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91-871: The Modoc, like the neighboring Klamath , spoke dialectic varieties of the Klamathan/Lutuamian language , a branch of the Plateau Penutian language family . Both peoples called themselves maklaks , meaning "people". To distinguish between the tribes, the Modoc called themselves Moatokni maklaks , from muat meaning "South". The Achomawi , a band of the Pit River tribe , called them Lutuami , meaning "Lake Dwellers". About 600 Modoc live in Klamath County, Oregon , in and around their ancestral homelands. This group includes those who stayed on

182-648: A cannonball and it exploded. Several Modoc women were reported to have died from sickness. On April 26, Captain Evan Thomas commanding five officers, sixty-six troops and fourteen Warm Spring Scouts left Gillem's camp on a reconnaissance of the lava beds to locate the Modoc. While they were eating lunch at the base of Sand Butte (now Hardin Butte ), in a flat area surrounded by ridges, Captain Thomas and his party were attacked by 22 Modoc led by Scarfaced Charley. Some of

273-589: A reservation selected by the government; (2) That the Modoc guilty of killing the settlers be surrendered and tried for murder. After much discussion, the meeting broke up with no resolution. The Modoc began to turn on Captain Jack, who still hoped for a peaceful solution. Led by Schonchin John and Hooker Jim, they put pressure on Jack to kill the peace commission. They believed that if the Americans lost their leaders,

364-529: A band of Modoc to leave the reservation and return to their traditional homelands. They built a village near the Lost River. These Modoc had not been adequately represented in the treaty negotiations and wished to end the harassment by the Klamath on the reservation. In November 1872, the U.S. Army was sent to Lost River to attempt to force Kintpuash's band back to the reservation. A battle broke out, and

455-403: A bride price. Especially notable was the cultural norm that allowed wives to leave husbands, as they were "in no sense chattel ... and certainly cannot be disposed of as a possession." The Klamath use Apocynum cannabinum as a fiber and eat the roots of Lomatium canbyi . They use the rootstocks of Sagittaria cuneata as food. They use Carex , weaving the leaves into mats, using the juice of

546-414: A council with Captain Jack at Lost River Gap, near what is now Olene, Oregon . At the council, Major Otis presented Captain Jack with some settlers who complained about the behavior of Jack's men. Captain Jack countered that the Modoc were abused and unjustly accused of crimes which other Indians had committed. Although the council's results were inconclusive, Otis resolved to remove Jack's band of Modoc to

637-843: A council with Captain Jack, which the latter refused. On July 6, 1872, the US Commissioner of Indian Affairs repeated his direction to Superintendent Odeneal to move Captain Jack and his band to the Klamath Reservation, peacefully if possible, but forcibly if necessary. Minor skirmishes occurred during the summer and early fall, but some of the settlers in California were sympathetic to the Modoc, as they had gotten along well with them before. The Modoc felt mistreated. On November 27, Superintendent Odeneal requested Major John Green , commanding officer at Fort Klamath , to furnish sufficient troops to compel Captain Jack to move to

728-449: A date for another meeting with Captain Jack. On April 10, the commission sent a message asking Captain Jack to meet with them at the peace tent on the following morning. On April 11, General Canby, Alfred B. Meacham, Rev. E. Thomas, and L. S. Dyar, with Frank and Toby Riddle as interpreters, met with Captain Jack, Boston Charley , Bogus Charley , Schonchin John, Black Jim, and Hooker Jim. After some talk, during which it became evident that

819-652: A peace parley . John Schonchin , the brother of the Modoc chief, was one of the natives who escaped. Rounds of hostilities continued in the area as American settlers continued to encroach on Modoc land and urged the government to take over the territory. Warriors of the Klamath and the Yahooskin also attacked settlers and migrants in efforts to repulse them. In 1864 the United States and the Klamath , Modoc, and Yahooskin band—over 1000 Indians, mostly Klamath—signed

910-664: A point on the Oregon Trail near Fort Hall, Idaho , and the Willamette Valley in western Oregon. The new route was created to encourage European-Americans to come to western Oregon, and to eliminate the hazards encountered on the Columbia Route. Since the Hudson's Bay Company controlled the Columbia Route, development of an alternate route enabled migration even if there was trouble between the United States and

1001-770: A prominent man in the band. This was the first defeat of the Modoc in battle. With the death of Ellen's Man, dissent arose among the Modoc, who began to split apart. A group led by Hooker Jim surrendered to the Army and agreed to help them capture Captain Jack. In return, they received amnesty for the murders of settlers at Tule Lake, Canby and Thomas. Captain Jack, his wife, and young daughter were captured by army scouts; Captain William F. Drannan, U.S. Army and Scout George Jones, U.S. Army in Langell's valley, June 4. General Davis prepared to execute Captain Jack and his leaders, but

