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153-496: Makhachkala , previously known as Petrovskoye (1844–1857) and Port-Petrovsk (1857–1921), or by the local Kumyk name of Anji , is the capital and largest city of Dagestan , Russia. The city is located on the Caspian Sea , covering an area of 468.13 square kilometres (180.75 square miles), with a population of over 623,254 residents, while the urban agglomeration covers over 3,712 square kilometres (1,433 square miles), with

306-589: A cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen : BSk ) with warm, relatively dry summers and, cool relatively moist winters. The strong rain shadow of the Caucasus and the ability of the Siberian High to freely move westwards from its source in the Tibetan and Mongolian plateaus makes the climate quite dry, although frequently overcast throughout the winter, which is owing to the relatively low latitude and nearness to

459-623: A short conflict fought between 1651 and 1653 . The war's major event was the destruction of the Russian fortress on the Iranian side of the Terek river . Abbas also suppressed a rebellion led by the Georgians between 1659 and 1660, in which he acknowledged Vakhtang V as the king of Kartli , but had the rebel leaders executed. From the middle years of his reign onwards, Abbas was occupied with

612-422: A solar symbol above. It is supported by a golden eagle on each side, a crown on top, and crossed anchors (representing its maritime history) entangled with grapevines at the bottom. In proportions of 2:3, the flag displays the main shield of the city's coat of arms. Makhachkala is close to areas of fighting and therefore it and the surrounding region has a heavy security service presence. On November 25, 2011,

765-644: A blossoming of the arts in the mid-to-late 17th century. The Persian miniature reached new heights of diversity with its leading figure Mo'en Mosavver , a student of Reza Abbasi , who contributed to at least five manuscripts of Shahnameh and was known for his single-page illustrations. The popular demand for traditional miniatures were also strong in this era; painters such as Afzal al-Husayni and Malik Husayn Isfahani produced works for Shahnameh and also pictures of young men seated with bottles of wine and fruit. Abbas hired Dutch painters and studied drawing under them, but he also supported Iranian painters who painted in

918-600: A church and a synagogue burned. The most important industrial sector is the oil refineries , as well as mechanical engineering and textile factories. Numerous administrative and educational institutions are based in the city, including a regional research centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences with around 20 research departments. The city is also the media centre of the region. Numerous newspapers are published in Makhachkala, including Dagestanskaya Pravda and

1071-478: A few Kumyk families still live. The Syrian village of Dar-Ful was established in 1878-1880 by Kumyk emigrants. There is no official state census of ethnic minorities in Turkey (ethnic or racial censuses are outlawed), but according to the studies of 1994–1996, there were more than 20 settlements with Kumyk population. The majority of researchers (Bakikhanov, S. A. Tokarev, A. I. Tamay, S. Sh. Gadzhieva) derive

1224-552: A financial decline which would plague the realm until the end of the Safavid dynasty. In order to increase revenues, in 1654 Abbas appointed Mohammad Beg , a distinguished economist. However, he was unable to overcome the economic decline. Mohammad Beg's efforts often damaged the treasury. He took bribes from the Dutch East India Company and assigned his family members into various positions. In 1661, Mohammad Beg

1377-458: A fortress for Teimuraz, the deposed King of Kakheti , who had turned to them for aid. When Abbas learned of this, he decided to act against them, while being simultaneously preoccupied with his campaign in Kandahar. The forces of Ardabil, Karabakh , and Astara massed under the leadership of Khosrow Soltan , a ghulam of Armenian origin, and attacked the fortress. They successfully drove out

1530-420: A fraud. He also tried to expand coal mining, but this was another fruitless attempt. All of these failures, along with his nepotism towards his family, made Mohammad Beg a hated figure among the courtiers. Nonetheless, despite his numerous adversaries, he survived and went as far as getting a monopoly over state affairs, including access to the harem, from the shah. Abbas took to spending most of his time either in

1683-500: A lack of military resolve, led their expedition to fail. Kandahar thus remained in Iranian hands until an Afghan revolt in 1709. The main conflict in Georgia during Abbas' reign was between Teimuraz I and Rostom of Kartli . Teimuraz I was the king of Kakheti and Kartli . He followed an anti-Safavid policy and was eager to break the Iranian dominance over his realm. In 1633, with the support of Safi, Rostom Khan proclaimed himself

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1836-521: A long reign. He did not choose any of his thirteen sons as his heir by the time of death, thus paving the way for civil war. Eventually, his second born son, Ismail II , became the king with the support of the majority of the Qizilbash tribes after his brother, Haydar Mirza , was eliminated. Ismail II's reign has been defined by two major events — his policy of remaking Sunnism the official religion of Iran, and his paranoia that led him to kill most of

1989-472: A magnanimous and tolerant monarch who ruled a kingdom which was free of rebellions and relatively safe to travel within. Some historians have criticised him for acts of cruelty similar to his father and forcing conversion upon the Iranian Jews , but most have noted his tolerance towards Christians. After the fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722, he is remembered as a forceful ruler who temporarily reversed

2142-458: A mean monthly temperature of −9.5 °C or 14.9 °F, whilst the hottest have been July 2010 and August 2014 with means of 27.1 °C or 80.8 °F each, although August 9, 2017, is the hottest day, reaching 40.2 °C or 104.4 °F. The coldest night was on February 9, 2012, when the mercury fell to −26.8 °C or −16.2 °F, beating the previous record of −26.5 °C or −15.7 °F from December 28, 1888. Makhachkala

2295-543: A new silk treaty in 1652. The French East India Company also attempted to establish trade relations with Iran. Abbas sanctioned against these trade relations in a firman issued shortly before his death, but for the time being nothing came of them. The peaceful relations with the Ottoman Empire continued during Abbas' reign. He was not tempted to expand his territory, for instance in Transcaucasia , where

2448-665: A population of roughly 1 million residents. Makhachkala is the fourth-largest city in the Caucasus , the largest city in the North Caucasus and the North Caucasian Federal District , as well as the third-largest city on the Caspian Sea. The city is extremely ethnically diverse, with a minor ethnic Russian population. The city's historic predecessor is the port town of Anji (Andzhi), which

2601-542: A pro-Russian stance, but after a new Russian fortress had been built they confronted Russia again. However, this time the Shamkhalate could not unite the neighboring local peoples and remained alone in their struggle. Russian historian Sergey Solovyov wrote: In October 1725 general-majors Kropotov and Sheremetev embarked to devastate the possessions of the Shamkhal and burned down twenty settlements, including Tarki,

2754-399: A protest took place in Makhachkala attended by up to 3,000 people demanding an end to illegal activities perpetrated by the security services. On December 15, 2011, Gadzhimurat Kamalov , a Russian investigative journalist and founder of the independent Chernovik newspaper was shot dead in an apparent assassination. The population of Makhachkala includes (2021 Census data): The city

2907-590: A refusal. Russian 19th century general Gregory Phillipson, known for his important actions in subjugating the Adyghe and Abaza ethnic groups at the left flank of the Caucasian front in Circassia , wrote: I had vague knowledge about Caucasia and the Caucasian war, although professor Yazikov on the lectures in the military geography used to tell about one and the other; and according to his words it turned out that

3060-554: A result of his excessive drinking. He was buried in Qom and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sam Mirza, whose mother was a Georgian concubine named Nakihat Khanum . Abbas had two sons. He reportedly favoured his younger son Hamza Mirza, whose mother was a Circassian concubine. Abbas II's reign shows great paradox in regard of the treatment of non Shi`is. He commissioned the Shi'ia jurisprudence works to be translated into Persian, and consulted

