192-781: The history of Ethiopia in the Middle Ages roughly spans the period from the decline of the Kingdom of Aksum in the 7th century to the Gondarine period beginning in the 17th century. Aksum had been a powerful empire during late antiquity , appearing in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and mentioned by Iranian prophet Mani as one of the "four great kingdoms on earth", along with the Sasanian Empire of Persia ,
384-586: A Jewish ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by Mara Takla Haymanot , resulting in the inception of the Agaw -led Zagwe dynasty . According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the Beta Israel king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from Semien Mountains and Lake Tana to orchestrate
576-469: A Nubian Greek ruler, King Moses Georgios , but remained unanswered. She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem. Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by Mara Tekla Haymanot in 1137 AD, who ushered in
768-491: A 4th-century Phoenician missionary who was a slave to the king of Aksum. After preaching Christianity in the region, he was freed shortly before the king's death, though he stayed to teach Ezana of Aksum , who was the king's son and heir to the throne. He eventually converted Ezana to Christianity in the mid-4th century, which became the official religion of the Kingdom of Aksum shortly thereafter. Having established itself as
960-634: A Christian kingdom, Islam 's history in Ethiopia is nearly as old as Islam itself. The first Muslims fled persecution in Arabia in 613 or 615, seeking refuge in the Kingdom of Aksum in an event known as the Migration to Abyssinia . The Dahlak Archipelago , now part of Eritrea, came under Muslim rule in the early 8th century; the Muslims there constituted the first permanent Muslim population in Ethiopia. By
1152-526: A Christian nation, Ethiopia expanded its borders and spread the religion to the surrounding peoples who practised traditional African religions , Judaism , and, later, Islam . The Aksumites enjoyed friendly relations with the Byzantine Empire for this reason, and although Ethiopia became secluded after the decline of Aksum, the kingdom participated in European religious and diplomatic affairs in
1344-438: A Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or " Gudit " defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. Gudit sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian iconoclasm . Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had
1536-420: A career in diplomacy. They were supported by their embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees, including some dedicated to espionage. The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities, and this led to
1728-517: A considerable impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity." Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped
1920-546: A crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East. These crops included teff , finger millet , sorghum , emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included
2112-436: A diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country he or she may be declared as persona non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland. Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched. The mechanism for this is the so-called " diplomatic bag " (or, in some countries,
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#17327756476672304-514: A dispute. These are similar to the conferences mentioned above, as there are technically no established rules or procedures. However, there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings. Some examples are: Small state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies and international relations . Small states are particularly affected by developments which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change , water security and shifts in
2496-475: A distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as Adulis and Matara , boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In
2688-517: A great increase in the study of international law , French, and history at universities throughout Europe. At the same time, permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs. These ministries were still far from their modern form, and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities. Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782. They were also far smaller than they are currently. France, which boasted
2880-857: A great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower. Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of Islam in the early 7th century and the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate . Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early Muslims from Mecca fleeing Qurayshi persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey
3072-555: A literary device known as sem-ena-werq ("wax and gold"), in which the "wax" is the face value of a message and the "gold" is the deeper meaning hidden underneath. The device is reflective of the Miaphysite beliefs of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , with the wax representing the human nature of Jesus and the gold representing the divine. There is evidence of qene from at least as early as
3264-468: A modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at Gobedra , two kilometers west of Aksum . Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at
3456-536: A mysterious period of Ethiopian history , as there was comparatively little contact with foreign nations versus the ancient and modern periods. As an early Christian nation, the Kingdom of Aksum enjoyed close diplomatic relations with the Byzantine Empire . Across the Red Sea, the Himyarite Kingdom had become a Jewish state, persecuting Christians under the rule of Dhu Nuwas . Byzantine emperor Justin I called upon Kaleb of Aksum for assistance to
3648-459: A number of support staff; the term diplomat is thus sometimes applied broadly to diplomatic and consular personnel and foreign ministry officials. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), based on the ancient Greek diplōma , which roughly means "an object folded in two". This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege; prior to
3840-520: A organized military. Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in Al-Maafer and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings GDRT and ʽDBH dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with
4032-609: A parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in Hawelti . Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof. The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of
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#17327756476674224-410: A rajmandala (grouping of states), a model that places the home state surrounded by twelve competing entities which can either be potential adversaries or latent allies, depending on how relations with them are managed. This is the essence of realpolitik. It also offers four upaya (policy approaches): conciliation, gifts, rupture or dissent, and force. It counsels that war is the last resort, as its outcome
4416-453: A rung below ambassador. Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary . Diplomacy was a complex affair, even more so than now. The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed. States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign; for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount, then those from
4608-592: A short period of time and inheriting from it the Greek exonym "Ethiopia". Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of Kaleb of Axum (514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor Justin I , invaded the Himyarite Kingdom in Yemen in order to end the persecution of Christians perpetrated by the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas . With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum