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1092-710: A separate reservation for the Modoc. After hearing more complaints from settlers, Meacham instead requested General Edward Canby , Commanding General of the Department of the Columbia, to move Captain Jack's band to Yainax on the Klamath Reservation, his recommended site for their use. Canby forwarded Meacham's request to General Schofield, Commanding General of the Pacific, suggesting that before using force, peaceful efforts should be made. Jack had asked to talk to Meacham, but he sent his brother John Meacham in his place. In

1183-470: A total of 18 settlers. Accounts vary regarding the first clash. One version: that the soldiers and militia had gotten drunk in Klamath Falls and arrived at the Lost River camp disorganized and were outfought; that, furthermore, the militia arrived last and retreated first, with one casualty; and that the Army did not drive the Modoc away. This version claimed that some warriors held their ground while

1274-725: A treaty, by which the Indians ceded millions of acres of lands and the US established the Klamath Reservation , within the boundaries of present-day Oregon. Under the treaty terms, the Modoc, with Old Chief Schonchin as their leader, gave up their lands in the Lost River , Tule Lake and Lower Klamath Lake regions of California, and moved to a reservation in the Upper Klamath River Valley. In return,

1365-440: Is now considered a member of the Plateau Penutian language family. Both the Klamath and the Modoc called themselves maqlaqs , maqlags or Maklaks meaning "people". When they wanted to distinguish between themselves they added knii ("people from/of"), the Klamath were called ?ewksiknii , "people of the [Klamath] Lake", and the Modoc were called moowatdal'knii , "people of the south". Modoc War The Modoc War , or

1456-698: The Goyatöka Band ("Crayfish Eaters"), direct south their Modoc kin ( Mo'dokni maklaks - "Southern People, i.e. Tule Lake People") with whom they shared the Modoc Plateau , in the southwest were living Shasta peoples ( S[h]asti maklaks ) and the Klamath River further downstream the Karuk and Yurok (both: Skatchpalikni - "People along the Scott River "), in the west and northwest were

1547-480: The Klamath Reservation . Occupying defensive positions throughout the lava beds south of Tule Lake (in present-day Lava Beds National Monument ), those few warriors resisted for months the more numerous United States Army forces sent against them, which were reinforced with artillery. In April 1873 at a peace commission meeting, Captain Jack and others killed General Edward Canby and Rev. Eleazer Thomas, and wounded two others, mistakenly believing this would encourage

1638-703: The Latgawa ("Upland Takelma") (according to Spier: Walumskni - "Enemy" ) and Takelma/Dagelma ("Lowland/River Takelma") (more likely both were called: Wálamsknitumi, Wálamskni maklaks - “Rogue River People”). Beyond the Cascade Range ( Yámakisham Yaina - “mountains of the Northerners”) in the Rogue River Valley ( Wálamsh ) lived the "Rogue "River" Athabascan ( Wálamsknitumi, Wálamskni maklaks - “Rogue River People”) and further south along

1729-672: The Lost River of the Goġewa·s or Lower Lost River People Band. The Modoc have also been known as the Modok (Brandt and Davis-Kimball xvi). In the 1820s, Peter Skene Ogden , an explorer for the Hudson's Bay Company , established trade with the Klamath people north of the Modoc. Brothers Jesse and Lindsay Applegate , accompanied by 13 other white settlers, established the Applegate Trail , or South Emigrant Trail, in 1846. It connected

1820-732: The Modoc Campaign (also known as the Lava Beds War ), was an armed conflict between the Native American Modoc people and the United States Army in northeastern California and southeastern Oregon from 1872 to 1873. Eadweard Muybridge photographed the early part of the US Army's campaign. Kintpuash , also known as Captain Jack, led 52 warriors in a band of more than 150 Modoc people who left

1911-651: The Plateau Indians —the peoples who originally lived on the Columbia River Plateau . They were most closely linked with the Modoc people. The Klamath spoke one dialect of the Klamath–Modoc language - the northern or "fi-ukshikni" dialect, the other - the "southern" dialect being spoken by the Modoc people , who lived south of the Klamath. Once thought to be a language isolate, Klamath–Modoc

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2002-665: The Shawnee . Some at that point were allowed to return to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon. Most Modoc (and their descendants) stayed in what became the state of Oklahoma . They achieved separate federal recognition and were granted some land in Oklahoma. There are two federally recognized Modoc tribes: in Oregon and Oklahoma. The first known explorers from the United States to go through the Modoc country were John Charles Frémont together with Kit Carson and Billy Chinook in 1843. On