3213-512: A rock and a hard place, not always supported by the insurgents on one hand, and being a target of retaliation from Russians on the other. The same archives also described that: ...Kazi-mulla... used all the means to push away from us the population of the Small Chechnya and Kachkalik ridge, which however remained loyal to us only by their appearance, and namely because they didn't want to get between two fires as Kumyks did. Kumyks during

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3366-535: A short time between 1653 and 1654, the sale of alcohol was forbidden. Regardless of his personal beliefs, Abbas still continued religious conversions even more fiercely than his predecessors. At various times between 1645 and 1654, the Safavid authorities forced the Iranian Jews to convert and the Armenian Christians to decamp to New Julfa. According to Abbas-nama by Mohammad Taher Vahid Qazvini , 20,000 Jewish families converted to Islam. However,

3519-415: A short visit revealed acute problems, including dirty streets, dilapidated buildings, inadequate utilities, hectic construction, lack of planning and poorly organised public transport". On April 12, 1944, a decision was made to resettle the inhabitants of Kumyk villages of Tarki, Kyakhulay and Alburikent, which owned the surrounding areas, to the settlements of the deported Chechens. Most of the released land

3672-591: A small number of his favourite courtiers and drink with them. Throughout the Nowruz festivals and royal hunting parties, he allowed the wine to flow freely, and often requested the Western residents in Isfahan to join him. He allowed Western men to drink from his golden cup, a gift to him from Russia, which was "fully inlaid with precious stones, mostly uncut rubies". Abbas has been praised for his sense of justice. In

3825-498: A strange trick: destroying their auls [settlements] in order to force them to resettle in the mountains by depriving of living spaces. On the 24th of July he, in front of our troops, made the first experiment on Endirey village and burned down the third of it. Prince [Knyaz] Bekovich [Russian officer] at that time was burning Kumyks' bread at the slopes of the mountains... During the Caucasian War, Kumyks found themselves between

3978-485: A wide, sweeping moustache. In some paintings, like that of Chehel Sotoun, Abbas was depicted with a very dark beard and moustache whereas in others, his facial hair is light, almost blond. In his early years, Abbas II used the same distichs initiated by his great-grandfather, " Abbas banda-ye shāh-e velāyat " (Abbas, the servant of the realm's majesty), but in 1644, he replaced it for another distich " beh-giti sekka-ye sāhebqerāni / zad az towfiq-e haqq ‘Abbās-e Sāni " (In

4131-826: Is twinned with: Kumyks They traditionally populate the Kumyk Plateau (northern Dagestan and northeastern Chechnya), lands bordering the Caspian Sea , areas in North Ossetia, Chechnya and along the banks of the Terek River . They speak the Kumyk language , which until the 1930s had been the lingua franca of the Northern Caucasus . Territories where Kumyks have traditionally lived, and where their historical state entities used to exist, are called Kumykia ( Kumyk : Къумукъ, Qumuq ). All of

4284-529: Is an opinion that people of Kami, Kamaks, mentioned as long ago as by Ptolemaeus, are historically related to Kumyks. Their turkization started at the times of Khazars already, in the second half of the first millennium... Arrival of Cumans extended Turkic element further. That time point, marked by dissolution of the Khazar Kaghanate, is likely to be the period of the core formation for Kumyks, although some researchers (Bartold) linked their appearance to

4437-443: Is currently going through a construction boom. Makhachkala's historic predecessors were the towns of Tarki and Anji (or Andzhi, or Anji-kala), dating their history, according to some sources, back to Khazar times . Some chronicles suggest that it was the name of a citadel of Khazarian capital of Semender , which was called Anji-kala. During the first Muslim conquests of Dagestan, it was exposed to an influx of Muslims . During

4590-409: Is praised by European observers for ruling a prosperous realm, and one that had roads that were much safer than those of Europe. However, they failed to notice the corruption of Abbas’ internal Safavid bureaucracy, or that his campaign to Kandahar began an economic decline that would plague Iran until the end of Safavid dynasty. Abbas made an effort to overcome the corruption within his bureaucracy. He

4743-524: Is served by Uytash Airport , a regional airport providing connections to other Russian cities. Russian Railways via the North Caucasus Railway provides freight and passenger traffic to and from Makhachkala. The Caspian Sea International Port handles crude oil, petroleum, construction materials, grain, cargo and timber and operates 24 hours a day. The port offers communications with the rest of Russia, as well as with Belarus , Ukraine ,

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4896-702: Is that the Kumyks appeared in Dagestan along with the Khazars in the 8th century and stayed afterwards. Whereas others believe that the Kumyks appeared in Dagestan in the 12th-13th centuries along with Kipchaks . Kumyk verbal tradition carried through ages some proverbs and sayings coming from the times of the Khazar Kaghanate . S. Tokarev wrote that: ...Kumyks have very diverse ancestry. Its ancient stratum is, undoubtedly, pre-Turkic, Japhetic . There

5049-509: Is the governor of Dagestan , stated that Morning of Dagestan participated in the riots and accused persons in Ukraine , which he called Banderovites also transliterated as Bandеrovetsy (Russian: бандеровцы ), and Ilya Ponomarev , who denied any connection to Morning of Dagestan on his facebook page, as the instigator of the pogrom . Both Maria Zakharova , who is the Director of

5202-587: The Farangi-sazi or the Europeanising painting style. Two of Abbas' court artists, Mohammad Zaman and Aliquli Jabbadar , were influenced by the European painting style and made efforts to either copy it or to demonstrate traditional Iranian themes in the Western style. Abbas himself was fascinated by European paintings. He sent a group of Iranian painters to Europe for further training. Among them

5355-506: The ulama on these taxes. He maintained friendly relations with the renowned Shi'ia scholars of his time such as Mohsen Fayz Kashani , Mohammad Bagher Sabzevari and Mohammad Taqi Majlesi (the father of Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi ). Yet, he was not a zealous Shiite. The shah paid his respects to his ancestral Sufi order, the Safaviyya , built lodges in the order's most holy city, Ardabil , and engaged in discussions with Sufis. However,

5508-637: The Abbasids , the struggle against the Khazars continued. This struggle, which lasted for two centuries, ended with the victory of the Muslim Arabs. In 815, Sheikh Abu Ishaq and Sheikh Mohammed al-Kindi entered Dagestan with a volunteer army of about 2000 people and tried to spread Islam. In the second half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks took a part of the region under their control. Dagestan

5661-601: The Bakhtrioni uprising . The rebels, led by Zaal of Aragvi, organised an alliance between the Georgian forces against the common enemy and attacked the Iranian fortresses of Bakhtrioni and Alaverdi , successfully driving out the Qizilbash tribes. Trying to reach a compromise, Abbas decided not to settle the Qizilbash tribes in Georgia. He acknowledged Vakhtang V , the adopted son of Rostom, as King of Kartli, but also had

5814-708: The Baltic states , Iran , Turkey and Central Asia. A railyard at the port connects the port to the North Caucasus Railway network. The city's main football team, FC Dynamo Makhachkala , currently plays in the Russian Premier League . They play in the 15,200 Dynamo Stadium . FC Anzhi Makhachkala , the city's former top team, played at Dynamo Stadium before moving to Anzhi Arena . Anzhi were purchased by Dagestani commodities billionaire Suleyman Kerimov in 2011, whose investments allowed