4800-464: A significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern Tigray , Ethiopia, as well as the Akele Guzai and Seraye regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as Tchika Beret are located as far as South Wollo . In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along
4992-486: A situation of mutually contesting kingdoms, the wise king builds alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries. The envoys sent at the time to the courts of other kingdoms tended to reside for extended periods of time, and Arthashastra contains advice on the deportment of the envoy, including the trenchant suggestion that "he should sleep alone". The highest morality for the king is that his kingdom should prosper. New analysis of Arthashastra brings out that hidden inside
5184-481: A state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat, barley and teff . The people of Aksum also raised cattle , sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire
5376-465: A time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figurehead monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest. However, a great deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state, and the idealized role of the "persuader/diplomat" developed. From
5568-621: A tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum. After Abraha 's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor Justinian the Great , but having been denied, he decided to ally with the Sassanid Persian Emperor Khosrow I , triggering
5760-519: A viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded. The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped
5952-514: A vocalized abugida in the 4th century. However, Greek was used up until the decline of Aksum, appearing in stelae inscriptions, on Aksumite currency , and spoken as a lingua franca to facilitate trade with the Hellenized world . Geʽez remained in official written use through the entire Middle Ages (its counterpart in Islamic polities being Arabic), but likely declined as a spoken language in
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6144-688: Is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation; because of its failure to prevent World War 2, appeasement is not considered a legitimate tool of modern diplomacy. Counterinsurgency diplomacy, or expeditionary diplomacy, developed by diplomats deployed to civil-military stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels, outside traditional embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces. Counterinsurgency diplomacy may provide political environment advice to local commanders, interact with local leaders, and facilitate
6336-740: Is always uncertain. This is the first expression of the raison d'etat doctrine, as also of humanitarian law; that conquered people must be treated fairly, and assimilated. The key challenge to the Byzantine Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors, including the Georgians , Iberians , the Germanic peoples , the Bulgars , the Slavs , the Armenians ,
6528-580: Is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross. Frumentius was in contact with the Church of Alexandria , and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity. However,
6720-516: Is known as Gudit , was certainly non-Christian , as her reign was characterized by the destruction of churches in Ethiopia which is seen as opposition to the spread of Christianity in the region. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , which was subordinate to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , had not been sent a metropolitan from Alexandria for many years during the 10th century. However, after Gudit's reign had ended,
6912-752: Is known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah . In 630, Muhammad sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz . Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in
7104-656: Is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the Geʽez script , which was eventually modified to include vowels , becoming an abugida . Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum . Under Emperor Ezana , Aksum adopted Coptic Christianity in place of its former polytheistic and Judaic religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to
7296-471: Is now Eritrea , northern Ethiopia, eastern Sudan, Yemen and the southern part of what is now Saudi Arabia. However, by the 7th century, the kingdom had begun a slow decline, for which several possible political, economic, and ecological reasons have been proposed. This decline, which has been termed the "Post-Aksumite Period", saw extreme loss of territory and lasted until the ascension of the Zagwe dynasty . In
7488-406: Is part of Beta Israel culture, while the attribution to Yared and the notation system are not. A 16th-century royal chronicle credits two clerics with the system; this, coupled with the differences between Christian and Jewish traditions, suggest that Yared was not responsible for these creations. Also attributed to Yared is the traditional form of Amhara poetry known as qene . Qene utilizes
7680-524: Is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture." The first historical mention of Axum comes from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside Adulis and Ptolemais of the Hunts as lying within
7872-491: Is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger. Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and
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8064-566: Is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring. The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without
8256-663: The Aksumite–Persian wars . Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander Vahrez to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the Siege of Sana'a , capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to Stuart Munro-Hay , these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as
8448-579: The Battle of Baideng (200 BC) to the Battle of Mayi (133 BC), the Han dynasty was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and pay an exorbitant amount of tribute (in silk, cloth, grain, and other foodstuffs) to the powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had been consolidated by Modu Shanyu . After the Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) that they controlled areas stretching from Manchuria to
8640-571: The Byzantine Empire , which regarded itself as the protector of Christendom . Three inscriptions on the Ezana Stone documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the " Noba ", and the other against the Beja . According to
8832-581: The Eritrean highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the Red Sea ports was lost. Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the highlands for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of
9024-634: The French Revolution . Some of the earliest known diplomatic records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Peace treaties were concluded between the Mesopotamian city-states of Lagash and Umma around approximately 2100 BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC during
9216-689: The Huns , the Avars , the Franks , the Lombards , and the Arabs , that embodied and so maintained its imperial status. All these neighbors lacked a key resource that Byzantium had taken over from Rome, namely a formalized legal structure. When they set about forging formal political institutions, they were dependent on the empire. Whereas classical writers are fond of making a sharp distinction between peace and war, for
9408-543: The Kebra Nagast , which is probably the best-known piece of Ethiopian literature. Music in Ethiopia is divided between secular ( zafan ) and sacred ( zema ). While secular music varied between locations and ethnic groups, zema generally remained consistent. Ethiopian tradition dates the origins of zema to the 6th century, crediting Yared with the composition of the liturgical hymns as well as an indigenous system of musical notation called meleket . However, zema