2093-664: The Shuyuhalsh , a five-night dance rite of passage for adolescent girls. A sweat lodge was used for purification and mourning ceremonies. Modoc Plateau , Modoc National Forest , Modoc County, California ; Modoc, Indiana ; and numerous other places are named after this group of people. Klamath people The Klamath people are a Native American tribe of the Plateau culture area in Southern Oregon and Northern California . Today Klamath people are enrolled in

2184-622: The Siskiyou Trail from southern Oregon. The discovery sparked the California Gold Rush area to expand from the Sierra Nevada into Northeastern California . By April 1851, 2,000 miners had arrived in "Thompson's Dry Diggings" through the southern route of the old Emigrant Trail to test their luck, which took them straight through Modoc territory. Although the Modoc initially had no trouble with Americans, after

2275-486: The federally recognized tribes : The Klamath people lived in the area around the Upper Klamath Lake (E-ukshi - “Lake”) and the Klamath , Williamson (Kóke - “River”), Wood River (E-ukalksini Kóke), and Sprague (Plaikni Kóke - “River Uphill”) rivers. They subsisted primarily on fish and gathered roots and seeds. While there was knowledge of their immediate neighbors, apparently the Klamath were unaware of

2366-590: The 52 Modoc warriors occupied the Stronghold, Tule Lake bounded the Stronghold on the north and served as a source of water. On December 21, a Modoc party scouting from the Stronghold attacked an ammunition wagon at Land's Ranch. By January 15, 1873, the U.S. Army had 400 troops in the field near the Lava Beds. The greatest concentration of troops was at Van Brimmer's ranch, 12 miles west of the Stronghold. Troops were also stationed at Land's ranch, 10 miles east of

2457-531: The Americans to leave. The Modoc fled back to the lava beds. After U.S. forces were reinforced, some Modoc warriors surrendered and Captain Jack and the last of his band were captured. Jack and five warriors were tried for the murders of the two peace commissioners. Jack and three warriors were executed and two others sentenced to life in prison. The remaining 153 Modoc of the band were sent to Indian Territory (pre-statehood Oklahoma), where they were held as prisoners of war until 1909, settled on reservation land with

2548-450: The Army would leave. They shamed Jack for his continuing negotiations by dressing him in women's clothing during council meetings. Rather than lose his position as chief of the band, Captain Jack agreed to attack the commission if no progress was made. On April 5, Captain Jack requested a meeting with Meacham. Accompanied by John Fairchild and Judge Rosborough, with Frank and Toby Riddle serving as interpreters, Meacham met Captain Jack at

2639-404: The Columbia , reported to relieve Gillem of command, and assume control of the army in the field. At first light on May 10, the Modoc attacked an Army encampment at Dry Lake. The troops charged, routing the Modoc. Casualties among the Army included five men killed, two of whom were Warm Spring Scouts, and twelve men wounded. The Modoc reported five warriors killed. Among the five was Ellen's Man ,

2730-505: The Indians drank or stored intoxicating liquor on the reservation, the payments could be withheld and that the United States could locate additional tribes on the reservation in the future. The treaty required that the Modoc surrender their lands near Lost River, Tule Lake, and Lower Klamath Lake in exchange for lands in the Upper Klamath Valley. They did so, under the leadership of Chief Schonchin. The Indian agent estimated

2821-513: The Indians would receive food, blankets, and clothing for as many years as would be required to establish themselves. Allen David signed for the Klamath, while Old Schonchin and Kintpuash for the Modoc. Looking around for something to give emphasis to his pledge, Schonchin pointed to the distant butte and dramatically declared, "That mountain shall fall, before Schonchin will again raise his hand against his white brother." The old chief kept his word, although his brother and Kintpuash repudiated signing

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2912-504: The Klamath Reservation. As he needed reinforcements, he recommended waiting until later in the year, when he could put the Modoc at a disadvantage. On April 12, the Commission of Indian Affairs directed US Superintendent T. B. Odeneal to move Captain Jack and his Modoc to the reservation if practicable. He was to ensure the tribe was protected from the Klamath. On May 14, Odeneal sent Ivan D. Applegate and L. S. Dyar to arrange for

3003-471: The Klamath people, and he was trading with them by 1829. The United States frontiersman Kit Carson admired their arrows, which were reported to be able to shoot through a house. The Klamaths, Modocs , and the Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band of Northern Paiute (in Paiute known as: Goyatöka - "Crayfish eaters"), which was erroneously called Upper Sprague River Snakes believed to be a Band of Snake Indians ,

