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124-511: The Milograd culture (also spelled Milahrad or Mylohrad , also known as Pidhirtsi culture on Ukrainian territory) is an archaeological culture, lasting from about the 7th century BC to the 1st century AD. Geographically, it corresponds to present day southern Belarus and northern Ukraine , in the area of the confluence of the Dnieper and the Pripyat , north of Kyiv . Their ethnic origin

248-454: A ballot. Second, a person being held in detention or confined in a prison during an election cannot cast a ballot. The Constitution says nothing about the voting rights of those who have served their prison terms, nor does it state how those citizens gain the rights back. National referendums, or plebiscites, are elections whereby citizens can determine whether a specific legal text can become official law or not. For this to take place, one of

372-610: A core part of the Belarusian national identity, with Belarus continuing to refer to itself as the "partisan republic" since the 1970s. Following the war, many former Soviet partisans entered positions of government, among them Pyotr Masherov and Kirill Mazurov , both of whom were First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. Until the late 1970s, the Belarusian government was almost entirely composed of former partisans. Numerous pieces of media have been made about

496-532: A disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal Józef Piłsudski 's confederation plans by Polish ally. In January 1919, a part of Belarus under Bolshevik Russian control

620-605: A minister is over or the president has been replaced. The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Belarus is the highest court in Belarus. While other courts deal with civil or criminal issues, the Constitutional Court deals with matters involving the Constitution and the legality of certain laws passed by the government. The court has the power to declare any law unconstitutional. From April until May 2007,

744-523: A national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control, Byelorussia became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period. The term Byelorussia (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was used officially only until 1991. Officially, the full name of the country is Republic of Belarus ( Рэспубліка Беларусь , Республика Беларусь , Respublika Belarus ). In Russia,

868-495: A nationality and foreigners are, under the Constitution, granted the same status and rights as citizens of Belarus. Belarus also has the power to grant asylum to those who have been subject to persecution due to their ethnic background, political ideology or religious affiliation. The Constitution also establishes Belarusian and Russian as the official languages of the country, pledges neutrality and non- nuclear proliferation , adopts national symbols, and establishes Minsk as

992-597: A neutral country, stated in Article 18 of the 2004 constitution, should be preserved with regard to joining NATO and the European Union. In a 1998 journal, the New York University School of Law noted that Belarusian legal scholars came up with a new theory to deal with jurisprudence. Laws are constitutional if they follow the will of President Lukashenko and the people; unconstitutional if

1116-624: A new constitution was adopted. Belarus continued to use this constitution until it – along with Russia, Ukraine , and the Transcaucasus – signed a treaty to form the Soviet Union . Now the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Byelorussian SSR), the country adopted its first Soviet-era constitution in 1927, complementing the recently adopted Soviet Constitution . After a re-adoption in 1937,

1240-612: A quarter of its population and half of its economic resources. In 1945, the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations and the Soviet Union. The republic was home to a widespread and diverse anti-Nazi insurgent movement which dominated politics until well into the 1970s, overseeing Belarus' transformation from an agrarian to an industrial economy. The parliament of the republic proclaimed

1364-507: A staggering quarter of the prewar population . In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million. The Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered. The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971. Belarus was also hit hard economically, losing around half of its economic resources. The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn, in accord with

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1488-578: A vast East Slavic state ruled by the Rurikids . Upon the death of its ruler Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, the state split into independent principalities. The Battle on the Nemiga River in 1067 was one of the more notable events of the period, the date of which is considered the founding date of Minsk . Many early principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a major Mongol invasion in

1612-458: Is landlocked , relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land. About 40% of Belarus is covered by forests. The country lies within two ecoregions: Sarmatic mixed forests and Central European mixed forests . Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus. Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman , the Pripyat , and the Dnieper . The Neman flows westward towards

1736-461: Is composed of articles 1 to 20. They prescribe a sovereign , multi-party representative democracy, run by the people of Belarus, that forms its own foreign policy. Section One also establishes that the state protects the rights and freedoms of its citizens, but contains the proviso that a citizen of Belarus "bears a responsibility towards the State to discharge unwaveringly the duties imposed upon him by

1860-442: Is divided into discrete regions , called oblasts . The oblasts are further divided into districts which are in turn subdivided into cities. The Constitution also allows for special regions to be created, which are to be controlled by legislation. Citizens of Belarus are also promised protection and sponsorship, regardless of whether they are inside Belarusian borders or in a foreign country. With some exceptions, those who do not have