5967-707: The Mughal Empire in 1649 to recover the city of Kandahar . Kandahar had been surrendered to the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan , in 1638 by the city's governor, Ali Mardan Khan . In his later years Safi intended to muster an army and retake the city. However, his death halted a potential war. When Shah Jahan sought to advance into Transoxiana in early 1647, he sent an envoy to the Safavid court, and after negotiations, Abbas agreed not to invade Kandahar while Shah Jahan proceeded with his military campaign. In 1648, Shah Jahan catastrophically failed to conquer Samarkand ,

6120-575: The Persian Gulf . The companies' presence sometimes proved troublesome, its peak being in 1645, when the VOC was prompted to lay a naval blockade around Bandar Abbas because of what they saw as unfavourable terms for the purchase of silk. The blockade was short-lived, for the Dutch, wary of their own commercial losses and the expense involved, gave in to Iranian demands, after which they ended up concluding

6273-816: The Persian campaign of the 1722–1723 . The Endirey principality was the first to oppose the Russian forces, and despite their defeat, caused great losses which shocked the Emperor. Kumyks of the Utamish Soltanate also fiercely resisted during the Battle at the River Inchge. Peter I stated afterwards: If these people had a comprehension of the Military Science [Art], no other nation could take arms against them. The Tarki Shamkhalate initially took

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6426-626: The Schevkal campaign . This also failed and resulted in a significant loss for Russia at the Battle of Karaman. The united forces of the Dagestani peoples under the banners of the Kumyk Shamkhalian, Prince Soltan-Mahmud of Endirey prevailed, and according to the prominent Russian historian Nikolay Karamzin , stopped Russian expansion for the next 118 years until the rule of Peter I . In 1649 and 1650, Nogai leader Choban-murza sought

6579-617: The Sunzha River . Shah Abbas II intended to strengthen the Persian hold on the Kumyk lands, which didn't match with Surkhay's plans. In an alliance with Kaytag Uzmi Rustem, Surkhay III confronted Persians but was forced to withdraw. Nevertheless, the high losses disrupted the Shah's intentions of building fortresses in the Kumyk lands. In the 18th century, Russian Emperor Peter I organised

6732-409: The persecution of Sufis increased greatly during his reign and anti-Sufi writings by Shi'ia scholars such as Mir Lawhi and Muhammad Tahir Qummi rose in number. Abu Muslim , who was often seen as a messianic figure by the population, was targeted by Shi'ia essayists during Khalifeh Soltan's tenure, one of them being Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ardabili , who wrote Hadiqat al Shi'a . Abbas was not spared by

6885-516: The sadr-i mamalik (minister of religion) and was a member of the prestigious Karaki family that traced its line back to Shaykh Ali al-Karaki, the deputy of the Hidden Imam for Tahmasp I. He was described as a man of inaction, sluggish and impractical, and a puppet of a faction in court. His tenure saw the promotion of trade via the overland route to the Levant . He made an effort to investigate

7038-651: The 1660 fire of Istanbul , which destroyed two-thirds of the city. As a sign of lasting peace, in 1657, a new trade agreement was signed between the two empires which further assured the importance of the Anatolian trade routes and the Armenians’ role in the overland silk trade. Relations with the Uzbeks were also peaceful. The new Khan of Khiva , Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur , who had spent many years in Safi's court in exile,

7191-573: The 16th century, Kumyk rulers tried to balance their relationships with their three neighbouring states, and as a result the Shamkhalate established itself as a considerable regional power. The two empires and yet-to-be one Russian state considered the Caspian area as their influence domain. Shamkhal Chopan became a subject of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century, and participated in the 1578–1590 Ottoman-Persian War . The 1560s marked

7344-588: The 19th century, during and following the Caucasian War , numbers of Kumyks were subject to or willingly resettled (made hijra ) to the Ottoman Empire as a result of Russian deportation campaigns in the region. In the 1910s–1920s, during the Russian Revolution , another emigration wave to Turkey took place. Among the muhajirs (migrants) of that period were many prominent Kumyk nobility. Kumyks also used to move to Syria and Jordan, where

7497-536: The 8–19 cc., that "Gumik — Kumyk — Kumuk" is originally a Dagestani toponym from the Middle Ages . In various Russian, European, Ottoman and Persian sources Kumyks were also called Dagestan Tatars (or Dagestan Turks), Circassian and Caucasus Tatars. There is no universal opinion regarding the origin of the Kumyks. Some scholars propose that the population of the Kumyk plains of the 8th-10th centuries were directly ancestral to modern Kumyks. A view close to that

7650-649: The Armenian historian, Arakel of Tabriz , suggests the number was only 350. During Mohammad Beg's tenure, some of the Christian churches were closed and the Christians were forbidden to construct new churches. Abbas himself was tolerant towards Christians. He frequently attended Armenian church services and ceremonies, and gave permission for the Jesuits to establish a mission in Isfahan in 1653. He dismissed both

7803-723: The Botheragan-Madjar region in the 7th century, which encompassed the vast North Caucasian plains. Kumyks historically were related to the states of the Caucasian Huns , Cuman-Kipchaks , and the Golden Horde . The beginning of the Kumyk nation is often considered to be in the Khazar Kaganate era. Until the 19th century, the Kumyks were a largely feudal, decentralized entity of strategical geographic and political importance for Russia, Persia and

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7956-481: The British No. 221 Squadron Royal Air Force based themselves at Petrovsk. In March they were joined by No. 266 Squadron and both squadrons were involved in bombing operations against Bolshevik forces in Astrakhan and elsewhere. In August 1919 both squadrons were withdrawn from Petrovsk. The city was invaded by the Red Army in March 1920. As part of the Soviet revolution, place names relating to monarchy or religion were changed, and thus on May 14, 1921, Petrovsk

8109-483: The Caspian Sea very mild by Russian standards. Summers are sunnier but also dry as the region is exposed to steep descending vertical velocity from the Indian monsoon, and the greatest rainfall occurs in the autumn season from September to November. October 1987 with 245 millimetres or 9.65 inches has been the wettest month, whilst no precipitation occurred in February 1958, October 1974 and April 1986. The coldest month since records began in 1882 has been February 1929 with

8262-404: The Great and Safi, from 1623 to 1632. The first cleric to become the grand vizier, he was concerned with enacting the sharia , but only succeeded in the matter of prohibiting visual misrepresentations of the religious law. Even then, he could never eliminate the widespread habit of drinking wine, only partially controlling the habit by imposing harsh penalties. One of his more successful policies

8415-400: The Great. Abbas the Great was succeeded by his grandson, Safi . A reclusive and passive character, Safi was unable to fill the power vacuum which his grandfather had left behind. His officials undermined his authority and revolts constantly broke out across the realm. The continuing war with the Ottoman Empire , started with initial success during Abbas the Great's reign, but ended with

8568-489: The Imam Shamil — Idris of Endirey. According to genetic studies in 2023, the following haplogroups are found to predominate among Kumyks : The tsarist and Soviet government pursued a policy of settling the Kumyk lands with other peoples from the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Abbas II of Persia Abbas II ( Persian : عباس دوم , romanized :  ʿAbbās II ; born Soltan Mohammad Mirza ; 30 August 1632 – 26 October 1666)

8721-410: The Information and Press Department at the Russian foreign ministry , and Dmitry Peskov , who is Vladimir Putin 's personal press secretary, supported Sergey Melikov's accusations of participation from Ukrainian provacateurs for the cause of the pogrom. On June 23, 2024, unknown attackers carried out a terrorist attack in Makhachkala. Many people were killed and wounded. A priest was murdered, and

8874-424: The Iranian court and non-court markets. Western observers have often portrayed Abbas II's personality in favourable terms. He was generous towards friends and strangers alike, especially in his carousing parties. Abbas started drinking in 1649, when he was only seventeen. His carousing parties are the most well-documented part of his life, being described in detail in the Abbas-nama . The shah would usually invite