9600-627: The Kingdom of Axum , or the Aksumite Empire , was a kingdom in East Africa and South Arabia from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages , based in what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea , and spanning present-day Djibouti and Sudan . Emerging from the earlier Dʿmt civilization, the kingdom was founded in 1st century. The city of Axum served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to Kubar in
9792-518: The Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century. Archaeological evidence suggests that the population of the city of Aksum began to diminish in the 7th century. Around the same time, the kingdom appears to have ceased the minting of gold coins, indicating a withdrawal from international trade. This has been attributed to the aforementioned Persian and Muslim expansions, though other additional factors have been proposed as well. Historical records regarding
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#17327756476679984-684: The Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire , which fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated peace treaties through marriage alliances . Relations with the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states, to which the Ottoman government was known as the Sublime Porte . The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, and more and more upon
10176-584: The Roman Empire , and China's Three Kingdoms . The kingdom was an integral part of the trade route between Rome and the Indian subcontinent , had substantial cultural ties to the Greco-Roman world , and was a very early adopter of Christianity under Ezana of Aksum in the mid-4th century. The use of "Ethiopia" to refer to the region dates back to the 4th century. At its height, the kingdom spanned what
10368-539: The Tarim Basin oasis city-states, a treaty was drafted in 162 BC proclaiming that everything north of the Great Wall belong to nomads' lands, while everything south of it would be reserved for Han Chinese . The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. That was until the far-flung campaigns of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) which shattered
10560-488: The UNESCO sponsored General History of Africa French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the Aksumites worshipped Astar , his son, Mahrem , and Beher . Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture
10752-556: The Zagwe prince Lalibela in his power struggle against his brothers which led him to make Amharic Lessana Negus as well as fill the Amhara nobles in the top positions of his Kingdom. While the appellation of "language of the king" (( Ge'ez : ልሳነ ንጉሥ "Lisane Negus")/( Amharic : የንጉሥ ቋንቋ "Ye-Negus QwanQwa")) and its use in the royal court are otherwise traced to the Amhara Emperor Yekuno Amlak . Prior to
10944-563: The global economy . Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international cooperation. But with limited resources at their disposal, conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states. There are a variety of diplomatic categories and diplomatic strategies employed by organizations and governments to achieve their aims, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Appeasement
11136-433: The kingdoms , then those from duchies and principalities . Representatives from republics were ranked the lowest (which often angered the leaders of the numerous German, Scandinavian, and Italian republics). Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated, leading to near-constant squabbling. Ambassadors were often nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of
11328-623: The nineteenth dynasty , the pharaoh of Egypt and the ruler of the Hittite Empire created one of the first known international peace treaties, which survives in stone tablet fragments , now generally called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty . The ancient Greek city-states on some occasions dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other's territory. However, some of
11520-439: The "diplomatic pouch"). While radio and digital communication have become more standard for embassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some countries, including the United States, declare entire shipping containers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material (often building supplies) into a country. In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as well as in some cases when
11712-443: The 11th century, the area became the independent Sultanate of Dahlak . There is evidence that the Shewa region had become Islamized and established a sultanate in the 12th century, and by the 13th century there was significant Muslim presence in what is now eastern Ethiopia. As part of the Solomonic dynasty's expansions, many Muslim states in the east were conquered or became subjects of Ethiopia. Tensions grew between Ethiopia and
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#173277564766711904-484: The 15th century. Buildings constructed in the Kingdom of Aksum have been subject to more research than those of the Middle Ages, leading to the identification of a discernible Aksumite architectural style. Art historian Claire Bosc-Tiessé defines the general characteristics as "...walls made by the alternation of horizontal wooden beams with layers of small stones joined with mortar, the whole surface being sometimes coated, and transverse rounded beams at regular intervals on
12096-499: The 2nd century AD, Ptolemy 's geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and
12288-466: The 6,000 aphorisms of prose (sutras) are pioneering political and philosophic concepts. It covers the internal and external spheres of statecraft, politics and administration. The normative element is the political unification of the geopolitical and cultural subcontinent of India. This work comprehensively studies state governance; it urges non-injury to living creatures, or malice, as well as compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, and uprightness. It presents
12480-431: The 6th millennium BC, it relied heavily on agriculture and became a rural economy after its decline as a significant trading power. Trade was primarily conducted on a small scale, though large market towns existed as well, serving as stops for caravans . Maritime trade continued through the Middle Ages, however this was no longer in the hands of the Ethiopian kingdom, but instead controlled by Muslim merchants. Beginning in
12672-420: The 7th century at the reign of Ashama ibn-Abjar , when the first followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (also known as the Sahabah ) migrated from Arabia due to their persecution by the Quraysh , the ruling Arab tribal confederation of Mecca . The Quraysh appealed to the Ashama ibn-Abjar , arguing that the early Muslim migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither
12864-414: The 7th century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely. Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In
13056-449: The 8th century, a trade route to the Dahlak Archipelago was Ethiopia's link to the Red Sea, but a route between Shewa and Zeila came to prominence in the late 13th century. While agriculture was the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, the kingdom exported some luxury goods, namely gold, ivory, and civet musk . A significant number of slaves (including many eunuchs ) also came from Ethiopia and were sold in Arabia. Medieval Ethiopia
13248-478: The 8th century. However, study of Ethiopian manuscripts has thus far been limited. There are some surviving examples of church murals , though many are in poor condition and as such have not been the subject of significant research. Medieval Ethiopian literature primarily consists of religious texts, particularly hagiographies . Although original Ethiopian additions were made to texts, early Ethiopian literature mostly comprised translations, generally from Greek under
13440-413: The 9th century due to declining trade connections and recurring external invasions. The Kingdom of Aksum was considered one of the four great powers of the 3rd century by the Persian prophet Mani , alongside Persia , Rome , and China . Aksum continued to expand under the reign of Gedara ( c. 200–230 ), who was the first king to be involved in South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in
