
14694-477: The EU Digital Agency and the IT development centres of large corporations, such as TeliaSonera and Kuehne + Nagel being based in the city. Tallinn receives 4.3 million visitors annually, a figure that has grown steadily over the past decade. The Finns are especially a common sight in Tallinn; on average, about 20,000–40,000 Finnish tourists visit the city between June and October. Most of
14880-605: The Estonian public education system appeared in the 1680s, largely due to efforts of Bengt Forselius , who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian. The population of Estonia grew rapidly until the Great Famine of 1695–97 in which 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population. During the Great Northern War , Peter the Great of Russia launched another invasion of Estonia in 1700. By
15066-479: The Estonian resistance was Lembitu , an elder of Sakala County , but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day , where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise , defeated the Estonians in the Battle of Lyndanisse , and started conquering Northern Estonia. The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were repelled by the Oeselians. In 1223,
15252-675: The European Union. According to Eurostat , in 2004, Tallinn had one of the largest number of non-EU nationals of all EU member states' capital cities. Ethnic Russians are a significant minority in Tallinn, as around a third of the city's residents are first and second generation immigrants from Russia and other parts of the former Soviet Union; a majority of the Soviet-era immigrants now hold Estonian citizenship. Ethnic Estonians made up over 80% of Tallinn's population before World War II. As of 2022, ethnic Estonians made up over 53% of
15438-679: The Livonian Constitutions re-established Livonia as a Catholic bishopric, marking a turning point in religious influence in the region. Jesuit influence flourished, establishing institutions such as the Collegium Derpatense in Tartu, where Estonian-language catechisms were published to support local missions. Despite the Jesuits' efforts, including extensive publishing and education initiatives, their presence in Tartu
15624-596: The Livonian Order conquered all of Courland , Livonia, and Semigallia , but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the Battle of Rakvere (1268). In 1346, after the St. George's Night Uprising the Order purchased the rest of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark . The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describe conditions within the Order's territory. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in
15810-459: The Livonian Order. Protestant preaching began actively in Tallinn in 1524, leading the town council to align with the Reformation by the following year. Similar events unfolded in Tartu, where tensions arose with Catholic Bishop Johann Blankenfeld, resulting in iconoclastic riots that damaged Catholic churches and monasteries in both cities. By the late 1520s, most Estonian towns had embraced
15996-519: The Livonian Sword Brothers, Nicholas' Bishopric of Riga, and the city of Riga. Previous generations of historians have argued that Baldwin attempted to make the whole Baltic region an ecclesiastical state, but Manfred Hellmann [ de ] (1993) refuted this idea as "fanciful speculation". Similarly, the traditional assertion that Baldwin had extensive plans to conquer and convert eastwards into parts of Pskov and Novgorod do not stand up under scrutiny, showing that papal correspondence with Baldwin
16182-529: The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its secret protocols which had led to Estonia's loss of independence. Although direct demands for independence were not yet made, organizers aimed to reinforce the continuity of the Estonian state and prepare the foundation for a restoration based on legal principles. In 1988, new political movements emerged, including the Popular Front of Estonia , representing
16368-516: The Quaternary deposits are valuable as they constitute aquifers , or as in the case of gravels and sands, are used as construction materials. The Quaternary deposits are the fill of valleys that are now buried. The buried valleys of Tallinn are carved into older rock likely by ancient rivers to be later modified by glaciers. While the valley fill is made up of Quaternary sediments the valleys themselves originated from erosion that took place before
16554-488: The Quaternary. The substrate into which the buried valleys were carved is made up of hard sedimentary rock of Ediacaran , Cambrian and Ordovician age. Only the upper layer of Ordovician rocks protrudes from the cover of younger deposits, cropping out in the Baltic Klint at the coast and at a few places inland. The Ordovician rocks are made up from top to bottom of a thick layer of limestone and marlstone , then
16740-455: The Reformation, although Catholic influence remained stronger in Viljandi, Haapsalu , and Vana-Pärnu. Unlike the cities, rural areas were slower to adopt Protestantism, with Catholic influence persisting among local nobility and peasants well into the 1530s. With the Reformation, church services began to be conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant Low German , but already from
16926-513: The Russian central government to align Estonian governance with broader imperial standards, the autonomy of the Baltic provinces generally remained intact, as the tsarist regime sought to avoid conflicts with the local nobility. From 1783 to 1796, the administrative structure shifted temporarily under Empress Catherine II 's "Governorate System," aiming to centralize governance and bring the Baltic regions closer to imperial norms; however, this system