9027-434: The Iranians appreciated Abbas's justice, stating that he treated his people favourably, while making himself feared abroad, and that he loved justice and did not abuse his power by oppressing his people. The VOC envoy Joan Cuneaus, who met Abbas in 1652, described him as "being of medium height, rather skinny, loose-limbed, and beardless". However, surviving portraits show him with a longish face, sharply defined features and

9180-450: The Islamic As-Salam . In addition, several regional television stations are based in the city. Within the framework of administrative divisions , it is, together with eight urban-type settlements and six rural localities , incorporated as the City of Makhachkala —an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the City of Makhachkala is incorporated as Makhachkala Urban Okrug . For

9333-450: The Kerman workshops, were of sufficient quality to attract the attention of Dutch and English traders in Bandar Abbas who sought alternatives to Chinese porcelain that, following the Ming dynasty ’s collapse in 1643–1645, stopped being exported until 1683. In addition to ceramics, Kerman, alongside Isfahan and Kashan , continued to be centres of the Persian carpet industry; producing carpets in silk with gold and silver brocade for both

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9486-412: The King of Karteli and invaded Teimuraz's lands. Teimuraz remained the King of Kakheti and organised insurgencies across Rostom's borders until 1648, when at the behest of Abbas, Rostom invaded Kakheti and sent Teimuraz into exile. In 1659, Rostom died and the crown of Kartli became vacant. Abbas sought to settle the Qizilbash tribes in the Georgian region, a measure that incited a major rebellion known as

9639-433: The Mughal emperor; Abbas I and Vali Muhammad Khan , the Khan of Bukhara; and a painting of Abbas II along with Nader Mohammad Khan. Iranian ceramics production also continued apace during Abbas' reign despite the economic decline. As a result of Chinese influence, the ceramics between 1640s and 1650s became blue-and-white themed in accordance with the porcelain then coming from China . These ceramics, made mainly in

9792-399: The Mughals rather than the strength of the Safavids. The Mughals did not hesitate to send a relief force; the first of which was a counter-attack led by Prince Aurangzeb which proved ineffectual. Two years later, Shah Jahan himself set out to retake Kandahar with an army fully equipped with war elephants and canons. However, his effort proved in vain, and after four months of a siege of

9945-407: The Ottomans, headed by a leader called the Shamkhal (originally Shawkhal, in Russian sources Shevkal ). The Kumyk polity known as the Shamkhalate of Tarki was mentioned as early as the 14th century by Timurid historians. Other Kumyk states included the Endirey Principality, Utamish Sultanate, Tumen Possession, Braguny Principality, Mekhtuly Khanate, Kaytag Uzminate and others. In

10098-423: The Petrovskoye fortress was renamed Petrovsk-Port ( Петро́вск-Порт ), sometimes simply Petrovsk . In 1894, a railway line linked the city to Vladikavkaz (in present-day North Ossetia-Alania ) and Baku (in present-day Azerbaijan ). However, despite the development, a report from 1904 detailed the spread of malaria and unsuitable drinking water in the city. In January 1919, during the Russian Civil War ,

10251-415: The Rasht Treaty signed in 1732, and some lands between the Sulak and Kura (Kür) rivers with the 1735 treaty. After 1747, the Russians regained influence in Dagestan. In the 1840s, after Russian Empire seized the Kumyk plateau, Anji-kala became the place where fort Petrovskoye was founded. A town status was granted to the fortress in 1857. The Russian name of the city was Petrovskoye ( Петро́вское )—after

10404-412: The Russian Tsar Peter the Great , who waged war in the region in 1722 during his Persian Campaign . However, among the local Kumyks the city was still known as Anzhi-Qala , The Pearl Fortress ( Qala means fortress or a city with walls, while Anzhi / Inzhi / Inji means pearl in Kumyk ). There is also still a hill called Anji-arqa , meaning the hill of Anji . After gaining town status in 1857,

10557-409: The Russians and destroyed their base. After this, negotiations over outstanding issues would continue for ten years, with couriers going back and forth between Moscow and Isfahan. Khalifeh Soltan had found an adversary in the master of the hunt, Allahverdi Khan , an Armenian ghulam and the childhood friend of Abbas, who had risen quickly up the ranks of the bureaucracy, first becoming the master of

10710-447: The Russians and dismissed the Russian officials for their renewed anti-Ottomanism. Between 1647 and 1653 tension increased over a series of caravan robberies, and detention of Russian merchants from Iran. These tensions led to a small conflict between 1651 and 1653 , during which the Russians tried to expand their territories south to the Terek river which the Safavids considered as part of their realm. The Russians attempted to build

10863-476: The Safavid empire during its decline, one of them being not preparing the crown prince for rule. He excluded the Qizilbash influence in Safavid bureaucracy, and instead allowed a coalition of concubines , eunuchs and ghulams to hold power during the last decade of his reign. According to a report by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), Soltan Mohammad Mirza was born on 30 August 1632 in Qazvin . The eldest son of Safi of Persia and Anna Khanum , he grew up in

11016-489: The Shamkhalate Revolt of 1831, the revolt at the Kumyk plains in 1831 and the Shamkhalate Revolt of 1843. There were also preparations for an insurgency on the Kumyk plains in 1844 and for a general Kumyk insurgency in 1855, which had been planned as a joined action with the advance of Imam Shamil , but the advance didn't progress enough into the Kumyk lands. In the insurgency in Dagestan in 1877–1878, one of

11169-478: The Shi'ia scholars, who argued that he should abdicate to make room for a more devoted king on account of Abbas's unholy lifestyle. Abbas drank heavily in his drinking parties with his courtiers, yet would dismiss his staff for their drunkenness. In 1653, the shah was persuaded to give up drinking by a Shi'ia scholar, possibly Sabzevari, who argued that abstemious monarchs were stronger, happier, and more likely to live longer, an example being Tahmasp I. Thereafter, for

11322-645: The War gave the Caucasus many common heroes. Imam of Dagestan and Chechnya Shamil was of Kumyk descent, as well as his companion and the second pretender to the Imam's position Tashaw-Hadji. Also, Kumyks were the leaders of the earlier Dagestani revolts, such as Soltan Ahmed-Khan of the Avars, and Umalat-bek of Boynak (the heir of the Tarki throne), companion of the imam Gazi-Muhammad Razibek of Kazanish, trusted companion of

11475-480: The aftermath of Saru Taqi's assassination. One of the victims was Jani Khan, who was poisoned by the royal sommelier , Safi Quli Beg. Jani Khan's death was endorsed by Anna Khanum who, saddened by Saru Taqi's death, also ordered the purge of Jani Khan's tribe, the Shamlu . In need of a regent, Abbas called for Khalifeh Soltan to serve him as the grand vizier. Khalifeh Soltan had been the grand vizier to both Abbas

11628-460: The ancestral Timurid capital. Seeing the favourable turn of events, the powerful factions of the court encouraged Abbas to launch a campaign to reconquer Kandahar. Abbas instantly took command of 50,000 men and marched towards Kandahar via Afghanistan . The shah's army reached the city's outskirts in January 1649, and after two months of fighting, took the possession of the city's strongholds and

11781-581: The ancient city were destroyed and used as construction materials for the infrastructure of Makhachkala. Protests and violent police clashes occurred in Makhachkala, as was the case in other Russian cities, in response to the 2022 Russian mobilization , as well as a call-up of 110 men from the village of Endirey to be conscripted into the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine . According to the BBC, 301 Dagestani soldiers had died in Ukraine as of September 2022. This

