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131-695: The Observatoire was created in Quebec in 1983 and was subsequently established and registered in Normandy as a non-profit association under the honorary presidency of the late Léopold Sédar Senghor , a French-language poet and the first president of Senegal . Its founding director is David Dalby, former director of the International African Institute and emeritus reader in the University of London, and its first research secretary

262-429: A geosector , in which languages are grouped geographically rather than historically. The second numeral is used to represent the ten zones into which each geosector is divided for referential purposes. The component zones, like the sectors, are described as either phylozones or geozones , based on the nature of the relationship among their constituent languages: either historical or geographical. The second part of

393-402: A standard variety , some lect that is selected and promoted prescriptively by either quasi-legal authorities or other social institutions, such as schools or media. Standard varieties are accorded more sociolinguistic prestige than other, nonstandard lects and are generally thought of as "correct" by speakers of the language. Since the selection is an arbitrary standard , standard forms are

524-402: A variety , also known as a lect or an isolect , is a specific form of a language or language cluster . This may include languages , dialects , registers , styles , or other forms of language, as well as a standard variety . The use of the word variety to refer to the different forms avoids the use of the term language , which many people associate only with the standard language, and

655-676: A Patriote, George-Étienne Cartier entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced the Quebec Resolutions , the foundation for Canadian Confederation. Recognized as a Father of Confederation , he successfully argued for the establishment of

786-493: A crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern Quebec sovereignty movement and resulting in a political crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in the October Crisis of 1970. The meetings of

917-758: A decimal structure (see below) to record both genetic and geographic categories of relationship (termed phylozones and geozones , respectively). In 1999/2000, the Observatoire published its first 2-volume Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities . Reviews were published by Edward J. Vajda in Language and by Anthony P. Grant in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Society . The Observatoire has now prepared

1048-583: A diversity of plant (1000) and vertebrates (350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of the Laurentians , the Appalachians and the eastern lowland forests. The third most northern forest area is characterized by deciduous forests . Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600 vascular plants and 440 vertebrates. The total forest area of Quebec

1179-407: A flexible coding formula which seeks to situate each language and dialect within the totality of the world's living and recorded languages, having regard to ongoing linguistic research. The first part of this linguascale is the decimal classification referred to above, consisting of a linguasphere key of two numerals denoting the relevant phylozone or geozone: from 00 . to 99 . This provides

1310-685: A head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal following the enactment of the Rebellion Losses Bill , a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838. This bill, resulting from the Baldwin - La Fontaine coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion of responsible government . In 1854,

1441-404: A language or dialect with precision: from aaa to zzz . The first letter of this sequence represents an outer unit (preferred from 2010 to the original term of "outer language", to avoid the shifting and often emotive applications of the terms "language" and "dialect"). The inner units and language varieties that may comprise any outer unit are coded using a second, and wherever necessary

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1572-401: A particular region is called a regional dialect (regiolect, geolect ); some regional varieties are called regionalects or topolects, especially to discuss varieties of Chinese . In addition, there are varieties associated with particular ethnic groups (sometimes called ethnolects ), socioeconomic classes (sometimes called sociolects ), or other social or cultural groups. Dialectology is

1703-529: A preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration. To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, Lester B. Pearson adopted a policy of open federalism. In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms. In 1967, President of France Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec, to attend Expo 67 . There, he addressed

1834-474: A revised edition of the Linguasphere Register from 2010, the first of a projected series of regular updates at 10-year intervals. The current edition (LS-2010) , comprising substantial materials from the foundation edition of 2000, is published online from 2011 as a freely available public resource and an online data-base, compiled and co-ordinated by David Dalby and Pierrick le Feuvre. Provision

1965-742: A royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the Custom of Paris and the seigneurial system , and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics. In 1629, Quebec City surrendered , without battle, to English privateers during the Anglo-French War ; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Trois-Rivières was founded at de Champlain's request in 1634. Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve founded Ville-Marie (now Montreal) in 1642. In 1663,