17112-578: The Soviet Union in 1932, and with Germany in 1939. In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in World War II . A week before the outbreak of World War II , the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact assigned Estonia to the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence. On 24 September 1939, Joseph Stalin presented the Estonian government an ultimatum. The Estonian government decided to avoid military conflict, and
17298-513: The Soviet Union on 22 June, the Summer War began in Estonia. The Soviet authorities forcibly conscripted around 34,000 young Estonian men into the Red Army; fewer than 30% would survive the war. Soviet extermination battalions adopted a scorched-earth policy , massacring many civilians in the process, and NKVD units executed political prisoners who could not be evacuated. Thousands of Estonians joined anti-Soviet partisan groups known as
17484-607: The Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from the Estonian SSR to the Russian SFSR . Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the Forest Brothers to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by
17670-539: The Soviet Union, maintaining that it was illegal under international law. Legal continuity of the Estonian state was preserved through the government-in-exile and the Estonian diplomatic representatives which Western governments continued to recognise. This stance drew support from the Stimson Doctrine , which denied recognition of territorial changes enacted through force, and appeared on USA-made maps, which carried disclaimers affirming non-recognition of
17856-730: The Soviet forces launched several major offensives , compelling German troops to withdraw from mainland Estonia in September and from the Estonian islands in November. During this retreat, Jüri Uluots appointed a government led by Otto Tief in a final effort to restore Estonian independence. Facing a second Soviet occupation, tens of thousands of Estonians fled westward. Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II. Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as
18042-664: The Soviet government in 1987 reopened the possibility for political activism in Estonia, sparking the Singing Revolution , a peaceful movement towards independence. One of the first major acts of resistance was the Phosphorite War , an environmental protest against Soviet plans to establish large phosphate mines in Virumaa . On 23 August 1987, the Hirvepark meeting in Tallinn called for the public disclosure of
18228-559: The Terrible of Russia (Muscovy) invaded Livonia, starting the Livonian War . The Livonian Order was decisively defeated in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish–Lithuanian rule, while Tallinn and the nobles of northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Tsar Ivan's forces were at first able to conquer the larger part of Livonia. Epidemics of plague swept through
18414-536: The Teutonic Knights in 1346. Reval was arguably the most significant medieval port in the Gulf of Finland. Reval enjoyed a strategic position at the crossroads of trade between the rest of western Europe and Novgorod and Muscovy in the east. The city, with a population of about 8,000, was very well fortified with city walls and 66 defence towers . The city wall has been described as an outstanding example of German Medieval fortification architecture. A weather vane ,
18600-742: The Teutonic Order's Grand Master ). The January 1229 death of Albert of Riga caused a diocesan feud in the Archbishopric of Riga , as two rival candidates were elected. Pope Gregory IX , through cardinal Otto of Tonengo , tasked Baldwin of Alna as papal legate to resolve the dispute. After securing the submission of Courland, Baldwin soon found himself in conflict with various factions in Livonia, fleeing to Dünamünde and temporarily leaving Livonia in early 1232. The pope made him bishop of Semigallia and gave him papal legation throughout much of Livonia, and Baldwin returned by 1233. He tried to take
18786-526: The Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the Kingdom of Livonia which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land. Once Eric XIV of Sweden became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued peace with Muscovy and spoke to the burghers of Reval city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561,they submitted to him contrary to
18972-502: The Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts went on to rule by decree for several years, while the parliament did not reconvene (" era of silence "). A new constitution was adopted in a 1937 referendum, and in 1938 a new bicameral parliament was elected in a popular vote, where both pro-government and opposition candidates participated. The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in interwar Europe, and
19158-573: The West. Estonia joined the League of Nations in 1921. Attempts to establish a larger alliance together with Finland , Poland , and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the Baltic Entente of 1934. In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in secret military co-operation with Finland . Non-aggression pacts were signed with
19344-453: The authorities of the Bishopric of Dorpat ; the Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien - Wierland gentry were on his side; the Livonian Order conditionally recognised his right of ownership of the (future) Duchy of Estonia . Then along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the Archbishopric of Riga and his Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg , Kettler , the last Master of