11934-420: The areas around it. During the siege, the Iranian army was demoralised by oppressive commanders, lack of pay, and substandard accommodation, and thus suffered great losses. The Safavid army under Abbas was poorly equipped and underfed. Many of his soldiers deserted during the march from Afghanistan, and the fact that the Safavid army could nevertheless reconquer the city owed more to the weak political standing of

12087-403: The army, Mohammad Beg discontinued the position of sipahsalar to prevent a salary cost he considered unnecessary and he eliminated the artillery department. Mohammad Beg also sought to sell the mansions Abbas had confiscated. According to Jean Chardin, the shah had more than 137 of these mansions in Isfahan alone. However, no one bought them, so Mohammad Beg's scheme failed. He also prohibited

12240-404: The basis of their fiscal and administrative competence, and gave them enough influence to ensure their own policies could be implemented. His endeavours meant that his 24-year-long reign was relatively peaceful and free of rebellions. The Iranian chronicles describe a number of years of his reign, such as 1660 and 1669, as “uneventful” and Western observers were often astonished by the well-being of

12393-663: The beginning of the 17th century, the people of Dagestan united under the leadership of Çolak Surhay Khan of the Gazikumukh Khanate , and they won a victory against Iran in 1712. In order to continue their success, he took the people of Dagestan, who asked for help from the Ottoman administration, under his protection by sending gifts to the sultans of the Sublime Porte . Although the Russians could not hold on to

12546-475: The beginning of the 19th century but were met with fierce resistance of Dagestanis. Shah Abbas II established a significant influence in Dagestan in 1639. It started to attract the attention of the Russians from the 17th century onwards. It remained the scene of a struggle for influence between Iranians, Russians and Ottomans from the beginning of the 17th century. When the Safavids began to lose their power at

12699-568: The beginning of the Caucasian war (resulting from the Treaty of Gulistan ), there were numerous revolts in Kumykia. In 1825 the village of [Old] Aksay was destroyed and 300 men from the settlement were gathered for their participation in the insurgence against Russian Empire led by the Chechen leader Taymiyev Biybolat, and murdered when Ochar-Haji, one of the Kumyks, killed two Russian generals on

12852-583: The building of the Khaju Bridge , the completion of the Chehel Sotoun , and the expansion of the Ali Qapu . His construction in Isfahan led to the expansion of the city's public sphere , generating a lively coffeehouse culture combining royal patronage and popular entertainment in the form of Naqali (storytelling of Shahnameh ). The sponsorship of the arts continued during his reign, causing

13005-549: The capital of the Shamkhal, which comprised 1,000 households; the total number of destroyed households amounts to 6,110. Shamkhal, having only 3,000 troops, couldn't resist the overwhelming number of Russians, who had in their ranks 8,000 Cossacks and Kalmyks only, not counting the regular troops, and two infantry regiments and two cavalries; Adil-Girey [Shamkhal] left Tarki and together with the Turkish ambassador had sent letters to other mountaineer possessors, asking for help, but got

13158-434: The city, he had to retreat because of the approaching cold season. The last Mughal attempt to take Kandahar was in 1653, when Prince Dara Shikoh led an army which prompted Abbas to mobilise his men. However, a growing financial crisis hampered Abbas's efforts. Even then, the Mughal army struggled to sustain the siege with their medium-sized guns being insufficient for an effective siege. The organisational problems, along with

13311-538: The club to sign players such as Brazilian World Cup winner Roberto Carlos and Cameroonian striker Samuel Eto'o who, during his time at the club, became the world's highest paid player. The club lived its golden era, finished in the Top 5 for two consecutive seasons ( 2011-12 and 2012-13 ) and qualified for the UEFA Europa League, reaching the round of 16 on both occasions. However, after 2013, due to unrest in

13464-526: The decline of the Safavid state and created a period of prosperity, stability and peace that with his death ended once and for all. The Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501, when Ismail I took the city of Tabriz from the Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans and proclaimed himself the Shah of Iran. He was succeeded by his son, Tahmasp I , whose reign saw the long Ottoman-Safavid war of 1532–1555 . He

13617-519: The early Middle Ages. It would be preferable to also identify whether Kamaks, who used to be settled in the North Dagestan in the beginning of our era, are related to Kumyks. Another prominent Russian Orientalist , V. Minorsky, proposed his adjustment to the views mentioned, stating that: Today's Kumyk Turks, who populate North Eastern part of Dagestan, along the shore, possibly come from the basic Khazar stratum, strengthened and assimilated by

13770-463: The end, with the Iranian cooperation, Mohammad Khan and Abd al-Aziz settled for a truce. The truce, however, only led to further strife in early 1650s, and Mohammad Khan again fled to Isfahan. He died en route in 1653. Later, Abbas arranged agreements with the Uzbeks of Bukhara and kept them from raiding the Iranian territory until his death. Abbas's reign saw further construction in Isfahan, including

13923-603: The first years of his reign, a coalition of Saru Taqi, Jani Beg Khan Shamlu, the qurchi-bashi and Mohammad Beg , a statesman and the future grand vizier, effectively ruled Iran. In addition, Saru Taqi and Jani Khan had a family alliance through the marriage of Mirza Qasem, the former's nephew, to the daughter of Jani Khan. However, this alliance did not save the grand vizier from assassination. On 11 October 1645 Jani Khan and five other conspirators attacked and murdered him on his house. Jani Khan had over time implanted in Abbas' mind

14076-626: The humiliating defeat of Iran and the Treaty of Zuhab , which returned much of Iran's conquests in Mesopotamia to the Ottomans. In order to assert his authority, Safi purged every potential claimant to his throne, including the sons of the Safavid princesses, and the sons of Abbas the Great, who were blinded and thus were unqualified to rule. The purge also saw the deaths of the leading figures of

14229-444: The hunt and then, the qurchi-bashi in 1649. By the early 1650s, Allahverdi was the shah's favourite , and he used his influence over the shah to endorse a grand vizier after Khalifeh Soltan died in 1654. Thanks to Allahverdi's recommendation, Abbas appointed Mohammad Beg, an Armenian by origin, and the intendant-general of the court. Mohammad Beg's tenure saw an economic decline, mainly caused by Abbas' costly campaign to Kandahar and

14382-430: The idea that Saru Taqi was driving the realm into ruin and posed a threat to the shah himself. He murdered Saru Taqi by the authority of the shah. His death gave the shah the confidence to assert his authority over the court; that year he purged the ranks of bureaucracy just as his father had done. According to Dutch observers, Abbas's purge was no less bloody than Safi's purge, with between 8,000 and 10,000 people killed in

14535-673: The inner palace or hunting or drinking parties, while Mohammad Beg hid unpleasant news from him. Ultimately, Mohammad Beg fell from the shah's grace thanks to the efforts of his initial supporter, Allahverdi Khan, who informed Abbas of Mohammad Beg's lies and deceptions. The shah exiled Mohammad Beg to Qom on 19 January 1661. Mohammad Beg's dismissal was widely seen as a loss by the Dutch East India Company who enjoyed exporting gold secretly through Iran's trade routes by bribing Mohammad Beg to keep this activity quiet. In 1661, Abbas appointed Mirza Mohammad Karaki as his fourth and last grand vizier. Karaki had previously performed satisfactorily as

14688-441: The interior of Dagestan, they expanded their sovereignty towards the Caspian coast and could only be stopped in front of Baku with the help of the Ottoman forces under the command of Mustafa Pasha. With a treaty signed between Russia and Iran in 1724, Derbend, Baku and some other places in the region were left to Russia. As a result of his struggles against the Russians, Nadir Shah captured the south of Dagestan, Derbend and Baku with