3094-400: The Klamath to begin only with the acquisition of the horse. These natives made southern Oregon their home for long enough to witness the eruption of Mount Mazama . It was a legendary volcanic mountain who is the creator of Crater Lake ( giˑw ), now considered to be a beautiful natural formation. In 1826, Peter Skene Ogden , an explorer for the Hudson's Bay Company , first encountered

3185-669: The Modoc and Yahooskin, have formed the federally recognized Klamath Tribes confederation. Their tribal government is based in Chiloquin, Oregon . Some Klamath live on the Quartz Valley Indian Community in Siskiyou County, California . Traditionally there were several cultural subdivisions among the Klamath, based on the location of their residency within the Klamath Basin. Despite this,

3276-656: The Modoc attacked a wagon train of some 65 men, women, and children on their way to California. One badly wounded man escaped to the Oregon settlements in Willamette Valley and told of the attack. His report spread quickly and Oregon volunteers who later reached the scene, reported bodies of men, women and children mutilated and scattered for more than a mile along the lake shore and their wagons plundered and burned. The location became known as Bloody Point . In another round of retaliation, California militia led by an Indian fighter named Ben Wright killed 41 Modoc at

3367-475: The Modoc defending the Stronghold realized that their water supply had been cut off by the troops commanding the shoreline. On April 17, before the troops had begun to charge the Stronghold, the Modoc escaped through an unguarded crevice. During the fighting at the Stronghold, April 15–17, US casualties included one officer and six enlisted men killed, and thirteen enlisted men wounded. Modoc casualties were two boys, reported to have been killed when they tried to open

3458-536: The Modoc escaped to what is called Captain Jack's Stronghold in what is now Lava Beds National Monument , California . The band of fewer than 53 warriors was able to hold off the 3,000 U.S. Army troops for several months, defeating them in combat several times. In April 1873, the Modoc left the Stronghold and began to splinter. Kintpuash and his group were the last to be captured, on June 4, 1873, when they voluntarily gave themselves up. U.S. government personnel had assured them that their people would be treated fairly and

3549-615: The Modoc finally relocated in 1869 following a council between Kintpuash (also known as Captain Jack); Alfred B. Meacham , the US Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Oregon that replaced Huntington; O.C. Knapp, the US Indian agent on the reservation; Ivan D. Applegate , sub-agent at Yainax on the reservation; and William.C. McKay . Meacham was from Oregon, and knew Captain Jack and the Modoc. When soldiers suddenly appeared at

3640-419: The Modoc killed the commissioners. Canby's Cross marks the site where Canby and Thomas died. The U.S. Army prepared to attack the Stronghold. On April 15 a general attack began, troops advancing from Gillem's camp on the west and Mason's camp at Hospital Rock, northeast of the Stronghold. Fighting continued throughout the day, the troops remaining in position during the night. Each advance of troops on April 16

3731-528: The Modoc on the Lost River, but most agree that Wright planned to ambush them, which he did in November 1852. Wright and his forces attacked, killing approximately 40 Modoc, in what came to be known as the "Ben Wright Massacre." The United States, the Klamath, the Modoc, and the Yahooskin band of Snake tribes signed a treaty in 1864 that established the Klamath Reservation . It required the tribes to cede

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3822-497: The Modoc plan to kill the peace commissioners. On her return, she warned the commissioners. On April 8, just as the commissioners were starting for the peace tent, the signal tower on the bluff above Gillem's Camp received a message; it said that the lookout had seen five Modoc warriors at the peace tent and about 20 armed Modoc hiding among the rocks nearby. The commissioners realized that the Modoc were planning an attack and decided to stay at Gillem's. Rev. Thomas insisted on arranging

3913-406: The Modoc repulsed troops advancing from the west and east. A general retreat of troops was ordered at the end of the day. In the attack, the U.S. Army lost 35 men killed, and 5 officers and 20 enlisted men wounded. Captain Jack's band included approximately 150 Modoc, including women and children. Of that number, there were only 52 warriors. The Modoc suffered no casualties in the fighting, as they had

4004-423: The Modoc started building their homes, however, the Klamath , longtime rivals, began to steal the Modoc lumber. The Modoc complained, but the US Indian agent could not protect them against the Klamath. Captain Jack's band moved to another part of the reservation. Several attempts were made to find a suitable location, but the Klamath continued to harass the band. In 1870, Captain Jack and his band of nearly 200 left

4095-527: The Modoc territory. Beginning in 1847, the Modoc raided the invading emigrants on the Applegate Trail under the leadership of Old Chief Schonchin. In September 1852, the Modoc destroyed an emigrant train at Bloody Point on the east shore of Tule Lake , killing all but three of the 65 people in the party. The Modoc took two young girls as captives. One or both of them may have been killed several years later by jealous Modoc women. The only man to survive