19530-744: The bishops. In 1215, Albert ordered the construction of a cathedral in Riga. In 1218, he asked King Valdemar II of Denmark for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the north of Estonia for Denmark. The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia , where the walls of the Master's castle still stand. Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis) , Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle) . The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga) , Marienburg (Alūksne) , Reval (Tallinn) , and
19716-402: The castle of Reval (modern Tallinn ) from the Sword Brothers, but in c. August–September 1233 they defeated Baldwin, who excommunicated many Sword Brothers in retaliation. At that point, Livonia was divided into two camps: Baldwin's Bishopric of Semigallia, the Bishopric of Dorpat and the late Albert of Riga's Buxhöveden family plus several monasteries, most Estonians and Curonians, versus
19902-495: The city hosted the 2002 Eurovision Song Contest . Tallinn was the 2011 European Capital of Culture , and is the recipient of the 2023 European Green Capital Award . The city has pledged to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030 and takes pride in its biodiversity and high air quality. But critics say that the award was received on false promises since it won the title with its " 15-minute city " concept, according to which key facilities and services should be accessible within
20088-475: The commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The flag of Estonia , adopted by the Estonian Students' Society since 1881, was prominently featured during these demonstrations. In December 1905, the first attempt to declare Estonia an independent country took place in the village of Vaali, Järvamaa . The Tsarist government responded with
20274-874: The committee declared Estonia's independence , forming the Estonian Provisional Government . Shortly thereafter, German occupation commenced, accompanied by an attempt to create the United Baltic Duchy , which aimed to establish a client state of the German Empire in the region. However, following Germany's defeat in World War I, the Germans were compelled to transfer power back to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November 1918. On 28 November 1918, Soviet Russia invaded , starting
20460-704: The constitutional Prime Minister in the duties of the President , Jüri Uluots . The mobilisation drew wide support among Estonians, while the 38,000 men who were drafted became part of the Waffen-SS . With significant support from Estonian units, German forces managed to halt the Soviet advance for six months in fierce battles near Narva . In March, the Soviet Air Force launched extensive bombing raids on Tallinn and other Estonian cities, resulting in severe damage and loss of life. From July to September,
20646-463: The country dropped from 97% to 62%. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers which led to Estonia losing 3% of its native population. The Soviet regime seized all industry and centralized agriculture, emphasizing heavy industrial development that often neglected local well-being and caused significant environmental damage. The military presence
20832-512: The country's largest private energy company, Alexela Group , all have their headquarters in Tallinn. Tallinn is the financial centre of Estonia and also an important economic centre in the Baltoscandian region. Many major banks, such as SEB , Swedbank , and Nordea , have their local offices in Tallinn. LHV Pank , an Estonian investment bank, has its corporate headquarters in Tallinn. Tallinn Stock Exchange , part of NASDAQ OMX Group ,
21018-511: The country's second largest city, Tartu ; however, only 80 km (50 mi) south of Helsinki , Finland , also 320 km (200 mi) west of Saint Petersburg , Russia , 300 km (190 mi) north of Riga , Latvia , and 380 km (240 mi) east of Stockholm , Sweden . From the 13th century until the first half of the 20th century, Tallinn was known in most of the world by variants of its other historical name Reval . Tallinn received Lübeck city rights in 1248; however,
21204-527: The decades following initial Christianization, there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major uprising encompassed North Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority. For
21390-472: The dominant faith. Estonia was divided into two governorates : the Governorate of Estonia , which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern Governorate of Livonia , which extended to the northern part of Latvia. The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century. Despite occasional attempts by
21576-478: The driest months, averaging about 35 to 37 mm (1.4 to 1.5 in), while July and August are the wettest months with 82 to 85 mm (3.2 to 3.3 in) of precipitation. The average humidity is 81%, ranging from a high of 89% to a low of 69% in May. Tallinn has an average windspeed of 3.3 m/s (11 ft/s) with winters being the windiest (around 3.7 m/s (12 ft/s) in January) and summers being
21762-504: The earliest evidence of human population in the area dates back nearly 5,000 years. The medieval indigenous population of what is now Tallinn and north Estonia was one of the last " pagan " civilisations in Europe to adopt Christianity following the Papal -sanctioned Livonian Crusade in the 13th century. The first recorded claim over the place was laid by Denmark after a successful raid in 1219 led by King Valdemar II , followed by
21948-734: The early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed Ingvar Harra , the King of Swedes . The Salme ship burials dating from mid-8th century have been suggested as a possible starting point for the Viking Age in Europe. In the East Slavic sources, Estonians and other closely related Finnic tribes were known as Chuds . In 862, Chuds participated in the founding of the Rurik dynasty in Novgorod , gradually losing their influence to