2096-435: A single language. Variation at the level of the lexicon , such as slang and argot , is often considered in relation to particular styles or levels of formality (also called registers ), but such uses are sometimes discussed as varieties as well. O'Grady et al. define dialect : "A regional or social variety of a language characterized by its own phonological , syntactic , and lexical properties." A variety spoken in

2227-425: A specific community". More recently, sociolinguists have adopted the concept of the community of practice , a group of people who develop shared knowledge and shared norms of interaction, as the social group within which dialects develop and change. Sociolinguists Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet explain: "Some communities of practice may develop more distinctive ways of speaking than others. Thus, it

2358-508: A systematic numerical key for the initial classification of any of the world's languages, following the principles set out in the Linguasphere Register . The first numeral of the key represents one of the ten referential sectors into which the world's languages are initially divided. The sector can either be a phylosector , in which the constituent languages are considered to be in a diachronic relationship one with another, or

2489-605: A third minuscule letter. The application of the linguascale may be illustrated with the concrete examples below, chosen from within the English language . For example, A practical application of the Linguasphere Register and its linguascale in the study of a complex urban linguistic environment has been as the referential framework for successive surveys of over 200 languages other than English spoken by plurilingual children at state schools in London (representing just under 40% of

2620-467: A two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "It's time for things to change". This government made reforms in social policy, education, health and economic development. It created the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec , Labour Code, Ministry of Social Affairs , Ministry of Education , Office québécois de la langue française , Régie des rentes and Société générale de financement . In 1962,

2751-767: Is based on three of its unique statutory documents: the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms , the Charter of the French Language , and the Civil Code of Quebec . Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada, law in Quebec is mixed: private law is exercised under a civil-law system, while public law is exercised under a common-law system. Quebec's official language is French; Québécois French

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2882-428: Is defined as "the language use typical of an individual person". An individual's idiolect may be affected by contact with various regional or social dialects, professional registers and, in the case of multilinguals , various languages. For scholars who view language from the perspective of linguistic competence , essentially the knowledge of language and grammar that exists in the mind of an individual language user,

3013-652: Is estimated at 750,300 km (289,700 sq mi). From the Abitibi-Témiscamingue to the North Shore , the forest is composed primarily of conifers such as the Abies balsamea , the jack pine , the white spruce , the black spruce and the tamarack . The deciduous forest of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as the sugar maple , the red maple ,

3144-619: Is general social acceptance that gives us a workable arbitrary standard, not any inherent superiority of the characteristics it specifies." Sociolinguists generally recognize the standard variety of a language as one of the dialects of that language. In some cases, an authoritative regulatory body , such as the Académie Française , maintains and codifies the usage norms for a standard variety. More often, though, standards are understood in an implicit, practice-based way. Writing about Standard English, John Algeo suggests that

3275-463: Is located in Central Canada . The province shares land borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, New Brunswick to the southeast and a coastal border with the territory of Nunavut . To the north, it is flanked by major bodies of water such as James Bay , Hudson Bay , Hudson Strait , Ungava Bay , Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and in

3406-586: Is made for the online gathering of additional and improved data, and for the open discussion of proposals and criticisms. From 2001 until December 2005, the Linguasphere Observatory was actively involved in collaboration with the British Standards Institution BSI Group and with ISO/TC 37in the design and development of a four-letter (alpha-4) code covering—potentially—every recorded language variety in

3537-812: Is now called the Conscription Crisis of 1917 , which led to the Quebec riot  [ fr ] . In 1919, the prohibition of spirits was enacted following a provincial referendum . But, prohibition was abolished in 1921 due to the Alcoholic Beverages Act which created the Commission des liqueurs du Québec . In 1927, the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and south Labrador . However,

3668-462: Is the regional variety . Quebec is the only Francophone -majority province. The economy of Quebec is mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries of aeronautics , where it is the 6th largest worldwide seller, hydroelectricity , mining, pharmaceuticals , aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producing maple syrup , for its comedy , and for making hockey one of