4186-729: The Modoc were armed, General Canby informed Captain Jack that the commission could not meet his terms until orders came from Washington. Angrily, Schonchin John demanded Hot Creek for a reservation. Captain Jack got up and walked away a few steps. The two Modoc Brancho (Barncho) and Slolux, armed with rifles, ran forward from hiding. Captain Jack turned, giving the signal to fire. His first shot killed General Canby. Reverend Thomas fell mortally wounded. Dyar and Frank Riddle escaped by running. Meacham fell seriously wounded, but Toby Riddle saved his life and interrupted warriors intending to scalp him by yelling, "The soldiers are coming!" The Modoc warriors broke off and left. US efforts for peace ended when

4277-537: The Modoc were planning treachery, and that all efforts of the commission would be useless. Meacham wired the Secretary of the Interior, informing him of Steele's opinion. The Secretary instructed Meacham to continue negotiations for peace. Judge A. M. Rosborough was added to the commission. Jesse Applegate and Samuel Case resigned and were replaced by Rev. Eleazer Thomas and L. S. Dyar . In April, Gillem's Camp

4368-418: The Modoc, like all Plateau Indians , they caught salmon during salmon runs and migrated seasonally to hunt and gather other food. In winter, they built earthen dugout lodges shaped like beehives, covered with sticks and plastered with mud, near lake shores with reliable sources of seeds from aquatic wokas plants and fishing. In addition to the Klamath, with whom they shared a language and the Modoc Plateau ,

4459-583: The Modocs scrambled for their weapons, and briefly fought before fleeing toward California. After driving the remaining Modoc from the camp, Captain Jackson ordered a retreat to await reinforcements. One soldier had been killed and seven wounded in the encounter; the Modoc lost two killed and three wounded. A small band of Modoc under Hooker Jim retreated from the battlefield to the Lava Beds south of Tule Lake. In attacks on November 29 and November 30, they killed

4550-730: The Pit River ( Moatuashamkshini/Móatni Kóke - "River of the Southern Dwellers") lived the Achomawi and Atsugewi (both called: Móatuash maklaks - "Southern Dweller", or "Southern People"). The Klamath were known to raid neighboring tribes, such as the Achomawi on the Pit River , and occasionally to take prisoners as slaves. They traded with the Wasco-Wishram at The Dalles . However, scholars such as Alfred L. Kroeber and Leslie Spier consider these slaving raids by

4641-431: The Stronghold. Col. Frank Wheaton was in command of all troops, including regular army as well as volunteer companies from California and Oregon. On January 16, troops from Land's ranch, commanded by Col. R. F. Bernard , skirmished with the Modoc near Hospital Rock . On the morning of January 17, 1873, troops advanced on the Stronghold. Hindered by fog , the soldiers never saw any Modoc. Occupying excellent positions,

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4732-613: The United Kingdom. The Applegate brothers became the first known white people in present-day Lava Beds National Monument . The opening of the Applegate Trail appeared to bring the first regular contact between the Modoc and the European-American settlers, who had largely ignored their territory before. Many of the events of the Modoc War took place along the trail. From 1846 to 1873, thousands of emigrants entered

4823-412: The aboriginal population of the Modoc at 400. Alfred L. Kroeber estimated the Modoc population within California as 500 at the year 1770. University of Oregon anthropologist Theodore Stern suggested that there had been a total of about 500 Modoc. In 1846, the population may have included "perhaps 600 warriors (an overestimate, probably)". Until the 19th century, when European explorers first encountered

4914-474: The advantage of terrain and local knowledge over the militia. On January 25, Columbus Delano , Secretary of the Interior , appointed a Peace Commission to negotiate with Captain Jack. The Commission consisted of Alfred B. Meacham, the former superintendent for Oregon as chairman; Jesse Applegate , and Samuel Case . General Edward Canby , commander in the Pacific Northwest, was appointed to serve

5005-476: The attack made his way to Yreka, California . After hearing his news, Yreka settlers organized a militia under Sheriff Charles McDermit, Jim Crosby, and Ben Wright. They went to the scene of the massacre to bury the dead and avenge their deaths. Crosby's party had a skirmish with a band of Modoc and returned to Yreka. Wright and a small group stayed on to avenge the deaths. He was a notorious Indian hater. Accounts differ as to what took place when Wright's party met