22134-459: The early parts of autumn, temperatures commonly reach 16.1 °C (61.0 °F) and at least one day above 21 °C (70 °F) in September. In late autumn, snowfall can occur in October and freezing temperatures become more common in November. Tallinn receives 700 mm (28 in) of precipitation annually, which is evenly distributed throughout the year although March, April and May are
22320-442: The east coast of the Baltic Sea, covering a total area of 45,335 square kilometres (17,504 sq mi). Tallinn , the capital city , and Tartu are the two largest urban areas . The Estonian language is the official language and the first language of the majority of the population of 1.4 million. Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BCE. The medieval indigenous population of Estonia
22506-492: The empire. The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed. In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like Jaan Tõnisson and Konstantin Päts . In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans. Nationalist poets such as Juhan Liiv began openly calling for
22692-490: The era, though diverse in origin and political stance, depicted Ivan and his armies as barbaric and tyrannical, emphasizing the suffering of local populations under Muscovite occupation. These accounts helped to shape European perceptions of the conflict, solidifying Ivan's reputation as a brutal oppressor. This did not stop Magnus, Duke of Holstein from playing a controversial role marked by shifting allegiances and aspirations for power. On June 10, 1570, he arrived in Moscow and
22878-404: The establishment of an independent Estonian state. During the 1905 Revolution , the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful political demonstrations and violent riots with looting in
23064-538: The establishment of the first hill fort settlements. The Seima-Turbino phenomenon brought the first bronze artefacts to the region and is often connected to the development of the Finno-Ugric languages . A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the Iron Age around 500 BC. The large amount of bronze objects indicate
23250-616: The existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes. By the end of the Bronze Age, domestic manufacture of bronze artefacts began. In the Iron Age , population grew. Local production of iron started approximately in 200 BC. During the first centuries CE, North Estonia, particularly the coastal region of Virumaa , emerged as a cultural hub. This period saw an influx of North Estonian settlers into sparsely populated Baltic Sea region. This cultural and linguistic expansion originating from North Estonia gave also rise to
23436-582: The fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding that he made with the Rzeczpospolita . In 1578, Magnus retired to the Rzeczpospolita and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. During the many years of the Livonian War (1558–1582), the Livonian Order suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to
23622-627: The figure of an old warrior called Old Thomas , was put on top of the spire of the Tallinn Town Hall in 1530. Old Thomas later became a popular symbol of the city. In the early years of the Protestant Reformation , the city converted to Lutheranism . In 1561, Reval (Tallinn) became a dominion of Sweden. During the 1700–1721 Great Northern War , plague - stricken Tallinn along with Swedish Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Tsardom of Russia (Muscovy) in 1710, but
23808-418: The first successful circulating Estonian-language weekly newspapers, Perno Postimees , and began popularising the denomination of oneself as eestlane (Estonian). Schoolmaster Carl Robert Jakobson and clergyman Jakob Hurt became leading figures in a nationalist movement , encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their language and ethnic Estonian identity. The first nationwide movements formed in
23994-480: The highest number of startup companies per person among all capitals and larger cities in Europe. Tallinn is the birthplace of many international high-technology companies, including Skype and Wise . The city is home to the headquarters of the European Union 's IT agency, and to the NATO Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence . In 2007, Tallinn was listed among the top-10 digital cities in
24180-670: The home front led to civil unrest. Despite repeated appeals and promises, the Russian imperial government resisted expanding Estonian political rights. In 1917, following the February Revolution , the Russian Provisional Government finally conceded to Estonian demands. Estonia was granted autonomy , and the Estonian Provincial Assembly was formed through democratic elections. In addition, the territory of autonomous Estonia
24366-663: The inland south had stronger ties to the Balts and the principality of Pskov . The Estonian landscape was dotted with numerous hill forts, and evidence of ancient harbor sites has been found along the coast of Saaremaa. During the Viking Age, Estonia was a region of active trade, with exports such as iron, furs, and honey. Imports included fine goods like silk, jewelry, glass, and Ulfberht swords . Estonian burial sites from this era often contain both individual and collective graves, with artifacts such as weapons and jewelry that reflect
24552-579: The king and grand duke. Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when Crimean Khanate devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see Russo-Crimean Wars ), the drought and epidemics have fatally affected the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) and acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory , supported by Ottoman Empire (1576). Stefan Batory replied with