14841-591: The lands populated by Kumyks were once part of the independent Tarki Shamkhalate . Kumyks comprise 14% of the population of the Republic of Dagestan, the third-largest population of Chechnya, and the fifth-largest population of North Ossetia, all of which are parts of the Russian Federation . Kumyks are the second largest Turkic -speaking ethnic group after Azerbaijanis in the Causasus ,

14994-537: The largest Turkic people of the North Caucasus and the third largest ethnic group of Dagestan. According to the Russian national census of 2010 there were more than 500,000 Kumyks in Russia. In terms of administrative division in their native lands, Kumyks today are mostly divided between a few administrative regions of Russia, such as Republic of Dagestan , Republic of North-Ossetia , Chechen Republic . In

15147-431: The last decade of his reign, only ten of these mints were still operational. New mechanical European minting technology was introduced to Iran during Abbas's reign. He is said to have admired it and showed a desire to acquire this new technology. A dominant feature attributed to Abbas II that distinguished him from his father and his successors was his persistent concern for state affairs. This feature did not wane even at

15300-424: The last moment declared the true reason "to use the opportunity to attack the city of Endirey and plunder Kumyks' cattle". However, the troops disbanded in disappointment. Gazi-Muhammad himself tried to make Kumyks resettle higher in the mountains from the plains and join his resistance by destroying Kumyk settlements, as stated in the Russian military archives: Kazi-mulla, trying to hold Kumyks close, came up with

15453-633: The later re-settlers from the Kipchak steppes. The final stages of the Kumyk ethnogenesis stretched from the 12th-17th centuries. Some of the Turkic peoples who assimilated into the Kumyk nation were those of Tumens from the Tumen Khanate (Caucasian Tumen), which emerged in the 15th century as a fragment of the dissolved Golden Horde ; those of Bothe Bogans, Sople and pre-Cuman Turks, who populated

15606-538: The latter period, when remains of Cumans defeated by Mongols fled to the lands of Dagestan. A modern interpretation was proposed that " from the Turkified Lezgins , Kumyks also emerged" . However, professor of Caucasus studies L. Lavrov doubted the "Turkification" hypothesis of Kumyk origin: It's unlikely that Kumyks might be Turkified Dagestanians, as some claim. Rather, their ancestors are considered to be Kipchaks, Khazars and, probably, other Turks of

15759-479: The major centres of conflict was the Kumyk village of Bashly. Despite the devastation brought by the Imperial Army for their attempts to rise against Russia, the Kumyk plains were also exposed to plundering forays from the neighboring tribes. For instance, in 1830, one Chechen leader, Avko, gathered forces in a call to allegedly join the troops of the leader of the Caucasian resistance, Gazi-Muhammad, but at

15912-463: The morning of October 30, 2023. On October 28 and 29, Morning of Dagestan , also transliterated as Utro Dagestana (Russian: «Утро Дагестана» ) began publishing false reports its Telegram channel about "refugees from Israel" who were allegedly fleeing from the October 7, 2023 Hamas attack on Israel and arriving in the North Caucasus . Later, this grew into calls for a pogrom. Sergei Melikov , who

16065-468: The most valiant and inimical to us tribe was that of the Kumyks. Kumyks were one of the major forces in the late 18th century Sheikh Mansur's insurgence. Kumyk prince Chepalow, in alliance with Mansur made several attempts to attack the Russian stronghold of Kizlyar . In the final battle, Mansur led the Kumyk forces himself. Despite the formal acceptance of the Russian sovereignty over the Shamkhals at

16218-475: The name "Kumyk" from a Turkic ethnonym Kimak , or from another name for Kipchaks — Cuman . According to P. Uslar, in the 19th century the names "Kumyk" and "Kumuk" pertained to the Turkic speaking population of the Northern Caucasian lowlands. In Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia , the name Kumyk, or originally Kumuk pertained to the Kumyks only. Y. Fyodorov wrote, based on sources from

16371-458: The ongoing specie problem that Mohammad Beg had left behind. However, he was caught up in a domestic crisis. In 1663, he had the qurchi-bashi Murtaza Quli Khan Qajar decapitated and tempted the shah to also execute his successor. Overall, Karaki had a lesser influence over the shah than his predecessor. During his tenure, Abbas spent more time in the inner palace and kept the grand vizier ignorant of his private affairs. Karaki did not even know that

16524-442: The outer world (as had his father), was sent to Qazvin to be educated as a king; the quick progress he made enabled him to be introduced to the religious texts. Abbas forged a lifelong interest in theology ; this may have been the result of his reading a new Persian translation of Al-Kafi . In addition to his studies (on a variety of subjects), the shah also learned riding, archery, polo and other equestrian games. Throughout

16677-516: The peace with the Ottoman Empire or due to the concurrent economical crisis. This was first evident among the provincial contingents and not as yet among the main body of the royal army, which in 1654 was increased by a small corps of qurchi infantry consisting of 600 men, and later increasing to 2,000 men. However, the state could no longer pay the army while also supporting the court's extravagant and luxurious living. Therefore, serving soldiers became impoverished. The strength of units fell, and it

16830-436: The peak of his drinking and at the times of his illness. Described by historians such as Rudi Matthee as the last strong king of the Safavid dynasty, Abbas II is often mentioned alongside Ismail I and Abbas I as one of the three outstanding ruling figures of the Safavids. He could have been the king who prevented the downfall of the Safavid kingdom, if it were not for the numerous challenges that hampered his efforts. Abbas II

16983-471: The protection of Sultan-Mahmud of Endirey, recognized today as a pan-Caucasian hero. In 1594, the other campaign of Khvorostinin in Dagestan was organised, during which Russian forces and Terek Cossacks seized Tarki again, but were blocked by the Kumyk forces and forced to retreat to Terki, which resulted in a stampede. In 1604–1605, Ivan Buturlin conducted one more campaign against the Kyumks, often known as

17136-456: The protection of their allies in the Shamkhalate. Russia, at war with the Nogais, sent 8,000 men in order to force the nomadic tribe to return to Russian territory. Surkhay-Shawkhal III attacked and routed Russian troops at the Battle of Germenchik. Kumyk military success continued from 1651 to 1653, when the Kumyks, this time in an alliance with Safavid forces, destroyed the Russian fortress at

17289-404: The purposes of administration, the city is divided into three city districts, from west to east: Kirovsky , Sovetsky and Leninsky . In May 2015, these three city districts were granted municipal status. The coat of arms and flag of Makhachkala were adopted on December 15, 2006. The coat of arms shows the city's historic fortress in silver on a red field, with flames coming from either tower and

17442-442: The queen mother ruled the realm through him upon Mohammad Mirza's ascension. Safi sought to have Mohammad Mirza and his brothers blinded, but thanks to the sympathy of a eunuch whose job was to blind the princes, Mohammad Mirza retained his sight by feigning blindness. He did this until the end of his father's reign. This deception partly explains why he was still illiterate at the age of ten. On 15 May 1642, aged nine-and-a-half,

17595-424: The realm. An example of Safi's cruelty occurred on the night of 20 February 1632, also known as the bloody Ma'bas , in which he had forty females of the harem put to death. The last act of his bloodshed was the killing of his grand vizier, Mirza Taleb Khan, who was replaced with a ghulam (military slave) named Mirza Mohammad Taqi Khan, more famously known as Saru Taqi . As a eunuch , Saru Taqi had access to