5096-486: The attack, at the junction of the Williamson River and Klamath Lake, on May 10, 1846. Accounts by scholars vary, but they agree that the attack completely destroyed the village structures; Sides reports the expedition killed women and children as well as warriors. The tragedy of Dokdokwas is deepened by the fact that most scholars now agree that Frémont and Carson, in their blind vindictiveness, probably chose

5187-427: The camp realized they were under attack by Native Americans, estimated to be several dozen in number. By the time the assailants were beaten off, two other members of Frémont's group were dead. The one dead attacker was judged to be a Klamath Lake native. Frémont's group fell into "an angry gloom." In retaliation, Frémont attacked a Klamath Tribe fishing village named Dokdokwas, that most likely had nothing to do with

5278-596: The collective name given to the Northern Paiute, Bannock, and Shoshone Native American tribes, signed a treaty with the United States in 1864, establishing the Klamath Reservation to the northeast of Upper Klamath Lake. This area was largely part of the traditional territory controlled by the ă′ukuckni Klamath band. The treaty required the tribes to cede the land in the Klamath Basin , bounded on

5369-501: The commission as counselor. Frank and Toby Riddle were appointed as interpreters. Toby Riddle (sometimes spelled as Tobey) was a Modoc woman and a cousin of Kintpuash. On February 19, the Peace Commission held its first meeting at Fairchild's ranch, west of the lava beds. A messenger was sent to arrange a meeting with Captain Jack. He agreed that if the commission would send John Fairchild and Bob Whittle , two settlers, to

5460-404: The edge of the lava beds he would talk to them. When Fairchild and Whittle went to the lava beds, Captain Jack told them he would talk with the commission if they would return with Judge Elijah Steele of Yreka as the judge had been friendly to Captain Jack. Steele went to the Stronghold. After a night in the Stronghold, Steele returned to Fairchild's ranch and informed the Peace Commission that

5551-400: The event of war, he and his band could successfully defend themselves in an area in the lava beds on the south shore of Tule Lake. The Modoc retreated there after the Battle of Lost River. Today it is called Captain Jack's Stronghold . The Modoc took advantage of the lava ridges, cracks, depressions, and caves , all such natural features being ideal from the standpoint of defense. At the time

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5642-413: The existence of the Pacific Ocean . Gatschet has described this position as leaving the Klamath living in a "protracted isolation" from outside cultures. North of their tribal territory lived the Molala ( Kuikni maklaks ), in the northeast and east in the desert-like plains were various Northern Paiute bands ( Shá'ttumi , collective term for Northern Paiute, Bannock and Northern Shoshone) - among them

5733-478: The federal government purchased for them. Originally they were placed on the Quapaw Indian Reservation in Oklahoma's far northeast corner. They are descendants of the band Captain Jack ( Kintpuash ) led during the Modoc War. The federal government officially recognized the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma in 1978, and its constitution was approved in 1991. Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. James Mooney put

5824-500: The five recognized "tribelets" (the Klamath Tribes count six) mutually considered each other the same ethnic group, about 1,200 people in total. Like many Indigenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest, the Klamath lived a semi-sedentary life. Winter settlements were in permanent locations that were reoccupied annually. Construction of the earth-lodges would begin in Autumn, with materials salvaged from abandoned, dilapidated buildings made in previous years. Leslie Spier has detailed some of

5915-454: The following account for their usage: The septum of the nose is pierced and the ear lobes, the latter twice or even more frequently. Both sexes insert dentalium shells horizontally through the septum ... Ear pendants are a group of four dentalia hung in a bunch by their tips. The use of dentalium in septum piercings, in addition to other means of ornamentation, was common among the Wasco-Wishram as well. The Klamath people are grouped with

6006-406: The groups neighboring the Modoc home were: The Modoc, Northern Paiute, and Achomawi shared Goose Lake Valley . The known Modoc village sites are Agawesh, where Willow Creek enters Lower Klamath Lake , of the Gombatwa·s or Lower Klamath Lake People Band; Kumbat and Pashha on the shores of Tule Lake of the Pasganwa·s or Tule Lake People Band; and Wachamshwash and Nushalt-Hagak-ni on

6097-427: The land bounded on the north by the 44th parallel , on the west and south by the ridges of the Cascade Mountains , and on the east by lines touching Goose Lake and Henley Lake back up to the 44th parallel. In return, the United States was to make a lump sum payment of $ 35,000, and annual payments totaling $ 80,000 over 15 years, as well as provide infrastructure and staff for a reservation. The treaty provided that if

6188-513: The lower southern part of the reservation. Pending a decision, Meacham instructed Captain Jack to remain at Clear Lake. Oregon settlers complained that Modoc warriors roamed the countryside raiding the homesteads; they petitioned Meacham to return the Modoc to the Klamath Reservation. In part, the Modoc raided for food; the US did not adequately supply them. Captain Jack and his band did better in their old territory with hunting. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs never responded to Meacham's request for