24738-463: The least windy at around 2.7 m/s (8.9 ft/s) in August. Extremes range from −32.2 °C (−26.0 °F) on 31 December 1978 to 34.3 °C (93.7 °F) on 30 July 1994. According to a 2021 study commissioned by the British price comparison site Uswitch.com, Tallinn is the most unpredictable of European capitals in terms of weather conditions, with a total score of 69/100; the high score
24924-561: The local self-government institutions ( Magistracy of Reval and Estonian Knighthood ) retained their cultural and economical autonomy within Imperial Russia as the Governorate of Estonia . The Magistracy of Reval was abolished in 1889. The 19th century brought industrialisation of the city and the port kept its importance. On 24 February 1918, the Estonian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Tallinn. It
25110-451: The main source of the city's drinking water. Lake Harku is the second-largest lake within the borders of Tallinn and its area is 1.6 km (0.6 sq mi). The only significant river in Tallinn nowadays is the Pirita river, in the eponymous Pirita city district. Historically, a smaller river, called Härjapea , flowed from Lake Ülemiste through the town into the sea, but the river
25296-486: The maker of the internationally-known Vana Tallinn liqueur, is similarly based in Tallinn. The headquarters of Kalev , a confectionery company and part of the industrial conglomerate Orkla Group , is located in Lehmja , near the city's southeastern boundary. Estonia is ranked third in Europe in terms of shopping centre space per inhabitant, ahead of Sweden and being surpassed only by Norway and Luxembourg . Institutions of higher education and science include: Tallinn
25482-411: The neighboring Finnish language and continued until the early 2nd millennium AD when the encroachment of Baltic and Slavic tribes limited the reach of Finnic cultures. Commercial contacts in the Baltic Sea region grew and extended. During this period, North Estonia developed increasingly robust connections with the southern and southeastern Baltic Sea regions, particularly with tribes associated with
25668-460: The north and Baltic tribes in the south. The descendants of the crusaders formed the nucleus of the new ruling class of Livonia after the Livonian Crusade, and they eventually became known as Baltic Germans . Beginning in the 12th century, Livonia became a target for economic and political expansion by Danes and Germans , particularly for the Hanseatic League and the Cistercian Order . Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from Lübeck established
25854-518: The offensive and the war ended in 1583 with Russian defeat. As a result of the Livonian War, northern Estonia became Swedish Duchy of Estonia and southern Estonia became Polish Duchy of Livonia . Saaremaa remained under Danish control while Ruhnu was part of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . During Polish rule in South Estonia, efforts were made to restore Catholicism, yet this was distinct from traditional Counter-Reformation actions, as Poland–Lithuania fostered religious tolerance. In 1582,
26040-443: The parish (Estonian: kihelkond ) and the county (Estonian: maakond ), the latter composed of multiple parishes. Each parish was typically governed by local nobles referred to as kings (Estonian: kuningas ). Ancient Estonia had a professional warrior caste while the nobles' wealth and prestige was based on international trade. The parishes were commonly centered around hill forts, though occasionally multiple forts existed within
26226-431: The population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s. The Swedish era in Estonia was complex, marked by both cultural repression and significant reforms. Initially, Swedish rule brought Protestant puritans who opposed traditional Estonian beliefs and practices, leading to witch trials , bans on folk music, and the burning of traditional costumes. While large parts of
26412-522: The population. Tallinn was one of the urban areas with industrial and military significance in northern Estonia that during the period of Soviet occupation underwent extensive changes in its ethnic composition due to large influx of immigrants from Russia and other parts of the former USSR. Whole new city districts were built where the main intent of the then Soviet authorities was to accommodate Russian-speaking immigrants: Mustamäe, Väike-Õismäe, Pelguranna, and most notably, Lasnamäe, which in 1980s became, and
26598-438: The remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Denmark and Sweden re-occupied the north of Estonia. In 1561, during the Livonian War , Livonia fell to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and became a dependent vassal of Lithuania. Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Livonia became a joint domain administered directly by
26784-667: The rest ( Paleoproterozoic age) and do not crop out anywhere in Estonia. Tallinn has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm, rainy summers and cold, snowy winters. Winters are cold, but mild for its latitude, owing to its coastal location. The average temperature in February, the coldest month, is −3.6 °C (25.5 °F). During the winters, temperatures tend to hover close to freezing, but mild spells of weather can push temperatures above 0 °C (32 °F), occasionally reaching above 5 °C (41 °F) while cold air masses can push temperatures below −18 °C (0 °F) an average of 6 days
26970-521: The rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and prince-bishoprics of Dorpat and Ösel–Wiek . In 1236, after suffering a major defeat , the Sword Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order becoming the Livonian Order . The eastern border with the Novgorod Republic was fixed after the Battle on the Ice took place on Lake Peipus in 1242, where the combined armies of the Livonian Order and Estonian infantry were defeated by Novgorod. The southeastern region of Setomaa remained under Russian rule until