3799-551: Is the tundra, whose flora is limited to lichen with less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of the Canadian boreal forest , bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shield and is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of

3930-699: Is very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including the Labrador Peninsula , lies within the Canadian Shield . It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as the Laurentian Mountains in southern Quebec, the Otish Mountains in central Quebec and

4061-479: Is very sparsely populated. The most populous physiographic region is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands . The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system. Quebec's topography

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4192-477: Is within communities of practice that linguistic influence may spread within and among speech communities." The words dialect and accent are often used synonymously in everyday speech, but linguists define the two terms differently. Accent generally refers to differences in pronunciation , especially those that are associated with geographic or social differences, whereas dialect refers to differences in grammar and vocabulary as well. Many languages have

4323-653: The Battle of Saint-Denis . However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in the Battle of Saint-Charles , and defeat in the Battle of Saint-Eustache . In response to the rebellions, Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and prepare a report offering a solution to the British Parliament. Durham recommended that Canadiens be culturally assimilated , with English as their only official language. To do this,

4454-673: The Bloc Populaire emerged to fight conscription. The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the " Two Solitudes ". In the wake of the conscription crisis, Maurice Duplessis of the Union Nationale ascended to power and implemented conservative policies known as the Grande Noirceur . He focused on defending provincial autonomy , Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faire liberalism instead of

4585-526: The Estates General of French Canada in 1967 marked a tipping point where relations between francophones of America , and especially francophones of Canada, ruptured. This breakdown affected Quebec society's evolution. In 1968, class conflicts and changes in mentalities intensified. Option Quebec sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pitting federalist and sovereignist doctrines against each other. In 1969,

4716-781: The Great Peace of Montreal , which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars. From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called the French and Indian Wars by Americans, and

4847-666: The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on "Representation by Population" . The British population began to use

4978-554: The Lower Canada Rebellion began in 1837. In 1837, Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called the Patriotes . They made a Declaration of Independence in 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination. Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and Upper Canada . The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle,

5109-727: The North-West Rebellion , the Manitoba Schools Question and Ontario's Regulation 17 turned the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern. Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of Henri Bourassa , symbols of national pride were developed, like the Flag of Carillon , and " O Canada " – a patriotic song composed for Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day . Many organizations went on to consecrate

5240-657: The Ohio Valley , as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists. In 1754, George Washington launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen , the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor Charles Lawrence and Officer Robert Monckton ordered the forceful explusion of the Acadians . In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe besieged and captured

5371-577: The Parti Québécois was brought to power in the 1976 Quebec general election . The Charter of the French Language came into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966-69, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the state of Quebec to be the nation's fundamental political milieu and for it to have the right to self-determination . In the 1980 referendum on sovereignty, 60% were against. After

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5502-594: The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the Government of Quebec in l'État québécois (the public authority of Quebec). The Government of Quebec functions within the context of a Westminster system and is both a liberal democracy and a constitutional monarchy . The Premier of Quebec acts as head of government . Independence debates have played a large role in Quebec politics . Quebec society's cohesion and specificity

5633-814: The Saint Lawrence Seaway has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. The public lands of Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water. Protected areas can be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment, national park , biodiversity reserve , wildlife reserve, zone d'exploitation contrôlée (ZEC), etc.). More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas. As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory. In general,

5764-623: The Seven Years' War , Canada became a British colony , first as the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), then Lower Canada (1791–1841), and lastly part of the Province of Canada (1841–1867) as a result of the Lower Canada Rebellion . It was confederated with Ontario, Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick in 1867. Until the early 1960s , the Catholic Church played a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However,

5895-678: The Torngat Mountains near Ungava Bay . While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in the Capitale-Nationale region to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres (5,420 ft) is Mont d'Iberville, known in English as Mount Caubvick . In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region of Nunavik includes

6026-678: The federal elections of 1911 . In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912 , which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: the District of Ungava . This extended the borders of Quebec northward to the Hudson Strait . When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel

6157-579: The fur trade reignited French interest; New France became a colonial trading post . In 1603, Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis

6288-435: The muskellunge , the Atlantic cod , the Arctic char , the brook trout , the Microgadus tomcod (tomcod), the Atlantic salmon , and the rainbow trout . Among the birds commonly seen in the southern part of Quebec are the American robin , the house sparrow , the red-winged blackbird , the mallard , the common grackle , the blue jay , the American crow , the black-capped chickadee , some warblers and swallows ,

6419-401: The provincial general elections . Between 2020-21, Quebec took measures against the COVID-19 pandemic . In 2022, Coalition Avenir Québec, led by Quebec's premier François Legault , increased its parliamentary majority in the provincial general elections. Located in the eastern part of Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size of France or Texas . Most of Quebec

6550-465: The starling and the rock pigeon . Avian fauna includes birds of prey like the golden eagle , the peregrine falcon , the snowy owl and the bald eagle . Sea and semi-aquatic birds seen in Quebec are mostly the Canada goose , the double-crested cormorant , the northern gannet , the European herring gull , the great blue heron , the sandhill crane , the Atlantic puffin and the common loon . Variety (linguistics) In sociolinguistics ,

6681-399: The white ash , the American beech , the butternut (white walnut) , the American elm , the basswood , the bitternut hickory and the northern red oak as well as some conifers such as the eastern white pine and the northern whitecedar . The distribution areas of the paper birch , the trembling aspen and the mountain ash cover more than half of Quebec's territory. Biodiversity of

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6812-403: The "correct" varieties only in the sense that they are tacitly valued by higher socio-economic strata and promoted by public influencers on matters of language use , such as writers, publishers, critics, language teachers, and self-appointed language guardians. As Ralph Harold Fasold puts it, "The standard language may not even be the best possible constellation of linguistic features available. It

6943-435: The Americans in the Saratoga campaign of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size. Some United Empire Loyalists from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions. Dissatisfied with

7074-444: The Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people. As a result of confrontations between the lower clergy and the laity , state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of civil society began to be more secular. In 1965, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism wrote

7205-416: The Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minor New Democratic Party (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave". After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained power in 2012 and its leader, Pauline Marois , became the first female premier of Quebec. The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014. In 2018, the Coalition Avenir Québec won

7336-420: The British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the Royal Proclamation . The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the British Empire and circumscribed to a region of the St. Lawrence Valley and Anticosti Island called the Province of Quebec . With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that

7467-470: The British passed the Act of Union 1840 , which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the Province of Canada . Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated Canada East , and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated Canada West . This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in

7598-423: The British". Thus also began French military support to the Algonquian and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the Iroquois Wars and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King Henry IV , he founded the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City) and made it

7729-427: The Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898 , which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to

7860-426: The Canadian constitution and made modifications to it. The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it. Between 1982-92, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by the Mulroney and Bourassa governments ended in failure with the Meech Lake Accord of 1987 and the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, resulting in

7991-459: The Canadiens might support what would become the American Revolution . To secure allegiance to the British crown, Governor James Murray and later Governor Guy Carleton promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their civil customs , return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador,

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8122-429: The Company of New France ceded Canada to King Louis XIV , who made New France into a royal province of France. New France was now a true colony administered by the Sovereign Council of New France from Quebec City. A governor-general , governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, Louisiana and Plaisance. The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as " Canadiens " or " Habitants ". Though there

8253-477: The European Union, in Normandy , France. Its title in Welsh is Wylfa Ieithoedd , literally the "Observatory (of) languages", together with its publishing program (in Cymraeg or "Welsh" = cy. Gwasg y Byd Iaith , i.e. "Press (of) the World (of) Language"). The Observatoire has developed an innovative scheme of philological classification, coding all living and recorded languages within a global referential framework or "linguascale". This Linguascale Framework uses

8384-444: The European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven Indigenous peoples : the Inuit and ten First Nations  – the Abenakis , Algonquins (or Anichinabés), Atikamekw , Cree , Huron-Wyandot , Maliseet , Miꞌkmaqs , Iroquois , Innu and Naskapis . Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing. Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along