13632-414: The African oil crop, Guizotia abyssinica , as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power. The Empire of Aksum
13824-605: The Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the Ethiopian Highlands and the Arabian Peninsula , with their influence extending as far as Lake Tana and the borders of Egypt. By the end of the 3rd century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet Mani in the Kephalaia , as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As
14016-479: The Aksumites, and later Arabic. The first indigenous Ethiopian hagiographies appear in the 14th century. Another prominent Ethiopian literary genre is that of the royal chronicle, which dates back to the reign of Amda Seyon I . These documents recounted the rules of the kings, including their administration of the kingdom and their military campaigns. They were used to legitimize the Solomonic dynasty, similarly to
14208-483: The Beta Israel were defeated in a war; he subsequently revoked their land ownership rights (known as rist ) unless they converted to Christianity. Upon losing their land, they became known as Falasha ("landless, wandering"), which is a term that became used interchangeably with Beta Israel, but is now considered derogatory. Most of Ethiopian historiography focuses on Christian and Muslim history. However, although
14400-465: The Byzantines diplomacy was a form of war by other means. With a regular army of 120,000–140,000 men after the losses of the 7th century, the empire's security depended on activist diplomacy. Byzantium's " Bureau of Barbarians " was the first foreign intelligence agency, gathering information on the empire's rivals from every imaginable source. While on the surface a protocol office—its main duty
14592-660: The Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia , starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century. Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration . Since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions into
14784-654: The Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into Oriental Orthodoxy by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon . Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for safekeeping. Islam came in
14976-623: The Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. According to Taddesse Tamrat , the integral regions of the Aksumite Kingdom included "much of the province of Tigre , the whole of the Eritrean plateau" and the regions of Wag , Lasta and Angot . A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played
15168-802: The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy. Diplomats and historians often refer to a foreign ministry by its address: the Ballhausplatz (Vienna), the Quai d'Orsay (Paris), the Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin), Itamaraty (Brasília), and Foggy Bottom (Washington, D.C.). For the Russian foreign ministry, it was the Choristers' Bridge (Saint Petersburg) until 1917, while "Consulta" referred to
15360-592: The Himyarite Christians, and the Aksumite invasion occurred in 525. The invasion was successful, enlarging the Kingdom of Aksum to its greatest territorial extent. However, Aksumite rule in the region was turbulent, and the territory was lost to the Sasanian Empire in the Aksumite–Persian wars less than 50 years later. With a Persian presence established in South Arabia , Aksum no longer dominated Red Sea trade; this situation only worsened following
15552-746: The Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia , East Africa, and Egypt. Chinese maritime activity was increased dramatically during the commercialized period of the Song dynasty, with new nautical technologies, many more private ship owners, and an increasing amount of economic investors in overseas ventures. During the Mongol Empire (1206–1294) the Mongols created something similar to today's diplomatic passport called paiza . The paiza were in three different types (golden, silver, and copper) depending on
15744-569: The Italian foreign ministry, based in the Palazzo della Consulta (Rome) from 1874 to 1922. The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed, underpinning the modern concept of diplomatic immunity . While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honor. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on
15936-529: The Kingdom of Aksum was founded by Menelik I , who was allegedly the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba , known as Makeda in Ethiopia. By connecting Yekuno Amlak to this ancestry, it was seen as authority for the dynasty to rule Ethiopia. In contrast, the Cushitic Zagwe kings were not seen as part of this lineage, and were denounced as illegitimate rulers. One of the defining features of Ethiopia under
16128-404: The Kingdom of Aksum. The kings of Aksum occupied the top of the social hierarchy, and a noble class below them is probable, based on size differences between larger palaces and smaller villas. A middle class may have consisted of merchants, independent farmers, and civil officials. Peasants likely included artisans in the urban centres, and farmers whose work supported Aksumite society. Slaves were
16320-561: The Late Middle Ages. Carlo Conti Rossini believed that the word Aksum derives from a Semitic root, and means 'a green and dense garden' or 'full of grass'. Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as Dʿmt . Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by Sabaeans from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been
16512-481: The Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under
16704-656: The Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A second migration consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the Dahlak Archipelago dated to the mid 9th century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum. The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins , which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From
16896-666: The Muslim states, eventually culminating in the Ethiopian–Adal war . The Beta Israel are an ethnoreligious group , most of whom now live in Israel, but originated in Semien . Their origins have been the subject of scholarly debate for decades. The Beta Israel oral tradition is that of an ancient Jewish ancestry, which is usually claimed from the Tribe of Dan . Genetic testing suggests that
17088-478: The Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and through uncertain circumstances, the kingdom collapsed around 960. Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout
17280-515: The Red Sea coast in modern-day Eritrea, was a client state of Ethiopia. The Zagwe dynasty came to an end in 1270, after Yekuno Amlak overthrew them and established what came to be known as the Solomonic dynasty . The Kebra Nagast , a 14th-century national epic , describes the dynasty's claim to descent from Solomon, and was used to justify the takeover from the Zagwe dynasty. The epic states that
17472-455: The Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the Gulf of Zula . Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the Gulf of Zula , forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of Adulis on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements, Matara and Qohaito , were situated in
17664-543: The Red Sea coast of modern-day Eritrea , were subject to Ethiopia for centuries. The most considerable body of visual artworks from medieval Ethiopia is that of illuminated manuscripts . They bear some similarity to Coptic and Byzantine illuminated manuscripts , though they retain early Christian iconographic practices originating in Palestine which are absent elsewhere after the Byzantine Iconoclasm in
17856-545: The Red Sea from Roman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India. Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period. In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of