27156-598: The right shows the distribution of religion in Tallinn as of 2021. Religion in Tallinn (2021) [1] Tallinn has a highly diversified economy with particular strengths in information technology, tourism and logistics. More than half of Estonia's GDP is created in Tallinn. In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average. In addition to longtime functions as seaport and capital city, Tallinn has seen development of an information technology sector; in its 13 December 2005, edition, The New York Times characterised Estonia as "a sort of Silicon Valley on
27342-493: The rural population remained in serfdom during the Swedish rule, legal reforms under King Charles XI strengthened both serfs' and free tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory. Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus established gymnasiums in Tallinn and Tartu; the latter was upgraded to Tartu University in 1632. Printing presses were also established in both towns. The beginnings of
27528-428: The régime never used violence against political opponents. In spite of political complications, Estonia enjoyed rapid economic growth during the interwar period. Land reforms improved the farmers' conditions, but the country also prospered from industrialisation and the development of oil shale mining. With the independence, most economic links with Russia were severed, but trade was rapidly reoriented towards markets in
27714-430: The sale of Ösel–Wiek to the Danish Crown , and the loss of territory to Tsardom of Russia ). In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed
27900-474: The shared material culture of Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The spiritual and religious beliefs of medieval Estonians before their Christianization remain a topic of historical interest and debate. Estonian spirituality was deeply rooted in animistic traditions, with shamans ( nõid ) and fortunetellers known abroad, as noted by sources like Adam of Bremen and the Novgorod First Chronicle . The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as
28086-412: The site dates to about 3000 BCE and corded ware pottery to around 2500 BCE. Around 1050 AD, a fortress was built in what is now central Tallinn, on the hill of Toompea . As an important port on a major trade route between Novgorod and western Europe, it became a target for the expansion of the Teutonic Knights and the Kingdom of Denmark during the period of Northern Crusades in the beginning of
28272-451: The subsequent centuries Low German remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside. Tallinn , the capital of Danish Estonia founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the Lübeck law and received full town rights in 1248. The Hanseatic League controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest cities in Estonia became members: Tallinn, Tartu , Pärnu , and Viljandi . Tallinn acted as
28458-459: The territory, compounding the destruction. Estonian peasants, growing increasingly resentful of local authorities’ failure to protect them from Russian raids, erupted in uprisings in 1560, besieging Koluvere Castle in Läänemaa . The rebellion saw Estonians briefly elect their own king before it was ultimately suppressed. Reports of Russian atrocities against Livonians, led by Ivan the Terrible and his forces, spread widely in Europe. Chroniclers of
28644-428: The time of the Great Northern War, many Estonians were loyal to the Swedish crown, with up to 20,000 fighting to defend Estonia against Russian invasion. Stories of the Swedish king Charles XII , who was revered in Estonian folk memory, embody a sentiment that distinguished the Swedish era from the harsher Russian rule that followed. Despite the initial Swedish success in the victorious Battle of Narva , Russia conquered
28830-419: The titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland , and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance . Except for the island of Œsel , Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585. As of 1598 Inflanty Voivodeship
29016-473: The university in Tartu in 1802 gave opportunities for higher education to both Baltic German and a growing number of Estonian students. Among the latter were first public proponents of Estonian nationalism , such as young poet Kristjan Jaak Peterson . At the same time, the nationalist ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder greatly influenced the Baltic German intelligentsia to see the value in the native Estonian culture. The resulting Estophile movement gave rise to
29202-433: The visitors come from Europe, though Tallinn has also become increasingly visited by tourists from the Asia-Pacific region. Tallinn Passenger Port is one of the busiest cruise destinations on the Baltic Sea, it served more than 520,000 cruise passengers in 2013. The state-owned energy company Eesti Energia , the nationwide electric power transmission system operator Elering , the natural gas distributor Eesti Gaas , and
29388-423: The wars stretched on until 1629, concluding with Sweden gaining Livonia , including Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia, altering the power balance in the Baltic region. In addition, Danish Saaremaa was transferred to Sweden in 1645. During the Russo-Swedish War , Russia in 1656 captured eastern parts of Estonia, including Tartu, holding it until the Treaty of Cardis was concluded in 1661. The wars had halved
29574-441: The whole of Estonia by the end of 1710. The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000. Under the terms of the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia , the country was incorporated into the Russian Empire under the "Baltic Special Order" ( Balti erikord ). This policy restored the political and landholding rights of the local aristocracy , and recognized Lutheranism as