8515-442: The Fortress of Louisbourg. This allowed him to control access to the Gulf of St. Lawrence through the Cabot Strait . In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months from Île d'Orléans . Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against Montcalm for control of the city in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . After a British victory, the king's lieutenant and Lord of Ramezay concluded the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec . During

8646-409: The Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, Illinois Country and the Indian Territory . As early as 1774, the Continental Congress of the separatist Thirteen Colonies attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, its military troops failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its Invasion of Quebec in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with

8777-451: The Intercolonial Wars in Quebec. The first three were King William's War (1688–1697), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), and King George's War (1744–1748). In 1713, following the Peace of Utrecht , the Duke of Orléans ceded Acadia and Plaisance Bay to Great Britain, but retained Île Saint-Jean , and Île-Royale where the Fortress of Louisbourg was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay

8908-454: The National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation". On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons passed a symbolic motion declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada." In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the 2011 Canadian federal elections , Quebec voters rejected

9039-421: The Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867, Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec's first premier . From Confederation until World War I, the Catholic Church was at its peak. The objective of clerico-nationalists was promoting the values of traditional society: family, French, the Catholic Church and rural life. Events such as

9170-494: The Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in a boundary dispute which remains ongoing . The Statute of Westminster 1931 was enacted, and confirmed the autonomy of the Dominions – including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in the Commonwealth . In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the Great Depression because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32

9301-415: The US instead of its labour force. In 1910, Armand Lavergne passed the Lavergne Law , the first language legislation in Quebec. It required use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec. Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in

9432-691: The Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctic tundra inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga ecoregion and the Central Canadian Shield forests . The Appalachian region has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec. Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves of fresh water , occupying 12% of its surface and representing 3% of

9563-657: The affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the caisses populaires Desjardins in 1900, the Club de hockey Canadien in 1909, Le Devoir in 1910, the Congress on the French language in Canada in 1912, and L'Action nationale in 1917. In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed the Parti national out of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution of Louis Riel . In 1898,

9694-469: The capital of New France and its regions. The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing. Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City. Coureurs des bois and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts. The Compagnie des Cent-Associés , which had been granted

9825-418: The climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences. Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than 1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many areas. During

9956-523: The coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays. In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell , prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East . Around 1522–23, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via a Northwest Passage . Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established

10087-509: The colony. In 1666, intendant Jean Talon organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700. New France's territory grew to extend from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico , and would encompass the Great Lakes . In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded

10218-701: The course of a communicative event as the relationship between speakers changes, or different social facts become relevant. Speakers may shift styles, as their perception of an event in progress changes. Consider the following telephone call to the Embassy of Cuba in Washington, DC . Caller: ¿Es la embajada de Cuba? ( Is this the Cuban embassy? ) Receptionist: Sí. Dígame. ( Yes, may I help you? ) Caller: Es Rosa. ( It's Rosa. ) Receptionist: ¡Ah Rosa! ¿Cóma anda eso? ( Oh, Rosa! How's it going? ) At first,

10349-773: The creation of the Bloc Québécois . In 1995, Jacques Parizeau called a referendum on Quebec's independence from Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists, though the outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes". In 1998, following the Supreme Court of Canada 's decision on the Reference Re Secession of Quebec , the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined the legal frameworks within which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003,

10480-594: The east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to Rupert's Land , and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on

10611-470: The emerging welfare state . However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, the baby boom , workers' conflicts , electrification of the countryside, emergence of a middle class , the rural exodus and urbanization , expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation of motorways , renaissance of literature and poetry, and others. The Quiet Revolution

10742-514: The estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence River includes aquatic mammal wildlife, such as the blue whale , the beluga , the minke whale and the harp seal (earless seal). The Nordic marine animals include the walrus and the narwhal . Inland waters are populated by small to large freshwater fish, such as the largemouth bass , the American pickerel , the walleye , the Acipenser oxyrinchus ,