1984-437: Is in the transitional zone between continental climates and maritime climates . Natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite , dolomite ( limestone ), marl , chalk, sand, gravel, and clay. About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in

2108-479: Is separate but must work together to serve the people. The Constitution also makes Belarus a presidential democracy , significantly reducing the role of the prime minister. Of the fifteen former Soviet republics , Belarus was the one of latest to create and pass a new constitution subsequent to the dissolution of the USSR . A delay occurred due to debates among Supreme Council deputies, who were also trying to stave off

2232-806: Is the capital and largest city ; it is administered separately as a city with special status. Between the medieval period and the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including Kievan Rus' , the Principality of Polotsk , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , and the Russian Empire . In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917, different states arose competing for legitimacy amid

2356-403: Is the top priority of the government. These rights are granted to all citizens of Belarus and every Belarusian is to be treated equally under Belarusian law. However, these rights can be removed for national security reasons or if Belarus is under a state of emergency . No one is allowed to "enjoy advantages and privileges that are contrary to the law." A state of emergency, which can be called by

2480-616: Is uncertain, but likely to be either Baltic or Early Slavic . The town of Milahrad ( Belarusian : Мілаград ), after which the culture is named, is located in the Gomel Region of Belarus. This article about Belarusian history is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Ukrainian history –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Belarus in Europe  (dark grey)  –  [ Legend ] Belarus , officially

2604-687: The Reichskommissariat Ostland in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed local collaborators to set up a client state, the Belarusian Central Council . During World War II, Belarus was home to a variety of guerrilla movements , including Jewish, Polish, and Soviet partisans. Belarusian partisan formations formed a large part of the Soviet partisans , and in the modern day these partisans have formed

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2728-580: The Bandkeramik predominated in what now constitutes Belarus, and the Cimmerians as well as other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1,000 BC. The Zarubintsy culture later became widespread at the beginning of the 1st millennium . In addition, remains from the Dnieper–Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine . The region was first permanently settled by Baltic tribes in

2852-917: The Belarusian Byzantine Catholic Church was formed by the Poles to bring Orthodox Christians into the See of Rome . The Belarusian church entered into a full communion with the Latin Church through the Union of Brest in 1595, while keeping its Byzantine liturgy in the Church Slavonic language. The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the Third Partition of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia , and Austria . The Belarusian territories acquired by

2976-803: The Belarusian Government , mainly the President of the Republic of Belarus, the Council of Ministers , the Parliament of Belarus and the courts. Although elected by the Belarusian people, the president must not be a member of a political party when he or she assumes office. The Constitution also lists official duties for various posts, such as the president being the commander-in-chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces . The section also describes procedures for situations where

3100-661: The Belarusian People's Republic . Immediately afterwards, the Polish–Soviet War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia. The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a government in exile ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile. The Belarusian People's Republic was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under

3224-544: The Belarusian Popular Front campaigned for early elections later in the year, two years before they were scheduled. By May of that year, about 383,000 signatures had been collected for a petition to hold the referendum, which was 23,000 more than legally required to be put to a referendum at the time. Despite this, the meeting of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus to ultimately decide

3348-649: The Belarusian minority was no exception. The polonization drive was inspired and influenced by the Polish National Democracy , led by Roman Dmowski , who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development. A Belarusian organization, the Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union , was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions. Nonetheless, compared to

3472-836: The CIS , the CSTO , the EAEU , the OSCE , and the Non-Aligned Movement . It has shown no aspirations of joining the European Union but maintains a bilateral relationship with the bloc , and also participates in the Baku Initiative . The name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus' , i.e., White Rus' . There are several claims to the origin of the name White Rus' . An ethno-religious theory suggests that

3596-811: The Civil War , ultimately ending in the rise of the Byelorussian SSR , which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. After the Polish-Soviet War (1918–1921), Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland. Much of the borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939, when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were reintegrated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland , and were finalized after World War II. During World War II, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about

3720-685: The President of Belarus according to Article 84, has to be approved by the Council of the Republic within three days of its announcement, according to Article 98. The Constitution provides that life is a right and that the government will protect the lives of its citizens against other citizens who wish to harm them or their property. The Constitution also allows for the death penalty to be exercised for grave crimes, but only in accordance with national law. If citizens are arrested, they are granted due process of law and do not have to testify against themselves or their family members. Citizens are also given

3844-547: The Republic of Belarus , is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe . It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an area of 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) with a population of 9.1 million. The country has a hemiboreal climate and is administratively divided into six regions . Minsk