17748-738: The rebel leaders executed. To achieve a reconciliation with the Georgians, Abbas later married Vakhtang's daughter, Anuka. During Abbas' reign, Iran's sphere of influence over Caucasus clashed with that of the Russians . From 1646, the Tsardom of Russia began undermining the rights of foreign merchants who delivered silk via Iran to Sweden , and in 1649, the Russian government issued a new policy of economic regulations known as Sobornoye Ulozheniye , which further curtailed foreigners' rights. In his early years, Abbas sought to decrease interactions with

17901-580: The region, the players moved to live and train in Moscow, while the local matches in Makhachkala were guarded by armed patrols. This situation, followed by severe budget cuts, made the club lose most of its key players, going on to finish bottom of the table in the 2013–14 season, and later folding in 2022 after having fallen to the third division. UFC lightweight champion Islam Makhachev was born and educated in Makhachkala Makhachkala has

18054-523: The reign of Umayyad Caliph Hisham b. Abdülmelik (724-743), the caliph's brother Maslama succeeded in establishing Islamic dominance in the region with his conquests. In the following years, one of the Umayyad commanders, Marwan b. Mohammed also organized successful raids to Dagestan. However, the Islamic domination in the region ended in 796 (180 AH) when the Khazars captured Derbend . In the early days of

18207-628: The risk of war was so acute that the governor of the Turkish border provinces had even evacuated the civilian population in expectation of an Iranian attack, or in Basra , where the shah's aid had been sought to settle a struggle for the succession. No dangers arose from the Ottomans, whether because the Ottoman Sultan , Mehmed IV , was already occupied with the Cretan War , or because of the internal crises that occurred during his reign such as

18360-467: The royal family. He died after a short reign in 1577 after consuming poisoned opium, a supposed plot by his sister, Pari Khan Khanum and the Qizilbash leaders. Ismail II was succeeded by his blind brother, Mohammad Khodabanda , whose reign was one of continuous instability. In 1578, the Ottomans declared war on the weakened Safavid state and conquered the Safavid lands in the Caucasus and even managed to seize most of Azerbaijan . Mohammad Khodabanda

18513-456: The royal harem, and used this ability to forge relations with the shah's concubines. He influenced Safi, persuading him to increase the royal domains by passing the Fars province to the crown demesne . He imposed heavy taxes throughout the realm, especially on Isfahan 's Armenian population, and investigated the revenue flows of the previous governor of Gilan . He was described as greedy and

18666-427: The royal harem, surrounded by women and eunuchs , and was tutored by Rajab Ali Tabrizi . His mother, a Circassian concubine, only gained political standing in the harem and thus distinguish herself from other nameless concubines because she had produced the shah's male heir. Saru Taqi had a close relationship with Anna Khanum, as observed by travellers such as Jean Chardin . He was an agent and confidant to her, and

18819-558: The rural population in Iran in contrast to the worse plight of the peasants in the West. The same Western travellers speak of Abbas' reign with nostalgia when they visited Iran a generation later during the reign of his successor, Suleiman I . After the fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722, commentators spoke of him as a forceful ruler who temporarily reversed the decline of the Safavid state. Modern historians, such as Hans Robert Roemer, call him

18972-471: The same day, it became capital of the newly formed Dagestan ASSR . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the city became the capital of the Republic of Dagestan. Makhachkala is an important economic, educational, scientific, and cultural centre of the North Caucasus. The city is a major Russian seaport on the Caspian Sea, and a transport hub. It is one of the fastest-growing cities in Russia, and

19125-399: The scarcity of raw materials for the silk trade. Notwithstanding his long-standing economical experience, Mohammad Beg could not come up with a solution to the excessive expenditures by the court and the expensive investment on the army. He drove the state's income into a further decline by enhancing centralisation, a process that could not be supported by New Julfa 's trade network. Regarding

19278-516: The senior Shi'ia cleric, the Sheikh al-Islam of Isfahan, and the royal prayer-leader for preaching against Christians, and is even said to have threatened the former with impalement . Three years after Mohammad Beg's dismissal in 1664, the construction of the Vank Cathedral and five other churches were completed. Under Abbas II, the Safavid army military started to decline, either due to

19431-545: The shah had a son named Sam Mirza . During the last decade of his reign, Abbas withdrew from state affairs to engage in sexual activities and drinking parties. At first, his persistent drinking did not seem to have affects on his governing, but slowly it got the better of him. He threw luxurious parties and, after these parties, hid from the public for two or three weeks. Eventually, on 26 October 1666, while in his winter town, Behshahr , Abbas II died of various debilities and illnesses, including syphilis , and throat cancer ,

19584-642: The spot. In the same year the people of Endirey joined forces with mountain communities against the Russians. In total, there were at least five revolts in Shamkhalate and on the Kumyk plateau (called also Kumyk plains ): the Anti-Russian revolt, resulting in the defeat of Northern Kumyks (Endirey and Aksay principalities) and the then-disestablished Mekhtula Khanate, the Shamkhalate Revolt of 1823, participation in Beybulat Taymiyev's revolt (who though recently had pledged allegiance to Russia),

19737-585: The start of the numerous campaigns of the Imperial Russian Army against Kumyks, provoked by the requests of the Georgians and Kabardians . Commander Cheremisinov seized and plundered the capital of Tarki in 1560. The Tumen Khanate, allied with the Shamkhalate also resisted the invasion, but was conquered by Russia in 1588. The Russians established the Terki stronghold (Not to be mistaken for Tarki ) in its former capital. Tumen ruler Soltaney fled to

19890-544: The universe a die of sahebqerani made / Assist by truth, ‘Abbās the second). In this panegyric distich, Abbas called himself Saheb Qeran, 'Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction', and accordingly, named his coins sahebqerani. This name gradually became widely used to refer to any state coin. The financial crisis during his reign prompted Abbas to reduce the weight of his coins and decrease the number of Safavid mints that once numbered between 16 and 19. During

20043-404: The usage of gold coins to the point where the state was flooded with silver coinage. Perhaps the most imaginative and catastrophic of Mohammad Beg's measures was his plan to unlock and harness some of the realm's natural resources. He made an effort to mine deposits of precious metals in the vicinity of Isfahan, and he employed a self-styled French expert named, Chapelle de Han, whose proved to be

20196-569: The war with the Mughal Empire and successfully recovering the city of Kandahar . At his behest, Rostom Khan , the King of Kartli and a Safavid vassal , invaded the Kingdom of Kakheti in 1648 and sent the rebellious monarch Teimuraz I into exile. In 1651, Teimuraz tried to reclaim his lost crown with the support of the Russian Tsardom , but the Russians were defeated by Abbas' army in

20349-426: The words of Chardin, he considered himself put on the throne by God to rule as a king responsible for the welfare of all his subjects, not as a tyrant bent on the curtailment of freedom, including the freedom of conscience. In Western eyes, this sense of justice makes his brutality (which sometimes is seen as a fault) akin to the harsh punishments of Abbas the Great rather than the cruelty of Safi. According to Chardin,

20502-502: The young Abbas's court after being dethroned by his son, Abd al-Aziz Khan and losing Balkh to the Mughals. Abbas treated him with the utmost consideration and honour, sending his own physician to treat him when he fell ill, and in return, Mohammad Khan showed great delight and courtesy when the Shah came to visit him. Initially, the shah wanted to give Mohammad Khan military assistance to reclaim his throne, but Saru Taqi prevented him. In