18048-529: The Solomonic dynasty was territorial expansion, primarily into Muslim areas. This began during the reign of Yekuno Amlak himself, conquering the Sultanate of Shewa in 1285. The most significant expansions took place under Amda Seyon I , who conquered the Kingdom of Damot , the Hadiya Sultanate , Gojjam , Fatagar , the Sultanate of Dawaro , the Sultanate of Bale , and the Sultanate of Ifat . By
18240-545: The Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841. In the 11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279), there were shrewd ambassadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who achieved diplomatic success with the Liao dynasty , the often hostile Khitan neighbor to the north. Both diplomats secured the rightful borders of the Song dynasty through knowledge of cartography and dredging up old court archives. There
18432-530: The United States, and France. Ancient India , with its kingdoms and dynasties, had a long tradition of diplomacy. The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra , is attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya ), who was the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. It incorporates a theory of diplomacy, of how in
18624-505: The Zagwe era they consisted of professional soldiers. In the Solomonic era, during the reign of Zara Yaqob , this professionalism was reflected in the Amharic term č̣äwa , as ṣewa carried a connotation of slavery which was no longer accurate. The sword and spear were universal in Ethiopia amongst both the infantry and cavalry. The javelin and shotel were used in Ifat . Soldiers of
18816-418: The adoption of Christianity, the Kingdom of Aksum practised Semitic polytheism , which spread to the region from South Arabia . It has also been suggested that Judaism was present in the kingdom since ancient times; it is not known how widely the religion was practised, but its influence upon Ethiopian Christianity is significant. Christianity was introduced to the Kingdom of Aksum primarily by Frumentius ,
19008-419: The aid of irrigation). Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into
19200-405: The anti-Christian nature of Gudit's takeover, Christianity flourished under Zagwe rule but its territorial extent was markedly smaller than that of the Aksumites, controlling the area between Lasta and the Red Sea. The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown in 1270 by Yekuno Amlak , whose successors came to be known as the Solomonic dynasty . The Kebra Nagast , a 14th-century national epic , established
19392-465: The broader goals and strategies that guide a state's interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties , agreements , alliances , and other manifestations of international relations are usually the result of diplomatic negotiations and processes. Diplomats may also help shape a state by advising government officials . Modern diplomatic methods, practices, and principles originated largely from 17th-century European customs. Beginning in
19584-520: The capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system. Climate change and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for
19776-557: The capital south to Lalibela , which itself is named after the Ethiopian emperor of the same name . Under Lalibela's reign, the construction of eleven rock-hewn churches began. Though Christianity experienced growth in this period, Ethiopia's territory diminished significantly since the fall of the Kingdom of Aksum, centred primarily on the Ethiopian highlands between Lasta and Tigray . The kingdom of Medri Bahri , which controlled
19968-492: The cavalry were often equipped with chain mail and helmets, though some used a form of cloth armour. The bow and arrow were widespread, and arrow poison was occasionally used. Ethiopia's first experience with firearms was the Ethiopian–Adal war , which saw guns used on both sides. Information regarding the Aksumite navy is limited, though it must have been crucial to the kingdom as it relied on maritime trade. The Monumentum Adulitanum , an ancient Aksumite inscription, mentions
20160-405: The coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called Kubar . The Arab writer Ya'qubi was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern Tigray or Angot ; however,
20352-569: The coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. Dhu Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named Esimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named Abraha after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to Procopius , following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, Abraha continued to govern Yemen through
20544-435: The coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of propaganda and a source of profit to the empire. In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop podia built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as
20736-509: The conquest of foreign cultures would be better achieved by having his Macedonian and Greek subjects intermingle and intermarry with native populations. For instance, Alexander took as his wife a Sogdian woman of Bactria , Roxana , after the siege of the Sogdian Rock , in order to placate the rebelling populace. Diplomacy remained a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic states that succeeded Alexander's empire, such as
20928-511: The control of much of western Yemen , such as the Tihama , Najran , Al-Maʿafir , Ẓafar (until c. 230 ), and parts of Hashid territory around Hamir in the northern highlands until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of Endubis (270–310), Aksum began minting coins that have been excavated as far away as Caesarea and southern India. As
21120-463: The convening of international conferences. In such cases, there are fewer ground rules, and fewer formal applications of international law. However, participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic, and protocol. Some examples of these formal conferences are: Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle a specific dispute or specific issue between several nations which are parties to
21312-444: The decline of the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without
21504-464: The dynasty's claim of direct descent from Solomon , recounting the story of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba , whose child was supposedly Menelik I . The Semitic Amhara rulers of the Solomonic dynasty therefore represented a restoration of the Israelite lineage of the Aksumites, as opposed to the Cushitic Zagwe rulers, who were viewed in retrospect as illegitimate. In the nearly 150 years between
21696-683: The early 16th century, the empire's borders reached past Massawa in the north, past the Omo River in the south, to the Adal Sultanate in the east and near the confluence of the Didessa River and the Blue Nile in the west. Although Adal was a tributary of Ethiopia, the sultanate invaded Ethiopia in 1531 with the support of the Ottoman Empire and other Muslim peoples in the region. The subsequent war continued until 1543 and it
21888-472: The early 20th century, diplomacy became professionalized; the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , ratified by most of the world's sovereign states, provides a framework for diplomatic procedures, methods, and conduct. Most diplomacy is now conducted by accredited officials , such as envoys and ambassadors, through a dedicated foreign affairs office . Diplomats operate through diplomatic missions , most commonly consulates and embassies, and rely on
22080-482: The early 6th century, Cosmas Indicopleustes described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to Ousanas , Ezana , Kaleb , and his son Wazeba , serving as victory monuments documenting
22272-509: The early 8th century. The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the Beja nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the Zanafaj entered the Eritrean plateau through the valley of Gash-Barka . They overran and pillaged much of
22464-492: The early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here Stuart Munro-Hay concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it