10873-755: The exhibition was subsequently presented by the Observatoire in Belgium and England, at the Palais des Congrès in Liège and at the Commonwealth Institute in London in 1990, and finally in Australia, at Old Parliament House, Canberra in May 1991. In the context of the need to design a plurilingual framework of ethics for a future planetary society, the Observatoire has announced its intention to return to

11004-785: The federal Official Languages Act was passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development. In 1973, the liberal government of Robert Bourassa initiated the James Bay Project on La Grande River . In 1974, it enacted the Official Language Act , which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement . Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by René Lévesque , materialized when

11135-449: The federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents were against conscription, while 80% or more were for conscription in every other province, the federal government passed Bill 80 for overseas service. Protests exploded and

11266-466: The following sentence as an example of a nonstandard dialect that is used with the technical register of physical geography: There was two eskers what we saw in them U-shaped valleys. Most speakers command a range of registers, which they use in different situations. The choice of register is affected by the setting and topic of speech, as well as the relationship that exists between the speakers. The appropriate form of language may also change during

11397-449: The government of Quebec dismantled the financial syndicates of Saint Jacques Street . Quebec began to nationalize its electricity . In order to buy out all the private electric companies and build new Hydro-Québec dams, Quebec was lent $ 300 million by the US in 1962, and $ 100 million by British Columbia in 1964. The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to

11528-588: The higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have an arctic climate (Köppen ET ), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers. The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as the Labrador Current ) and continental air masses from the High Arctic . The all-time record high temperature was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) and the all-time record low

11659-470: The languages of a zone into sets, chains and nets is based on relative degrees of linguistic proximity, as measured in principle by approximate proportions of shared basic vocabulary. Geozones are on average divided into more sets than phylozones because relationships among languages within the latter are by definition more obvious and much closer. The third and final part of the linguascale consists of up to three lowercase letters (minuscules), used to identify

11790-611: The legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the Constitutional Act of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the Ottawa River : Upper Canada to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and Lower Canada to

11921-575: The legend of the Kingdom of Saguenay to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval ; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom. After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and religious wars. Around 1580, the rise of

12052-415: The linguascale consists of three capital letters (majuscules): from -AAA- to -ZZZ- . Each zone is divided into one or more sets , with each set being represented by the first majuscule of this three-letter (alpha-3) component. Each set is divided into one or more chains (represented by the second majuscule) and each chain is into one or more nets (represented by the third majuscule). The division of

12183-470: The most popular sports in Canada . It is also renowned for its culture ; the province produces literature , music , films , TV shows , festivals , and more. The name Québec comes from an Algonquin word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'. The name originally referred to the area around Quebec City where the Saint Lawrence River narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in

12314-704: The name New France for northeast North America. In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, Jacques Cartier became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in Gaspé on July 24, 1534. In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands of Stadacona and named the village and its surrounding territories Canada (from kanata , 'village' in Iroquois ). Cartier returned to France with about 10 St. Lawrence Iroquoians , including Chief Donnacona . In 1540, Donnacona told

12445-591: The next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the Grande Hémorragie and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted the revenge of the cradle policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from Kingston to Montreal. Political unrest came to

12576-721: The north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the War of 1812 , Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the Battle of the Chateauguay . This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada. Gradually, the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada , who represented

12707-642: The occasion of the first series of debates organised by the Observatoire linguistique in 1990–1991, at Fleury-sur-Andelle in Haute-Normandie, at Maillane in Provence and at Huy in Wallonie, sponsored by each of the relevant regions, on the subject of Nos langues et l'unité de l'Europe ("Our languages and the unity of Europe"). The guest of honour at the first of these debates was André Martinet (1908–1999), doyen of trans-Atlantic linguistics. From

12838-596: The outset of a series of 34 illustrated triptychs, attention was drawn to the historical role of other transnational languages in the development of such concepts, including Greek and German. The exhibition was sponsored by the government of a bilingual nation, Canada, by the international francophone Agence (ACCT) and by the region of Haute-Normandie . It was inaugurated in Paris at the Centre Georges Pompidou on 6 June 1989, and presented there throughout