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3968-654: The Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including collectivization and five-year plans for the national economy , led to famine and political repression. The western part of modern Belarus remained part of the Second Polish Republic . After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and

4092-400: The Soviet Union , this formal document establishes the framework of the Belarusian state and government and enumerates the rights and freedoms of its citizens. However, the United Nations and various observers challenge that the rule of law is respected or that the judiciary is independent in Belarus, highlighting the consolidation of power by the current president. The constitution

4216-576: The Tatars (i.e., Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Mogilev) had been referred to as White Rus' . A fourth theory suggests that the color white was associated with the west, and Belarus was the western part of Rus' in the 9th to 13th centuries. The name Rus' is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia , thus Belarus is often referred to as White Russia or White Ruthenia . The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature ;

4340-475: The UN Security Council statement condemning "the apparent terrorist attack" intimating the possibility that the Belarusian government itself was behind the bombing. Mass protests erupted across the country following the disputed 2020 Belarusian presidential election , in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office. Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania do not recognize Lukashenko as

4464-662: The United States . Internally, the Constitution was influenced by the period of Soviet domination and a desire to bring back traditions brushed aside by the Soviet Government. The structure of the Constitution is similar to the Russian Federation : for example, the office of the President has powers analogous to those granted to the President of Russia . Overall, the Constitution sought to preserve

4588-621: The prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine , and the election itself was held several days after Russia began its military offensive into Ukraine. According to the Central Election Commission of Belarus (CEC), 65.2% of voters voted in favor of the amendments to the State Constitution, offered by the authorities. The 1996 and 2004 referendums were severely criticized by the political opposition inside Belarus as well as by international observers such as

4712-491: The sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Belarus gained independence on 25 August 1991. Following the adoption of a new constitution in 1994, Alexander Lukashenko was elected Belarus's first president in the country's first and only free election after independence, serving as president ever since. Lukashenko heads a highly centralized authoritarian government. Belarus ranks low in international measurements of freedom of

4836-429: The state-owned enterprise industrial sector. Norway and Japan have joined the sanctions regime which aims to isolate Belarus from the international supply chain. Most major Belarusian banks are also under restrictions. Belarus lies between latitudes 51° and 57° N , and longitudes 23° and 33° E . Its extension from north to south is 560 km (350 mi), from west to east is 650 km (400 mi). It

4960-506: The unicameral parliament of Belarus, was abolished. The Supreme Council was replaced by the National Assembly , a bicameral parliament; 2- The term of President Alexander Lukashenko was extended from 1999 until 2001. During the referendum, 84% of the approximately 7.5 million voters approved the amendments. On November 28 of that year, President Lukashenko signed the changes into law. Other results not directly related to

5084-510: The (larger) Ukrainian minority , Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians. In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with many Orthodox churches and Belarusian schools being closed. Use of the Belarusian language was discouraged. Belarusian leadership was sent to Bereza Kartuska prison . In September 1939,

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5208-488: The 13th century, but the lands of modern-day Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and eventually joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy of Polotsk and Lithuania for decades. Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political, and ethno-cultural unification of Belarusian lands. Of

5332-454: The 1919-proposed Curzon Line . Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences . This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. After Stalin died in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev continued his predecessor's cultural hegemony program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian,

5456-539: The 1996 referendum, the validity of the vote was brought into question. According to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), many polling places went without independent observers. The OSCE believed that the standards of the vote did not meet OSCE requirements for "free and fair elections". Data from other non-governmental organizations (NGO) point out that 50% of voters did not participate in

5580-658: The 3rd century. Around the 5th century, the area was taken over by the Slavs. The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of the Balts, but their gradual assimilation into Slavic culture was peaceful. Invaders from Asia , among whom were the Huns and Avars , swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence. In the 9th century, the territory of modern Belarus became part of Kievan Rus' ,

5704-1030: The Baltic Sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper; the Dnieper flows southward towards the Black Sea . The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 m (295 ft). The average elevation of Belarus is 160 m (525 ft) above sea level . The climate features mild to cold winters, with January minimum temperatures ranging from −4  °C (24.8  °F ) in southwest ( Brest ) to −8 °C (17.6 °F) in northeast ( Vitebsk ), and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F). Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm (21.7 to 27.6 in). The country

5828-569: The Belarusian partisans, including the 1985 film Come and See and the works of authors Ales Adamovich and Vasil Bykaŭ . The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on the Eastern Front devastated Belarus. During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings. After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died, and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign. This figure represented