22656-643: The envoy's level of importance. With the paiza, there came authority that the envoy can ask for food, transport, place to stay from any city, village, or clan within the empire with no difficulties. In the 17th century, the Qing dynasty concluded a series of treaties with Czarist Russia, beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Convention of Peking in
22848-436: The exact location of this city is currently unknown. Famine is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs James (819–830) and Joseph (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains. Under the reign of Degna Djan , during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of Angot . Local history holds that, around 960,
23040-689: The exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both Pliny the Elder and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at Coloe , itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During
23232-485: The exterior and sometimes the interior. Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked
23424-661: The facade..." exemplified by buildings such as Debre Damo . Due to insufficient written records, medieval Ethiopian architecture is more difficult to date than Aksumite. As such, historians use the presence and development of Aksumite architectural characteristics to establish time periods for the construction of medieval buildings. Rock-hewn churches, particularly those at Lalibela , are a noteworthy example of post-Aksumite architecture. Kingdom of Aksum The Kingdom of Aksum ( Ge'ez : አክሱም , romanized: ʾÄksum ; Sabaean : 𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣 , ʾkšm ; Ancient Greek : Ἀξωμίτης , romanized : Axōmítēs ) also known as
23616-469: The fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank . Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but persisted for over a century until after World War II , when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between that time, figures such as
23808-605: The form of formal arbitrations and mediations. In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue, and to come some sort of ruling based on international law. In the modern era, much of this work is often carried out by the International Court of Justice at The Hague , or other formal commissions, agencies and tribunals, working under the United Nations. Below are some examples. Other times, resolutions were sought through
24000-513: The formation of the Zagwe dynasty by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od. After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the Zagwe dynasty in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, Yekuno Amlak , who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern Solomonic dynasty around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from
24192-450: The founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor. The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of Ancient South Arabian script , which developed into Geʽez script , and Ancient Semitic religion . The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from
24384-505: The functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were fulfilled by a proxenos , a citizen of the host city who had friendly relations with another city, often through familial ties. In times of peace, diplomacy was even conducted with non-Hellenistic rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, through it was ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon. Alexander was also adept at diplomacy, realizing that
24576-709: The gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher Frumentius , who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern Ethiopian Orthodox Church . Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it
24768-449: The governance efforts, functions and reach of a host government. Debt-trap diplomacy is carried out in bilateral relations, with a powerful lending country seeking to saddle a borrowing nation with enormous debt so as to increase its leverage over it. Economic diplomacy is the use of aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda. Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military power as
24960-624: The ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank. For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called nepheline syenite . It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the Stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These Stelae's are also called "Obelisk's," they are located in
25152-475: The group could have been founded by a small group of Jewish settlers in the region who converted the local population and intermarried among them over 2000 years ago. This hypothesis is further supported by the Beta Israel's non-observance of the Talmud , which would have been written after this ethnogenesis . Written documents describing the Beta Israel date back to the 14th century. Under the reign of Yeshaq I ,
25344-474: The heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area. Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in
25536-485: The highlands, lowlands and tropical regions. These climate zones dictated the agricultural practices in each region. Cereals and legumes, such as teff , millet , sorghum , barley , wheat, lentils , and chickpeas were grown in the cooler highlands. Pastoralism was prevalent in the hot, arid lowlands; and fruiting plants, such as coffea (coffee) and false banana were grown in the wetter tropical regions. Although Ethiopia had been an agricultural civilization since
25728-523: The host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy. Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance,
25920-511: The inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the Kingdom of Kush . Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition
26112-518: The interests of all the German princes (who were in theory all subordinate to the Emperor, but in practice each independent). Between 1500 and 1700, rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. French replaced Latin from about 1715. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he
26304-401: The invention of the envelope, folding a document served to protect the privacy of its content. The term was later applied to all official documents, such as those containing agreements between governments, and thus became identified with international relations. This established history has in recent years been criticized by scholars pointing out how the term originates in the political context of
26496-409: The job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows . There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task
26688-589: The kingdom became a major power on the trade route between Rome and India and gained a monopoly of Indian Ocean trade , it entered the Greco-Roman cultural sphere . Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum adopted Christianity as the state religion in the mid-4th century, under Ezana (320s – c. 360 ). Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of stelae . The kingdom continued to expand throughout late antiquity , conquering Kush under Ezana in 330 for
26880-480: The language of Agʿazi , was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language Sabaic . In the 4th century, Ezana of Axum promoted the Geʽez script and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the 6th century literary translations into Geʿez were common. After
27072-674: The largest foreign affairs department, had only some 70 full-time employees in the 1780s. The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriving by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state, and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. After
27264-449: The last emperor of Aksum, Dil Na'od . It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at Lalibela and Yemrehana Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence. The Aksumite population mainly consisted of Semitic -speaking groups, one of these groups were the Agʿazian or