20655-562: The young prince ascended the throne, four days after the death of Safi, and following a meeting of the state council organised by Saru Taqi. At his coronation ceremony, Mohammad Mirza adopted the regnal name Abbas, and issued a tax remission of 500,000 tomans , in addition to a ban on the consumption of alcoholic drinks. The grand vizier maintained his position in a smooth transition of power, later removing rivals such as Rustam Bek, an influential Georgian figure during Safi's reign, to consolidate his grip on power. Abbas, until now secluded from

20808-629: Was Mohammad Zaman who spent two or three years in Rome. The masterpiece of Abbas II's reign is the Chehel Sotoun wall paintings. A palace intended for the Nowruz festivals, the Chehel Sotoun's wall paintings constitute the most important part of the palace's decorative program. They often depict historical scenes: the Battle of Marv between Ismail I and Muhammad Shaybani ; Tahmasp I meeting Humayun ,

20961-401: Was able to remove Saru Taqi from power, and after purging the bureaucracy ranks, asserted his authority over his court and began his absolute rule . Abbas II's reign was marked by peace and progress. He intentionally avoided a war with the Ottoman Empire and his relations with the Uzbeks in the east were friendly. He enhanced his reputation as a military commander by leading his army during

21114-608: Was able to safeguard his father's empire from collapsing even though he lost lands in Mesopotamia to the Ottomans . Tahmasp established a new polity for the Safavid state; he decreased the Qizilbash influence on the Iranian bureaucracy. He developed a "third force" containing Georgian and Armenian slaves who he brought from Caucasus to reduce the Turkoman and the Iranian influence in the court. Tahmasp died in 1576 after

21267-526: Was accused by Western observers of accepting bribes. In 1634, Saru Taqi appointed his brother, Mohammad Saleh Beg, as the governor of Mazandaran to counteract the Mar'ashi Sayyid line. Saru Taqi's family held the province's governorship until the end of Safi's reign. Safi died from excessive drinking on 12 May 1642, leaving behind a country smaller than it was when he inherited it. A weak-minded man lacking charisma, Safi manifested many problems that later plagued

21420-400: Was centralisation. He confiscated Saru Taqi's familial lands as his personal estates and throughout his reign also incorporated other cities such as Hamadan , Ardabil and Kerman into the royal domain. Abbas' reign was predominantly peaceful; the shah preferred to keep the peace with the Ottoman Empire and overall did not start a conflict with his neighbouring nations except for a war with

21573-418: Was distributed to the Makhachkala city council (6243 out of 8166 hectares), in addition to the collective farms of the mountainous regions and industrial enterprises of Makhachkala. After the return of the Kumyk population in 1957, the lands of the collective farms were not restored, personal property was also lost, many houses were occupied by people resettled from mountainous areas. The historical monuments of

21726-532: Was enthroned in the same year as Abbas. He did not threaten the Iranian borders in the Greater Khorasan . However, relations with the Khanate of Bukhara were hostile, although this hostility was not based on Uzebks raids, but rather, on the conflicts within the ruling dynasty of Bukhara, and the fugitive khans taking shelter in Iran. In 1646, Nader Mohammad Khan, the then Khan of Bukhara, took refuge in

21879-664: Was invaded by the Mongols in 1222. The Cumans (Kipchaks), who ruled in the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus, played an important role in the Turkification of the region. Later on, the Ilkhanids , Golden Horde Khanate , Timurids , Shirvanshahs and Safavids dominated Dagestan respectively. Dagestan came under Ottoman rule between 1578 and 1606. The Safavids started operations to spread Shiism in Dagestan at

22032-559: Was located in Kumykia , and which was a part of possessions of Tarki state , the capital of Kumyks known from the 8th century. The city was named Petrovskoye after Peter the Great . After gaining city status in 1857, the Petrovskoye fortress was renamed Petrovsk-Port . After the Russian Revolution , Petrovsk-Port was renamed Makhachkala on May 14, 1921, after Bolshevik revolutionary Makhach Dakhadaev  [ ru ] . On

22185-512: Was overthrown by his youngest son Abbas I in 1587. Abbas I projected great military power, regained most of the lands lost by his predecessors, and adopted a set of forward-looking policies designed to optimise military strength, centralise state control, and expand Iran’s internal and international commercial scope. He paired ruthlessness with justice and dealt harshly with threats to his power, while remaining in touch with his people. All these qualities eventually entitled him to be styled as Abbas

22338-594: Was quick to intervene in cases of despotism, irregularities or malpractices, irrespective of whether it was a question of the normal administration of justice or the surveillance of political and administrative bodies, both civil and military. To ensure justice, he devoted several days a week for the purpose of rendering public justice; and during his reign it was still possible for commoners to hand him petitions in his palace. Abbas II chose his grand viziers wisely. He recruited them from diverse backgrounds that represented tribal, clerical, or ghulam interests, but primarily on

22491-418: Was renamed Makhachkala, after Dagestani revolutionary Magomed-Ali 'Makhach' Dakhadaev . On the same day, it became capital of the newly formed Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic . The city incurred major damage during an earthquake on May 14, 1970. The city was briefly renamed Shamilkala during the disintegration of the Soviet Union in honor of the Dagestani freedom fighter Imam Shamil . The area

22644-601: Was replaced by Mirza Mohammad Karaki , a weak and ineffective administrator. He was excluded from the shah's private affairs in the inner palace, to the point that he was ignorant about the existence of Sam Mirza, the future Suleiman and the next Safavid shah of Iran. Abbas II died on 25 September 1666, aged thirty-four. Described by modern historians as the last strong king of the Safavid dynasty, he stood out from his father and his successors by being persistently concerned for state affairs. A king known for his sense of justice, Western historians and observers often portrayed him as

22797-716: Was said that the Safavid army was useful for military parades but of no use for war. Abbas II's foreign policy was cautious and calculating. During his reign, European maritime companies such as the VOC and the East India Company who had previously established their bases in Shiraz and Isfahan, were supported by Abbas through the privileges given to them. The Dutch and the English bought different types of silk such as brocade , taffeta , velvet and satin and in return, imported spices, sugar and textiles to Iran through

22950-569: Was ten times greater than the corresponding figure in Moscow region, which has a population five times larger than Dagestan. On August 14, 2023, a fire at a gas station in Makhachkala led to a series of explosions , causing at least 25 deaths and 66 injuries. On the evening of October 29, 2023, antisemitic riots occurred at the Makhachkala airport causing 500 police officers of the MVD to take control of it and forcing its temporary closure until

23103-510: Was the banning of prostitution. By his insistence, Abbas issued a firman , in which he prohibited public prostitution, although prostitutes were still allowed to work in their clients' houses. The death of Saru Taqi and the appointment of Khalifeh Soltan has often been considered the point when Abbas began his absolute rule and ended his regency. At the age of fifteen, the shah was more energetically involved in government than ever his father had been. One of his methods to consolidate his power

23256-421: Was the seventh Shah of Safavid Iran , ruling from 1642 to 1666. As the eldest son of Safi and his Circassian wife, Anna Khanum , he inherited the throne when he was nine, and had to rely on a regency led by Saru Taqi , the erstwhile grand vizier of his father, to govern in his place. During the regency, Abbas received formal kingly education that, until then, he had been denied. In 1645, at age fifteen, he

23409-641: Was used as a Soviet-era naval testing station, leaving behind a curious sea fort off nearby Kaspiysk ( 42°53′48″N 47°40′53″E  /  42.896598°N 47.681274°E  / 42.896598; 47.681274 ). A report of the International Crisis Group from 2013 describes the city as being "a city of almost one million and gained spectacular economic resources due to a construction boom, skyrocketing land prices, substantial federal funds for reconstruction, infrastructure, transport, housing, courts and administrative services. But even

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