5952-566: The Byelorussian SSR adopted its last Soviet-era constitution in 1978, mainly to reflect changes made in the 1977 Soviet Constitution. When Belarus became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991, the Supreme Council of Belarus passed the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic , proclaiming Byelorussian SSR acts legal priority over USSR ones (per article 7 of

6076-417: The Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the opposition candidates, mostly associated with the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front , took only 10% of the seats, Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic . Wide-scale strikes erupted in April 1991. With the support of the Communist Party of Byelorussia ,

6200-447: The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic void, with a few exceptions. The law, passed during the thirteenth session of the Supreme Council, also provided transitional phases for office holders and government organs to form within two years. Every year since 1994, March 15 has been commemorated in Belarus as Constitution Day , a national holiday. The Constitution introduces separation of powers . According to Belarusian law, each office

6324-445: The Constitution allow Lukashenko to remain in office until 2035 and empower the All-Belarusian People's Assembly , an extra-parliamentary body dominated by government supporters. The changes also renounced Belarus's nuclear-free zone status, allowing Belarus to host nuclear weapons for the first time since the fall of the Soviet Union ; the lead-up to the referendum occurred as Russia amassed its troops in both Russia and Belarus in

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6448-401: The Constitution as a whole, but their status has been decided by the Constitution. Two years later, Lukashenko scheduled the first referendum that would potentially alter the Constitution. The last referendum on the Constitution occurred in 2022, also scheduled by Lukashenko. More calls for constitutional reform came in 1996. President Lukashenko unilaterally established the referendum after

6572-416: The Constitution was added following passage of the 1996 revision of Constitution and addresses laws passed before 1996. If the laws that were passed before the adoption of the Constitution are not in conflict with the Constitution, they are still enforced. All changes to the Constitution come into effect when formally issued by the president, unless specified otherwise. With the passage of the 1996 revision of

6696-481: The Constitution, the 1994 law "On the Procedure Governing the Entry into Force of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus" ceased to be enforced. As a transitional measure, Section Nine states that the present (as of November 1996) leadership of Belarus can continue to serve until their term of service has been completed. When the Constitution is enforced, the national government is allowed to exercise their assigned duties. Unless otherwise stated in Article 143, Part 3,

6820-409: The Constitution. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land, therefore other laws and edicts cannot conflict with it. If a conflict occurs, the Constitution applies. If the Constitution is not in conflict, but a law and a decree is, the law would be enforced. To amend the Constitution, one of two things must happen before the National Assembly can consider the measure: The president must suggest

6944-412: The Constitution." Article 4 establishes that democracy "is realized on the basis of the ideology of the Belarusian statehood", which is unusual provision compared to the constitutions of other post-Soviet countries, that prohibit state ideologies. The government itself has a system of checks and balances for each branch of the government, but all of the branches are to be independent from influence from

7068-420: The Constitutional Court reviewed 101 laws and decrees; they were deemed to be constitutional. The court that deals with criminal law matters is the Supreme Court of Belarus . Section Five permits the formation of local governments. Local governments are selected by the local population and they have the power to administer local affairs, such as budgets, social services, and economic development. They also have

7192-412: The Declaration, but this provision was inserted into 1978 Constitution only in August 1991) and formally starting a constitutional process in Republic. Soon afterwards, the government established a Constitution Commission to facilitate the adoption of a post-Soviet constitution. In November 1991, the commission sent the first of three drafts to the Supreme Council. Upon approval from the Supreme Council,

7316-449: The National Assembly must review the budget for the next fiscal year within five months. After the review and passing of the national budget, it is published for public viewing. Local budgets follow the same procedures. The National Bank of the Republic of Belarus is the state bank of Belarus and is the office responsible for issuing the national currency, the Belarusian rubel . Section Eight describes processes for enforcing and amending

7440-496: The National Assembly or a simple majority of the voting population of Belarus in a national referendum. The only restriction is that Sections One, Two, Four and Eight can only be changed by national referendum. Rules for conducting a national referendum are enumerated in Chapters 22 through 25 of the Electoral Code of the Republic of Belarus. Since the original adoption of the Constitution in 1994, it has been amended twice; once in 1996 and once in 2004. The ninth and last section of

7564-500: The OSCE. Observers state that the two referendums were non-transparent and that the real results were not published. Observers were not allowed to see the process of counting ballots. Specifically, the democratic opposition to President Lukashenko decided to boycott the 1996 referendum on the Constitution. During the same election, international observers found problems with the voting process or found pro-government advertisements or notices at polling places. Opposition parties contend that