27456-408: The late 10th century, external documents refer to a queen ruling over the land of "al-Ḥabaša" ( Abyssinia ). The documents state that the queen (referred to in one document as queen of the "Bani al-Hamwiyah") killed the king of Ethiopia, and suggest that she had seized power at least as early as the 960s. No religion or ethnic group has been decisively identified with Bani al-Hamwiyah, but the queen, who
27648-501: The late 10th century, the Kingdom of Aksum fell to a queen known as Gudit . Historians are unsure of her ethnicity and religion, but she is theorized to have been Agaw and likely non-Christian , as she targeted churches in her attacks. Confusion surrounds the period directly following her reign, but the dynasty proper is considered to have been founded by Mara Takla Haymanot in 1137. The capital moved southward from Aksum to Lalibela , where many rock-hewn churches were built. Despite
27840-505: The late Middle Ages. Wedem Arad sent an envoy to Spain in 1306 for the purpose of a religious alliance, Ethiopian monks participated in the Council of Constance in 1414–1418, an Ethiopian diaspora is documented in Rome as early as the 15th century, and there are several documented diplomatic missions from Ethiopia to Spain and Italy throughout the 15th century. Despite officially being
28032-535: The lowest social class; Greek traveller Cosmas Indicopleustes states that slaves in Aksum came primarily from the Sasu (in southern Sudan) and Barbaria (Somalia) regions. Geʽez was the common language used throughout the Aksumite period, initially written using the Ancient South Arabian script , but with the Geʽez script by the 1st century. The script began as a vowel-less abjad , developing into
28224-458: The mid-19th century. As European power spread around the world in the 18th and 19th centuries so too did its diplomatic model, and Asian countries adopted syncretic or European diplomatic systems. For example, as part of diplomatic negotiations with the West over control of land and trade in China in the 19th century after the First Opium War , the Chinese diplomat Qiying gifted intimate portraits of himself to representatives from Italy, England,
28416-402: The model of governance. The Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim Basin . After several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades,
28608-425: The moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power. Diplomacy Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of state , intergovernmental , or non-governmental institutions intended to influence events in the international system. Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign policy which represents
28800-432: The most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I,
28992-414: The need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of St. James's (i.e. England) in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary. The Holy Roman Emperor , however, did not regularly send permanent legates, as they could not represent
29184-473: The need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire. One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the early modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th-century BC military strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of The Art of War . He lived during
29376-404: The official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant Ethiopian Greek communities established in Axum , the port of Adulis , Ptolemais Theron , and other cities in the region during Ptolemaic times. Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions. Geʿez ,
29568-409: The origin of Aksumite rule itself may have been through the subjugation of Agaw agriculturalists by Geʽez-speaking pastoralists. These regiments were instrumental in maintaining Aksumite sovereignty over the trade routes within its empire; however, due to the decentralized nature of the regiments, chiefs could easily rebel against the king. The regimental system continued through the Middle Ages, but by
29760-462: The perpetuation of good relations with the Ottomans. Interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergymen hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft . Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator, evolved into a persona that represented an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs. It became evident that all other sovereigns felt
29952-485: The pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in Tigray . Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area. Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly Dil Na'od , while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in Shewa , protected by Christians. He begged assistance from
30144-411: The political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in
30336-425: The post-Aksumite period. The exact period of this decline is uncertain, as essentially all written records continued to be written in Geʽez, but evidence of Tigrinya and Amharic appears in medieval texts. In addition, Cushitic and Omotic languages must have been spoken, and likely predate Semitic languages in the region. Geʽez has persisted to the modern day as a liturgical language . The Amhara nobles supported
30528-678: The power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade agreements to border disputes. Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes. Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific question or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history, there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice. Sometimes these took
30720-411: The present day Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the Council of Chalcedon (451), it has been an important Miaphysite church, and its scriptures and liturgy continue to be in Geʽez. Greek became
30912-422: The realm of Zoskales . The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental trade route between Rome and India . The Aksumite control over Adulis enabled
31104-400: The reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to
31296-466: The reigns of Amda Seyon I and Zara Yaqob , the Solomonic emperors made significant territorial expansions into non-Christian lands to the south, west, and east of the highlands, conquering much of the territory that comprises modern-day Ethiopia. Despite enormous expansions and the successful spread of Christianity, Ethiopia was invaded by Adal, supported by the Ottoman Empire , in 1531. It was not until 1540 that Ethiopia began to regain its territory with
31488-408: The rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-17th century in Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If
31680-399: The ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing
31872-415: The same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush , which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to Meroë ,
32064-502: The shift from the Middle Ages to the early modern period . Medieval Ethiopia is typically described as a feudal society relying on tenant farmers who constituted the peasant class, with landowners, nobility, and royalty above them in the social hierarchy. However, because of scarcity of information, knowledge on Ethiopian feudalism primarily comes from the Gondarine period . Some archaeological evidence and contemporary accounts have allowed for inferences of possible class structure in
32256-406: The southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom. Aksum also had a sizeable Ethiopian Greek population, which resided in the cities of Ptolemais Theron and Adulis . Nilotic groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of Ezana note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the Naras . Aksumite settlements were distributed across
32448-437: The speakers of Geʽez , the commenter of the Adulis inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of Aksum and its surroundings. The Cushitic -speaking Agaw people were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as Cosmas Indicopleustes notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King Kaleb of Axum with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within