12969-537: The parallel pioneering work of Barbara Grimes, with her husband Joseph, in her position - based in Hawaii until her retirement from 1996 - as the creative Editor of the Summer Institute of Linguistics' Ethnologue: Languages of the World. The Linguascale framework is a referential system covering all languages, as published in the Linguasphere Register in 2000 and subsequently refined in 2010. It comprises

13100-584: The people, came into conflict with the superior authority of the Crown and its appointed representatives . Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the Parti canadien . In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its 92 resolutions , political demands which expressed loss of confidence in the British monarchy . Discontentment intensified throughout the public meetings of 1837, and

13231-776: The province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status. Following the London Conference of 1866 , the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the British North America Act, 1867 and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec. These last two came from splitting

13362-418: The receptionist uses a relatively formal register, as befits her professional role. After the caller identifies herself, the receptionist recognizes that she is speaking to a friend, and she shifts to an informal register of colloquial Cuban Spanish . The shift is similar to metaphorical code-switching , but since it involves styles or registers, it is considered an example of style-shifting. An idiolect

13493-544: The referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, the Kitchen Accord took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night. Because of this, the National Assembly refused to recognize the new Constitution Act, 1982 , which patriated

13624-676: The results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a British military regime led by Governor James Murray . In 1762, Commander Jeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the Battle of Signal Hill . France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta to Spain via the Treaty of Fontainebleau . On February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Paris concluded

13755-592: The same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, the Military Service Act became law on August 29, 1917. French Canadians protested in what

13886-626: The seigneurial system was abolished, the Grand Trunk Railway was built and the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty was implemented. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was adopted. In 1864, negotiations began for Canadian Confederation between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the Charlottetown Conference and Quebec Conference . After having fought as

14017-602: The south, it shares a border with the United States . It is the second-largest province by population , with the majority of its population residing in the St. Lawrence River valley, which contains its most populous city of Montreal and the eponymous provincial capital of Quebec . Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was the French colony of Canada and was the most developed colony in New France . Following

14148-578: The spelling included Québecq and Kébec . French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the administrative seat for New France . The Paleo-Indians , theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted roughly 11,000 years ago. From them, many ethnocultural groups emerged. By

14279-588: The spring of 1760, the Chevalier de Lévis besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the Battle of Sainte-Foy . However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the Battle of Restigouche marked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony. Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8, 1760. While awaiting

14410-566: The standard variety "is simply what English speakers agree to regard as good". A register (sometimes called a style ) is a variety of language used in a particular social setting. Settings may be defined in terms of greater or lesser formality, or in terms of socially recognized events, such as baby talk , which is used in many western cultures to talk to small children or as a joking register used in teasing or playing The Dozens . There are also registers associated with particular professions or interest groups; jargon refers specifically to

14541-456: The study of dialects and their geographic or social distribution. Traditionally, dialectologists study the variety of language used within a particular speech community , a group of people who share a set of norms or conventions for language use. In order to sidestep the vexing problem of distinguishing dialect from language , some linguists have been using the term communalect – defined as "a neutral term for any speech tradition tied to

14672-439: The summer and −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter, Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc ). Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of

14803-695: The summer of 1989 as the official Canadian contribution to the bicentenary celebrations of the French Revolution. At the subsequent presentation of this bilingual exhibition at the Hôtel de Région in Rouen (Haute-Normandie), from 23 September to 21 October 1989, the Observatoire linguistique organised the first public display of the only surviving contemporary copy of the vernacular (and arguably pre-Latin) text of England's Magna Carta , written in 13th century French. Thanks to continued support from Canada,

14934-465: The summer, severe weather patterns (such as tornadoes and severe thunderstorms ) occur occasionally. Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and −13 °F). In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C (95 °F) in