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7688-499: The Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in a revolt , led by Konstanty Kalinowski (also known as Kastus). After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905. During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming

7812-400: The Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II were included into the Belarusian Governorate (Russian: Белорусское генерал-губернаторство ) in 1796 and held until their occupation by the German Empire during World War I . Under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed with policies of Polonization replaced by Russification which included

7936-455: The Soviet Union in 1941. The defense of Brest Fortress was the first major battle of Operation Barbarossa . The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained under German occupation until 1944. The German Generalplan Ost called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians to provide more living space in the East for Germans. Most of Western Belarus became part of

8060-500: The Soviet Union invaded and occupied eastern Poland, following the German invasion of Poland two weeks earlier which marked the beginning of World War II . The territories of Western Belorussia were annexed and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR. The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on 28 October 1939 in Białystok . Nazi Germany invaded

8184-479: The Supreme Council at the time and was largely opposed to political and economic reform, with allegations that some of the deputies opposed Belarusian independence. A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the President of Belarus . A two-round election for the presidency on 24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994 catapulted the formerly unknown Alexander Lukashenko into national prominence. He garnered 45% of

8308-472: The Supreme Council permanently. The members of the Belarusian Popular Front pressed for a referendum, and despite achieving the number of signatures required by law at the time, the Supreme Council quashed the measure. The results of the 1996 referendum led to the exclusion of opposition parties from the new parliament. Due to problems associated with transparency and ballot stuffing , the European Union, United States and several other nations do not recognize

8432-427: The Supreme Council refused to support the measures or set up a date for the vote. An earlier attempt by the Supreme Council to establish their own referendum in September 1996 was struck down as "inconsistent with the Constitution" by the Constitutional Court. The referendum amended the Constitution mostly to strengthen the power of the presidency. Amongst the changes made were the following: 1- The Supreme Council ,

8556-492: The United States have all imposed sanctions against Belarus because of the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests in the country. Further sanctions were imposed in 2022 following the country's role and complicity in the Russian invasion of Ukraine; Russian troops were allowed to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory. These include not only corporate offices and individual officers of government but also private individuals who work in

8680-399: The authority to collect taxes. The president can appoint and dismiss the heads of the local governments on the approval of the relevant local council of deputies. Section Six lists the office and duties of the prosecutor general (Procurator General in the official translation) and the State Supervisory Committee. The prosecutor general and his appointed assistant prosecutors are tasked with

8804-399: The balanced implementation of national, regional and local laws on all sectors of government and public society. The prosecutor general is appointed by the president with permission from the Council of the Republic. The State Supervisory Committee is tasked with monitoring the national budget, implementing the president's economic policy, and regulating the use of government property. As with

8928-411: The capital (Minsk was previously the capital of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic ). Section Two describes rights the government grants to citizens. According to the document, providing and protecting these basic rights, which include the "right to a dignified standard of living, including appropriate food, clothing, housing and likewise a continuous improvement of necessary living conditions",

9052-599: The change, or 150,000 eligible voters must send a petition to the National Assembly. Both chambers of the National Assembly must discuss the proposed amendments for a minimum of three months. Two conditions can prevent a discussion from taking place: Either there is a state of emergency, or there are less than six months in the current term of the House of Representatives. In order for an amendment to take effect, it must be approved by either two-thirds of both chambers of

9176-399: The chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mention the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at " Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto " in 1381. The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey , who was known for his close contacts with the Russian royal court. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used

9300-582: The country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Stanislav Shushkevich , the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in Białowieża Forest to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States . In January 1992,

9424-491: The date for said referendum was delayed by six months. However, with no evidence to suggest such, the Supreme Council rejected the petition on the grounds of massive irregularities. Elections for the Supreme Council were set for March 1994. A new law on parliamentary elections failed to pass by 1993. Disputes over the referendum were accredited to the largely conservative Party of Belarusian Communists , which controlled

9548-404: The economy, with inflation reaching 108.7%. Around the same time the 2011 Minsk Metro bombing occurred in which 15 people were killed and 204 were injured. Two suspects, who were arrested within two days, confessed to being the perpetrators and were executed by shooting in 2012. The official version of events as publicised by the Belarusian government was questioned in the unprecedented wording of