29760-422: The world, and in 2022, Tallinn was listed among the top-10 "medium-sized European cities of the future". The name Tallinn(a) Estonian: [ˈtɑlʲːinː] is Estonian . It has been widely considered a historical derivation of Taani-linna , meaning "Danish-castle" ( Latin : Castrum Danorum ), conceivably because the Danish invaders built the castle in place of the Estonian stronghold after
29946-420: Was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile . Following the 1988–90 bloodless Estonian " Singing Revolution " against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on 20 August 1991 . Estonia is a developed country with a high-income advanced economy . It is a democratic unitary parliamentary republic , administratively subdivided into 15 maakond (counties) . It
30132-461: Was a European Capital of Culture for 2011, along with Turku , Finland. Tallinn is home to more than 60 museums and galleries. Most of them are located in Kesklinn , the central district of the city, and cover Tallinn's rich history. One of the most visited historical museums in Tallinn is the Estonian History Museum , located in Great Guild Hall at Vanalinn , the old part of the city. It covers Estonia's history from prehistoric times up until
30318-430: Was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia , part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , since it was formed in the 1620s out of the Wenden Voivodeship till the First Partition of Poland in 1772. The Russian Empire conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the Great Northern War and acquired the province in the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, confirmed by
30504-513: Was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of Riga . Magnus was upset that he had been tricked out of his inheritance of Holstein . After Sweden occupied Reval, Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances. Erik XIV did not like this, and
30690-504: Was appointed head of the Communist Party of Estonia . The Communist Party of Estonia , now dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Estonian dissidents, responding to this escalating Russification, grew increasingly vocal, with notable protests such as the Baltic Appeal to the United Nations in 1979, and the Letter of 40 intellectuals in 1980, which openly criticized Soviet policies. Most Western nations refused to recognize Estonia's annexation by
30876-406: Was crowned King of Livonia by Ivan, pledging allegiance to the Russian Tsar as his overlord. Põltsamaa became the capital of his short-lived Kingdom of Livonia . Ivan and Magnus twice laid a brutal siege on Tallinn, however failing to capture it. An Estonian peasant army led by Ivo Schenkenberg was wreaking havoc in Russian rear. By the 1580s, the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish armies had gone on
31062-432: Was cut short by Swedish conquest in the early 17th century. The Polish–Swedish War , which began in 1600, unleashed years of further devastation across Estonia. The Battle of Weissenstein ( Paide ) in 1604 marked a critical turning point, where Lithuanian hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz led a smaller Polish-Lithuanian force of 2,300 to a decisive victory against a Swedish army of 6,000. Despite this victory and others,
31248-563: Was diverted into underground sewerage system in the 1930s and has since completely disappeared from the cityscape. References to it still remain in the street names Jõe (from jõgi , river) and Kivisilla (from kivi sild , stone bridge). The length of the seaside coast is 46 km (29 mi), comprising three larger ( Kopli , Paljassaare , and Kakumäe ) peninsulas . The city has a number of public beaches, including those at Pirita, Stroomi, Kakumäe, Harku, and Pikakari. The highest point in Tallinn, at 64 m (about 200 ft) above sea level,
31434-419: Was divided onto: Based on a guarantee by Sigismund II Augustus from the 1560s, the German language retained its official status. The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polotsk (1563) and Parnawa (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to some 250 km (160 mi) proximity of Vilnius . Eventually, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed
31620-413: Was established, and occupied Estonia was merged into Reichskommissariat Ostland , with its economy being subjugated to German military needs. About a thousand Estonian Jews were killed in 1941 and numerous forced labour camps were established. German occupation authorities started recruiting men into volunteer units and limited conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of
31806-425: Was expanded to include the Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Estonia, declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. In response, the Assembly established the Estonian Salvation Committee , which played a crucial role during the brief period between the Bolshevik retreat and the arrival of German forces . On 23 February 1918 in Pärnu and on 24 February in Tallinn,
31992-420: Was followed by Imperial German occupation until the end of World War I in November 1918, after which Tallinn became the capital of independent Estonia. During World War II , Estonia was first occupied by the Soviet army and annexed into the USSR in the summer of 1940, then occupied by Nazi Germany from 1941 to 1944. During the German occupation Tallinn suffered from many instances of aerial bombing by
32178-454: Was formed in 1419. The city of Walk was chosen as the site of the diet. From the 14th to the 16th centuries, Middle Low German - as spoken in the towns of the Hanseatic League — functioned as the established language of the Livonian lands, but High German subsequently succeeded it as the official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor once again asked for help of Gustav I of Sweden , and