6279-418: The meeting, the Modoc warriors fled, leaving behind their women and children. Meacham placed the women and children in wagons and started for the reservation. He allowed "Queen Mary", Captain Jack's sister, to go meet with Captain Jack to persuade him to move to the reservation. She succeeded. Once on the reservation, Captain Jack and his band prepared to make their permanent home at Modoc Point . Shortly after

6370-463: The middle of the crisis, the Commission of Indian Affairs replaced Meacham, appointing T. B. Odeneal as Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Oregon. He "knew almost nothing of the background of the situation and had never met Jack or the Modocs" but was charged with "getting the Modocs to leave Lost River." In turn, Odeneal appointed a new US Indian agent, who was also unfamiliar with the parties and conditions. On April 3, 1872, Major Elmer Otis held

6461-437: The murders of settlers in a raid by the Pit River Tribe , an American militia unit, not familiar with the Indian peoples, retaliated by attacking an innocent Modoc village, killing men, women and children. ( Kintpuash , the future chief also known as Captain Jack, survived the attack but lost some of his family.) To try to end the American encroachment, some Modoc chose to attack the next whites they encountered. In September 1852

6552-510: The night of May 9, 1846, Frémont received a message brought to him by Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie , from President James Polk about the possibility of war with Mexico. Reviewing the messages, Frémont neglected the customary measure of posting a watchman for the camp. Carson was concerned but "apprehended no danger". Later that night Carson was awakened by the sound of a thump. Jumping up, he saw his friend and fellow trapper Basil Lajeunesse sprawled in blood. He sounded an alarm and immediately

6643-433: The north by the 44th parallel , to the United States. In return, the United States was to make a lump sum payment of $ 35,000, and annual payments totalling $ 80,000 over 15 years, as well as providing infrastructure and staff for the reservation. The treaty provided that, if the Indians drank or stored intoxicating liquor on the reservation, the payments could be withheld; the United States could also locate additional tribes on

6734-423: The peace tent; it was erected about one mile east of Gillem's Camp. The meeting lasted several hours. Captain Jack asked for the lava beds to be given to them as a reservation. The meeting ended with no agreement. After Meacham returned to camp, he sent a message to Captain Jack, asking that he meet the commission at the peace tent on April 8. While delivering this message, the Modoc interpreter Tobey Riddle learned of

6825-616: The pith as a beverage, eating the fresh stems for food and using the tuberous base of the stem for food. Dentalium shells were common among the Klamath prior to colonization. Compared to other native cultures, dentalium didn't hold as much financial use among the Klamath. However, longer shells were generally held to be more valuable. Nonetheless these shells were esteemed primarily for as jewelry and personal adornment. Septum piercings were commonly given to younger members of Klamath families to allow inserting dentalium. Some individuals wouldn't however use any shells in their septum. Spier gives

6916-526: The reservation and returned to Lost River. During the months that his band had been on the reservation, a number of settlers had taken up former Modoc land in the Lost River region. Acknowledging the bad feeling between the Modoc and the Klamath, Meacham recommended to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C. that Captain Jack's Modoc band be given a separate reservation at Yainax, in

7007-607: The reservation during the Modoc War , as well as the descendants of those who chose to return in 1909 to Oregon from Indian Territory in Oklahoma or Kansas. Since that time, many have followed the path of the Klamath . The shared tribal government of the Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin in Oregon is known as the Klamath Tribes . Two hundred Modoc live in Oklahoma on a small reservation in Ottawa County, Oklahoma , that

7098-480: The reservation in the future. The tribes requested Lindsay Applegate as the agent to represent the United States to them. The Indian agent estimated the total population of the three tribes at about 2,000 when the treaty was signed. Since termination of recognition of their tribal sovereignty in 1954 (with federal payments not disbursed until 1961), the Klamath and neighboring tribes have reorganized their government and revived tribal identity. The Klamath, along with

7189-510: The reservation, but the situation became tense when Jackson demanded that the Modoc chief surrender his weapons. Although Captain Jack had never fought the Army, he was alarmed at this command, but he finally agreed to put down his weapons. The rest of the Modoc warriors began to follow his lead. Suddenly an argument erupted between Modoc warrior Scarfaced Charley and Lieutenant Frazier A. Boutelle, of company B, 1st Cavalry. They drew their revolvers and shot at each other, both missing. The rest of