9672-464: The faster we shall build communism." Between Stalin's death in 1953 and 1980, Belarusian politics was dominated by former members of the Soviet partisans, including First Secretaries Kirill Mazurov and Pyotr Masherov. Mazurov and Masherov oversaw Belarus's rapid industrialisation and transformation from one of the Soviet Union's poorest republics into one of its richest. In 1986, the Byelorussian SSR

9796-596: The final drafts due to the lack of balance between the two parties and for allowing Vyachaslau Kebich to run for presidential elections in June of that year despite serving in the same role with the SSR. When drafting the Belarus Constitution, the Supreme Council deputies were influenced by the constitutions of various countries, including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , Sweden , and

9920-621: The first draft was published in December 1991 in order for the Belarusian populace to make comments and suggestions. Professors Gary M. Shaw of Touro College , New York and Russell L. Weaver of the University of Louisville spent time in Belarus in 1993 advising on drafting the constitution on behalf of Central and East European Law Initiative (CEELI), a project of the American Bar Association . The commission submitted

10044-449: The following conditions must be met: The president wishes to hold one, both houses of the National Assembly request to hold one, or the citizens petition for it. If the National Assembly calls for a plebiscite, a majority is needed in both chambers for it to be official. If the citizens request a plebiscite, they must gather 430,000 signatures from eligible voters across the country. Additionally, over 30,000 people from each region must sign

10168-478: The former lands of Kievan Rus' , including the territories of modern-day Belarus and Ukraine . On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers . This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , created in 1569 by the Union of Lublin . In

10292-495: The government and eliminated the term limits for the presidency. [REDACTED] CIS Member State Parliamentary elections The Belarusian Democratic Republic adopted its first temporary constitution several months after declaring independence from the Russian Empire , on October 11, 1918. In 1919, after the occupation of the country by the Russian Bolsheviks, Belarus became a Soviet Republic (USSR) , and

10416-415: The government undertakes to show "adherence to values common to all mankind, founding ourselves on our inalienable right to self-determination," which is "supported by the centuries-long history of development of Belarusian statehood." Belarus also pledges to honor the rights and freedoms of its citizens and to maintain a stable government that is run by the people and based on the rule of law . Section One

10540-653: The legitimate president of Belarus and the Lithuanian government has allotted a residence for main opposition candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya and other members of the Belarusian opposition in Vilnius . Neither is Lukashenko recognized as the legitimate president of Belarus by the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom or the United States. The European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom, and

10664-689: The name "Belarus". Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by the Imperial German Army and the Imperial Russian Army in World War I , and then the Bolshevik Red Army . It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state. The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of

10788-440: The name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly by Slavs who had been Christianized early, as opposed to Black Ruthenia , which was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts . An alternative explanation for the name comments on the white clothing the local Slavic population wears. A third theory suggests that the old Rus' lands that were not conquered by

10912-613: The names of the Yotvingians . Another hypothesis connects the word with the Gothic Kingdom that occupied parts of the territory of modern Belarus and Ukraine in the 4th and 5th centuries. The self-naming of Goths was Gutans and Gytos , which are close to Gudija. Yet another hypothesis is based on the idea that Gudija in Lithuanian means "the other" and may have been used historically by Lithuanians to refer to any people who did not speak Lithuanian. From 5000 to 2000 BC,

11036-426: The national authorities are still in force, even if they had expired or contradict the Constitution. In 2021 a Civil Constitution Commission, appointed by Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya ’s Representative for Constitutional Reform, produced a draft "Constitution for New Belarus". According to the official site of Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya, "the Constitution for New Belarus is a modern European constitution, which will ensure

11160-408: The national leadership must form state governmental bodies two months after the Constitution goes into effect. After Lukashenko assumed the presidency in 1994, he stated his intention to amend the recently passed Constitution. The amendments, according to Lukashenko, would expand the power of his office, marking a turning point in post-Soviet era politics in Belarus. A May 1995 national referendum

11284-419: The naturally regenerating forest 2% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 16% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership . Belarus borders five countries: Latvia to the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to

11408-402: The newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism. The Republic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania to the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following

11532-440: The opposition and democratic forces who wanted to close the Supreme Council down for good. A power struggle to determine the relationship between the new executive branch and the legislature caused much of the debate in 1992 and 1993. The former chairman of the Supreme Council, Stanislau Shushkevich , criticized the early drafts due to the amount of power granted to the president. The opposition Belarusian Popular Front criticized