15065-401: The term dialect , which is often associated with non-standard language forms thought of as less prestigious or "proper" than the standard. Linguists speak of both standard and non-standard ( vernacular ) varieties as equally complex, valid, and full-fledged forms of language. Lect avoids the problem in ambiguous cases of deciding whether two varieties are distinct languages or dialects of

15196-489: The term " Canadian ", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as "Canadiens", began to be identified with their ethnic community under the name " French Canadian " as they were a "French of Canada". As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the Clique du Château , an exodus of Canadiens towards New England began and went on for

15327-448: The total area of Quebec. The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. The mixed forest is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest and deciduous forest . This area contains

15458-422: The total number of children attending), as edited in 2000 by Baker and Eversley and in 2010 by Eversley et al. In Paris, from 1987, the Observatoire linguistique created a bilingual exhibition Langues de la Liberté / Languages of Liberty , tracing the transnational development of certain basic concepts of personal freedom through the interaction of English and French, rather than by the action of any one nation. At

15589-463: The transnational theme of Magna Carta in 2015, on the occasion of the 8th centenary of the signing of its formal Latin version at Runnymede in 2020. The motto of the Observatoire linguistique dates from 1990—in French: Dans la galaxie des langues, la voix de chaque personne est une étoile (translated into English as above). The Observatoire adopted these words as its guiding philosophy on

15720-540: The unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and the secours directs – the ancestor to Canada's Employment Insurance . French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939,

15851-489: The vocabulary associated with such registers. Unlike dialects, which are used by particular speech communities and associated with geographical settings or social groupings, registers are associated with particular communicative situations, purposes, or levels of formality, and can constitute divisions within a single regional lect or standardized variety. Dialect and register may thus be thought of as different dimensions of linguistic variation . For example, Trudgill suggests

15982-591: The war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain. Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic clergy in refusing to take an oath to the British Crown . The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the descendants of the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a new nation . After

16113-632: The world's renewable fresh water . More than half a million lakes and 4,500 rivers empty into the Atlantic Ocean , through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Arctic Ocean , by James , Hudson , and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is the Caniapiscau Reservoir ; Lake Mistassini is the largest natural lake. The Saint Lawrence River has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports. Since 1959,

16244-484: The world. The Observatoire was not, however, associated with or responsible for the final ISO 639-6 standard which was a partial result of this collaboration, approved and published by ISO in 2009. It is the policy of the Observatoire that its on-going independent work on language coding should also be complementary to and supportive of the ISO 639 international standards, The Observatoire expresses its praise and gratitude to

16375-499: The year 2000 UNESCO adopted and adapted the Observatoire's motto in the form: "In the galaxy of languages, each word is a star". Quebec Quebec is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada . It is the largest province by area with an area of 1.5 million square kilometres (0.58 million square miles) and more than 12,000 km (7,500 mi) of borders, in North America , Quebec

16506-437: Was Philippe Blanchet, a Provençal-language poet currently serving as Professor of Sociolinguistics at the University of Rennes. Since 2010, the deputy director and webmaster of the Observatoire has been Pierrick le Feuvre, with the chairman of its research council being Roland Breton, emeritus professor at the University of Paris VIII. The Observatoire's research hub is currently based in the preserved county of Dyfed, Wales and, in

16637-551: Was a period of modernization, secularization and social reform, where French Canadians expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferior socioeconomic position , and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted in the formation of the modern Québécois identity and Quebec nationalism . In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with

16768-436: Was little immigration, the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates. In 1665, the Carignan-Salières regiment developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men. To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women ( King's Daughters ) to

16899-417: Was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 Acadians . In the siege of Louisbourg (1745) , the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions. The last of the four French and Indian Wars was the Seven Years' War ("The War of the Conquest " in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In 1754, tensions escalated for control of

17030-412: Was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years. Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: the tundra , the taiga , the Canadian boreal forest (coniferous), mixed forest and deciduous forest. On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait

17161-423: Was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F). The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres of snow in the area of Quebec City. March 1971, however, saw the " Century's Snowstorm " with more than 40 cm (16 in) in Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) in Mont Apica of snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010

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