7280-475: The reservation. On November 28 Captain James Jackson , commanding 40 troops, left Fort Klamath for Captain Jack's camp on Lost River. The troops, reinforced by citizens from Linkville (now Klamath Falls, Oregon ) and by a band of militiamen arrived in Jack's camp on Lost River about a mile above Emigrant Crossing (now Merrill, Oregon) on November 29. Wishing to avoid conflict, Captain Jack agreed to go to

7371-472: The same time. When we consider that these earth-lodges may have housed several families, there is strong suggestion of a considerable population. Marriage was a unique practice for the Klamath, compared to neighboring cultures found in the borderlands of modern Oregon , California , Nevada and Idaho . For example, unlike the Hupa , Karok , and Yurok , the Klamath didn't hold formal talks between families for

7462-432: The total population of the three tribes at about 2,000 when the treaty was signed. The land of the reservation did not provide enough food for both the Klamath and the Modoc peoples. Illness and tension between the tribes increased. The Modoc requested a separate reservation closer to their ancestral home, but neither the federal nor the California government approved it. In 1870 Kintpuash (also called Captain Jack) led

7553-525: The treaty and left the reservation with a few followers. While the old Modoc chief remained in the reservation, Kintpuash returned to Lost River and led an abusive harassment against the white settlers who had occupied the area. The small Modoc group of about 43 Indians demanded rent for the occupation of their land, which most settlers paid. After a few attempts to negotiate in behalf of the complaining settlers, including failed attempts by Agent Lindsay Applegate in 1864–6 and Superintendent Huntington in 1867,

7644-466: The troops fled in disorder. Those who remained to fight were either killed or wounded. US casualties included four officers killed and two wounded, one dying within a few days, and 13 enlisted men killed and 16 wounded. Following the successful Modoc attack, many soldiers called for Col. Gillem to be removed. On May 2, Bvt. Brigadier General Jefferson C. Davis , the new commander of the Department of

7735-502: The warriors would be allowed to live on their own land. The U.S. Army tried, convicted and executed Kintpuash and three of his warriors in October 1873 for the murder of Major General Edward Canby earlier that year at a parley. Canby had violated agreements made with the Modoc. The Army sent the rest of the band to Oklahoma as prisoners of war with Scarfaced Charley as their chief. The tribe's spiritual leader, Curley Headed Doctor ,

7826-486: The winter settlement patterns for Klamath as follows: The towns are not isolated, compact groups of houses, but stretch along the banks for half a mile or more. In fact, the settlements on Williamson river below the Sprague river junction form a practically continuous string of houses for five or six miles, the house pits being, in many spots, crowded close together. Informants insisted that many of these were occupied at

7917-483: The women and children loaded their boats and paddled south; that Scarfaced Charley, who spoke good English, was foul-tempered from lack of sleep, because he'd been gambling all night and was possibly drunk—but, since there was a warrant out for his arrest on a false murder charge, he wasn't going to go quietly. The official report, however, concealed that the operation had been badly managed, as Captain Jackson later admitted. For some months, Captain Jack had boasted that in

8008-469: The wrong tribe to lash out against: In all likelihood the band of native Americans that had killed [Frémont's three men] were from the neighboring Modoc ... The Klamaths were culturally related to the Modocs, but the two tribes were bitter enemies. Although most of the " 49ers " missed the Modoc country, in March 1851 Abraham Thompson , a mule train packer, discovered gold near Yreka while traveling along

8099-439: Was also forced to remove to Indian Territory . In the 1870s, Peter Cooper brought Indians to speak to Indian rights groups in eastern cities. One of the delegations was from the Modoc and Klamath tribes. In 1909, the group in Oklahoma was given permission to return to Oregon. Several people did, but most stayed at their new home. The religion of the Modoc is not known in detail. The number five figured heavily in ritual, as in

8190-560: Was established at the edge of the lava beds, two and one-half miles west of the Stronghold. Col. Alvan C. Gillem was placed in command of all troops, including those at Hospital Rock commanded by Col. E. C. Mason . On April 2, the commission and Captain Jack met in the lava beds midway between the Stronghold and Gillem's Camp. At this meeting Captain Jack proposed: (1) Complete pardon of all Modoc; (2) Withdrawal of all troops; and (3) The right to select their own reservation. The Peace Commission proposed: (1) That Captain Jack and his band go to

8281-420: Was under heavy fire from the Modoc positions. That night the troops succeeded in cutting the Modoc off from their water supply at the shore of Tule Lake. By the morning of April 17 everything was in readiness for the final attack on the Stronghold. When the order was given to advance, the troops charged into the Stronghold. After the fighting along the shoreline of Tule Lake on the afternoon and night of April 16,

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