11656-480: The other branches. The government is authorized to pass laws conforming with the provisions of the Constitution, by which it is expected to abide. If the laws do not conform with the Constitution, then they can be declared void. The laws themselves are subject to international law and Belarus is willing to "recognize the supremacy of the universally acknowledged principles of international law and ensure that its laws comply with such principles." The territory of Belarus

11780-409: The petition, including the capital Minsk. Once either condition is met, the president must issue a decree setting the date of the national plebiscite. The plebiscite must take place less than three months after the decree was signed. Local cities can hold their own plebiscites if ten percent of the local population ask for it. Section Four, which is divided into four chapters, outlines the functions of

11904-489: The president and the people do not like it. The laws that fall in the latter category are considered "ignored" by the legal scholars. In June 1999, a Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers from the United Nations visited Belarus and noted inconsistency between national laws, decrees and the Constitution. The UN rapporteur , Dato Param Cumaraswamy , especially noted that temporary decrees issued by

12028-469: The president cannot continue duties or if the president dies in office. Chapter Four lists the powers and duties of the Parliament of Belarus, which is called the National Assembly . The National Assembly itself is divided into two houses: the lower House of Representatives and the upper Council of the Republic . While each house has its own rules governing how members are elected, members decide on

12152-467: The press and civil liberties . It has continued several Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy . Belarus is the only European country that continues to use capital punishment . In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming the Union State . The country has been a member of the United Nations since its founding and has joined

12276-697: The principalities held by the duchy, nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become the Belarusians . During this time, the duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe . The Muscovites , led by Ivan III of Russia , began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to incorporate

12400-489: The prosecutor general, the State Supervisory Committee is appointed by the president. Section Seven specifies the fiscal responsibilities of Belarus. A national budget must be created, along with budgets for the local regions and cities. The money used in the national budget is acquired from national taxes and fines, and payments made to Belarus by foreign governments. At the end of a fiscal year ,

12524-431: The referendum, so they contend that the results reported by the government are flawed. Two years later, Lukashenko ran in the 2006 election and won 83% of the vote during the first ballot. With no term limits, Lukashenko states that, depending on his health, he will not retire from politics and might run for re-election in 2011. [REDACTED] CIS Member State Parliamentary elections A constitutional referendum

12648-479: The results of the vote. Along with choosing members for the National Assembly, Belarusian voters were presented with a referendum regarding presidential term limits. Before the vote, President Alexander Lukashenko was only allowed to serve two terms before the Constitution required him to step down. The voter turnout for the referendum was nearly 90%, with 77.3% of the voters agreeing to eliminating term limits. The changes were implemented on October 17, 2004. Like

12772-435: The return to Orthodox Christianity of Belarusian Uniates . Belarusian language was banned in schools while in neighboring Samogitia primary school education with Samogitian literacy was allowed. In a Russification drive in the 1840s, Nicholas I prohibited the use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications, and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under

12896-410: The right to vote in elections and plebiscites is extended to those who are above the age of eighteen. During elections and plebiscites, a citizen can vote or not vote without any consequences from the government. The Constitution describes two methods of preventing a citizen from voting. First, a court can issue an order stating that the citizen does not have the mental capacity to understand and to cast

13020-436: The right to vote, housing, compensation for their share of work, and have the ability to move wherever they wish inside Belarus, and have the right to protest against the government. Section Three is divided into two chapters dealing with the organization and running of elections. The first chapter deals with the Belarusian electoral system and the second chapter details the organization of national referendums . In Belarus,

13144-591: The southeastern regions) was affected by radiation fallout. The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137 . In Belarus forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,767,600 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 7,780,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered 6,555,600 hectares (ha), and planted forests covered 2,212,000 hectares (ha). Of

13268-473: The staged rebellion of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of the Polish Army under Lucjan Żeligowski . Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Vilna ( Lithuanian : Vilnius , Polish : Wilno ), for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland , upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area. After a variety of delays,

13392-452: The statehood of Belarus from pro-Russian unity movements, provide a strong head of state that could cure the ailments Belarus would endure in the post-Soviet era, and lay out a compromise between the political factions in Belarus. The constitution is divided in the following way. In the preamble of the Constitution, Belarus assumes the responsibility for its destiny as a member of the international community. To execute this responsibility,

13516-674: The term to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The term Belorussia (Russian: Белору́ссия , the latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently from Росси́я , Russia ) first rose in the days of the Russian Empire , and the Russian Tsar was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", as Russia or the Russian Empire was formed by three parts of Russia—the Great , Little , and White . This asserted that