32640-413: The states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance , with the first embassies being established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role, especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of
32832-429: The succeeding Ethiopian king reached out to Pope Philotheos of Alexandria regarding the deteriorated situation, and Philotheos subsequently re-established relations between Egypt and Ethiopia. This set the scene for a Christian renaissance in Ethiopia. Though the Aksumite era was ended by Gudit, the Zagwe dynasty was not established until 1137 by Mara Takla Haymanot . The Zagwe kings, who are thought to be Agaw , moved
33024-400: The support of the Portuguese Empire . Ethiopia's weakened state after the war left it susceptible to the Oromo migrations , in which the Oromo people of southern Ethiopia began to expand northward and established permanent settlements. This altered political and cultural landscape is seen as the beginning of the modern era in Ethiopia. From a historiographical perspective, the Middle Ages are
33216-566: The surface of the site. Covering parts of what is now northern Ethiopia and southern and eastern Eritrea , Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the Indian subcontinent and the Mediterranean ( Rome , later Byzantium ), exporting ivory , tortoise shell, gold and emeralds , and importing silk and spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African ( Nubia ), Arabian ( Yemen ), and Indian states. The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of
33408-450: The title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR negus of Aksum." Later in the century the mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns (kings of Habashat DTWNS and ZQRNS ) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the Monumentum Adulitanum recorded by Cosmas Indicopleustes , in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260),
33600-475: The traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state . From Italy, the practice was spread across Europe. Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However, Milan refused to host French representatives, fearing they would conduct espionage and intervene in its internal affairs. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics
33792-405: The unity of the Xiongnu and allowed Han to conquer the Western Regions ; under Wu, in 104 BC the Han armies ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellenistic Greek areas . The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) looked to the Chinese capital of Chang'an as the hub of civilization and emulated its central bureaucracy as
33984-437: The vast majority of Ethiopians adhere to those religions today, there were significant communities which practiced traditional religions during the Middle Ages. Remnants of these cultures can be seen today in funerary stelae and tumuli , which are widespread in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Highlands and the Great Rift Valley resulted in medieval Ethiopia having a varied climate. Generally and like today, it can be divided into
34176-413: The wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at Yemrehana Krestos Church ) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on
34368-567: The walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later rock hewn churches of Tigray and Lalibela . Palaces usually consisted of a central pavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see Dungur for an example). The largest of these structures now known
34560-407: The wars of these kings. King Ezana became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 AD. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the Mediterranean . Aksum gained a political link with
34752-412: The water levels of the Nile in Egypt indicate that the Ethiopian Highlands received less rainfall at the time, Aksum was among the nations affected by the first plague pandemic , and destruction of stelae from this time suggest internal unrest. The final three centuries of the Kingdom of Aksum are considered a dark age by historians, offering little in the way of written and archaeological records. In
34944-414: The worship of the sea god Beher , who is identified with Poseidon . The 6th-century Byzantine historian Procopius describes the Aksumite fleet as consisting of sewn boats , similar to the dhow still in use today. Throughout the Middle Ages, Ethiopia's administration and expansion was primarily focused on inland areas, though the northern coastal regions such as the Sultanate of Dahlak which controlled
35136-507: Was a highly militaristic nation based on a system of ethnic regiments known as ṣewa in Geʽez . This practice can be traced back to the beginning of the Aksumite period, when the men of newly subjugated tribes were forced to become soldiers for the king of Aksum, commanded by a tributary who was likely a local chief. The regiments were given a plot of land called a gult in exchange for their military service. Merid Wolde Aregay suggests, based on Christopher Ehret 's linguistic theories, that
35328-412: Was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to the northwest of Song China (centered in modern-day Shaanxi ). After warring with the Lý dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song and Lý made a peace agreement in 1082 to exchange the respective lands they had captured from each other during the war. Long before the Tang and Song dynasties,
35520-460: Was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: salt . Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently. It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked the Roman Empire and India . This change took place around the start of the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea
35712-405: Was at its largest territorial extent, being around 2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi). However, the territory was lost in the Aksumite–Persian wars . Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by Abraha . The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in
35904-512: Was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king Silko carved on the wall of the Temple of Kalabsha . King Kaleb sent an expedition against the Jewish Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas , who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as
36096-440: Was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation. In Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador, the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred. Even in smaller posts, ambassadors were very expensive. Smaller states would send and receive envoys , who were
36288-489: Was of secondary importance to the Persian Gulf and overland connections to the Levant . Starting around 1st century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea directly to southern India . By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down
36480-418: Was only with the help of the Portuguese Empire and Cristóvão da Gama that Ethiopia was able to reclaim its lost territory and win the war. However, both the Christian and Muslim regions of Ethiopia were significantly weakened by the war; this has been suggested as a possible factor of the Oromo migrations of the 16th century. From political, religious and cultural perspectives, the mid-16th century signifies
36672-439: Was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of Queen of Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had
36864-596: Was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators—it clearly had a security function as well. On Strategy , from the 6th century, offers advice about foreign embassies: "[Envoys] who are sent to us should be received honorably and generously, for everyone holds envoys in high esteem. Their attendants, however, should be kept under surveillance to keep them from obtaining any information by asking questions of our people." In Europe, early modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to
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