32364-646: Was greatly weakened by this and the city state of Luebeck fought its last great war. The emperor Maximilian II ( r. 1564–1576 ) diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia ( r. 1533–1584 ), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1570, Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed Duke Magnus as King of Livonia . The other forces opposed this appointment. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from Sigismund II Augustus ( King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania ), who had intervened in
32550-587: Was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied. The Independent Signal Battalion was the only unit of the Estonian Army to offer armed resistance to occupation. On 6 August 1940, Estonia was formally annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR . The USSR established a repressive wartime regime in occupied Estonia, targeting the country's elite for arrest. Soviet repression escalated on 14 June 1941, when approximately 11,000 Estonians were deported to Russia . When Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against
32736-472: Was one of the last pagan civilisations in Europe to adopt Christianity following the Northern Crusades in the 13th century. After centuries of successive rule by the Teutonic Order , Denmark , Sweden , and the Russian Empire , a distinct Estonian national identity began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence from the then-warring Russian and German empires. Democratic throughout most of
32922-472: Was pervasive, with closed military zones occupying 2% of the country, while entry into coastal areas required special permits, rendering Estonia partially isolated from the outside world. Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including the Soviet–Afghan War and the Chernobyl disaster cleanup. Despite the proximity to Finland, Estonia's standard of living under Soviet rule lagged substantially. Since
33108-412: Was primarily concerned with ending the internal conflict in Livonia on terms favourable to Rome. Therefore, no Livonian faction was allowed to form an alliance with an external power, be they pagan or Novgorodian, to prevent the internal conflict from spilling over and threaten Livonia's external security. In 1234, the pope recalled Baldwin, and replaced him with William of Modena . The pope did not give
33294-451: Was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin concluded the Northern Seven Years' War. It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there
33480-441: Was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was concluded. In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577, Ivan IV took advantage of the Commonwealth's internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory in Poland, invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Reval . In 1578, Magnus of Livonia recognized
33666-430: Was recorded in the description of the world on the world map ( Tabula Rogeriana ) commissioned by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily and compiled by Arab cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi , who described it as "a small town like a large castle" among the towns of 'Astlanda'. It has been suggested that one possible transcription, 'Qlwn', may have denoted a predecessor of the modern city and may somehow be related to
33852-451: Was referring to Balts , while others have proposed that the name then applied to the whole eastern Baltic Sea region. Scandinavian sagas and Viking runestones referring to Eistland are the earliest known sources that definitely use the name in its modern geographic meaning. From Old Norse the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century. The oldest known settlement in Estonia
34038-430: Was repealed, and the Baltic Special Order was restored under Emperor Paul I . This Baltic Special Order remained largely in effect until the late 19th century, marking a distinctive period of localized governance within the Russian Empire. Serfdom was abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century. The reopening of
34224-616: Was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. The United Baltic Duchy , alternately known as the "Grand Duchy of Livonia", proclaimed by the Baltic German nobility on 12 April 1918, was never recognised by any state, and dissolved at the German surrender in November 1918. Livonia had ceased to exist. From 1918 to 1920, both Soviet troops and German Freikorps fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over former Livonia, but their attempts were defeated. The historical land of Livonia has been split between Latvia and Estonia ever since 1918. The Livonian language
34410-452: Was still a small fleet of oceangoing trawlers that operated out of Tallinn. Tallinn's industries include shipbuilding, machine building, metal processing, electronics, textile manufacturing. BLRT Grupp has its headquarters and some subsidiaries in Tallinn. Air Maintenance Estonia and AS Panaviatic Maintenance , both based in Tallinn Airport, provide MRO services for aircraft, largely expanding their operations in recent years. Liviko ,
34596-417: Was the Narva -trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe. Due to the religious upheavals of the Reformation the distant Holy Roman Empire could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway. The Duchy of Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason, and Duke Albrecht ( r. 1525–1568 ) was under continuous ban by the Empire. The Hanseatic League
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