13640-536: The territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people. After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term White Russia caused some confusion, as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks. During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the term Byelorussia was embraced as part of

13764-611: The third and final draft to the Supreme Council, where it was signed on March 15, 1994 by the Speaker of the Supreme Council and Head of State, Myechyslaw Hryb . The gazette Zvezda officially published the Constitution fifteen days later. The Supreme Council passed a second law along with the Constitution, titled the Enactment Law, rendering the 1978 Byelorussian SSR Constitution and the Declaration of State Sovereignty of

13888-462: The usage of Belorussia is still very common. In Lithuanian, besides Baltarusija (White Russia), Belarus is also called Gudija . The etymology of the word Gudija is not clear. By one hypothesis the word derives from the Old Prussian name Gudwa , which, in turn, is related to the form Żudwa , which is a distorted version of Sudwa, Sudovia. Sudovia , in its turn, is one of

14012-458: The various bills that could become Belarusian law and approve the nominations of cabinet heads that the president chooses. The Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus , headed by the prime minister , is the body of officials that are heads of various ministries of the Belarusian government. The president appoints each member of the council, but the National Assembly must also approve each member. Council members stays on until their term as

14136-547: The vote in the first round and 80% in the second, defeating Vyacheslav Kebich who received 14% of the vote. The elections were the first and only free elections in Belarus after independence. The 2000s saw some economic disputes between Belarus and its primary economic partner, Russia. The first one was the 2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute when Russian energy giant Gazprom ceased the import of gas into Belarus because of price disagreements. The 2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute centered on accusations by Gazprom that Belarus

14260-476: The vote to dissolve the Supreme Council in 1996 removed Belarus' last democratically elected parliament and installed Lukashenko's hand-picked parliament. While there were claims of manipulation of the elections and the Constitution itself, some parts of the 2004 constitution were supported by key leaders of the Belarusian democratic opposition. In a 2005 interview with Radio Free Europe , presidential candidate Alaksandar Milinkievič stated that Belarus' stance as

14384-511: The voting included the expanding role of the Council of Ministers, which allowed it to deal with issues related to development of economic, social and political spheres within Belarus. The 1996 referendum was not, however, the first call to dissolve the Supreme Council. In 1991 and 1992, after the August coup in Moscow by senior CPSU officials, democratic forces in the government wanted to dissolve

14508-561: The west, Russia to the north and the east, and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, and Belarus ratified a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border in 2009. Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007. Constitution of Belarus Adopted in 1994, three years after the country declared its independence from

14632-525: The years following the union, the process of gradual Polonization of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both the Polish language and Catholicism became dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language, with Ruthenian being banned from administrative use. However, the Ruthenian peasants continued to speak their native language. Also,

14756-519: Was contaminated with most (70%) of the nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant located 16 km beyond the border in the neighboring Ukrainian SSR . By the late 1980s, political liberalization led to a national revival, with the Belarusian Popular Front becoming a major pro-independence force. In March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of

14880-642: Was declared the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (SSRB) for just two months, but then merged with the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) to form the Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia (SSR LiB), which lost control of its territories by August. The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) was created in July 1920. The contested lands were divided between Poland and

15004-420: Was drafted by the Supreme Council of Belarus , the former legislative body of the country and is heavily influenced by Western constitutions. The constitution has been amended thrice under controversial circumstances since the original adoption, in 1996, in 2004 and in 2022. Two referendums that were disputed by independent observers and government opposition leaders increased the power of the presidency over

15128-579: Was held in Belarus on 27 February 2022. The referendum was ordered by President Alexander Lukashenko in January 2022. According to political analysts, changes to the Belarusian constitution were intended to solidify the power of Lukashenko's regime after the mass protests in 2020 and 2021 , which challenged his rule and was brutally suppressed by police. More than 35,000 people were arrested, 1,070 of whom are acknowledged political prisoners. The changes to

15252-495: Was siphoning oil off of the Druzhba pipeline that runs through Belarus. Two years later the so-called Milk War , a trade dispute, started when Russia wanted Belarus to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and through a series of events ended up banning the import of dairy products from Belarus. In 2011, Belarus suffered a severe economic crisis attributed to Lukashenko's government's centralized control of

15376-421: Was the first step in the amendment process. Out of the four questions, one asked if the president could disband parliament if the members violate national law. The vote, which several Supreme Council deputies protested, resulted in 77% in favor of the provision regarding the dismissal of the legislature by the president. Other questions on the ballot, such as the national flag and national emblem , didn't affect

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