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223-650: Historically, the city was known as Kauthara under rule of the Kingdom of Champa . The city is still home to the famous Po Nagar Towers built by the Champa. Being a coastal city, Nha Trang is a center for marine science based at the Nha Trang Oceanography Institute . The Hon Mun marine protected area is one of four first marine protected areas in the world admitted by the IUCN . Nha Trang

446-730: A South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice. The Champa civilization and what would later be the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug , which is also in the Philippines, engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries, establishing trading centers. There they were called Orang Dampuan and, due to their wealth, many of them were killed by native Sulu Buranuns. The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory killings by

669-560: A land reform program restricting rice farm sizes to a maximum of 247 acres per landowner with the excess land to be sold to landless peasants. More than 1.8m acres of farm land would become available for purchase, the US would pay the landowners and receive payment from the purchasers over a six-year period. Land reform was regarded by the US as a crucial step to build support for the nascent South Vietnamese government and undermine communist propaganda. The North Vietnamese Communist Party approved

892-749: A "people's war" on the South at a session in January 1959 and this decision was confirmed by the Politburo in March. In May 1959, Group 559 was established to maintain and upgrade the Ho Chi Minh Trail , at this time a six-month mountain trek through Laos. About 500 of the "regroupees" of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. Regarding the relations with communist North Vietnam, Diệm maintained total hostility and never made

1115-560: A 1961 US intelligence estimate reported that "one-half of the entire rural region south and southwest of Saigon, as well as some areas to the north, are under considerable Communist control. Some of these areas are in effect denied to all government authority not immediately backed by substantial armed force. The Việt Cộng's strength encircles Saigon and has recently begun to move closer in the city." The report, later excerpted in The Pentagon Papers , continued: Support for

1338-673: A Cham Bani cleric – which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a Cham state for a short period of time, before being crushed by Minh Mang's forces. The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their and remnant of Champa's fate. A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to forced assimilation by the Vietnamese, while many Cham, including indigenous highland peoples, were indiscriminately killed by

1561-499: A Cham king named Jaya Prakāśadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thorough knowledge of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying down the foundations for the Champa art and architectural styles. He also sent many embassies regularly to

1784-399: A Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king Le Hoan of Dai Viet , followed by Lưu Kế Tông (r. 986–989), a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983, brought mass destruction to Northern Champa. Indrapura was still one of the major centers of Champa until being surpassed by Vijaya in the 12th century. The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through

2007-433: A brief interim military government until General Nguyễn Khánh deposed Minh in a January 1964 coup. Until late 1965, multiple coups and changes of government occurred, with some civilians being allowed to give a semblance of civil rule overseen by a military junta. In 1965, the feuding civilian government voluntarily resigned and handed power back to the nation's military, in the hope this would bring stability and unity to

2230-542: A confederation of kingdom(s) and individual city-states for most of its history. For several periods from the 700s to 1471, there was the king of kings or the overlord based out of the most significant powerful cities like Indrapura and Vijaya , who wielded more power, influence, and sense of unity over the other Cham kings and princes, and perhaps those minor local kings and princes (Yuvarāja – not necessary mean crown prince) or regional military commander/warlords (senāpati) were from local associates that had no connection with

2453-423: A constitution on 26 October 1956. After a 1963 coup , Diệm was killed and his dictatorship was overthrown in a CIA -backed military rebellion on November 2, and a series of short-lived military governments followed. General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu then led the country after a civilian presidential election from 1967 until 1975. During 1949-1975, both Saigon and communist governments coexisted, both claimed to be

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2676-645: A constitution to establish a republic, but not in time due to the progress of the war. However, South Vietnam under Diệm held parliamentary elections and subsequently promulgated a constitution on 26 October 1956. The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. In 1957, independent observers from India, Poland, and Canada representing the International Control Commission (ICC) stated that fair, unbiased elections were not possible, reporting that neither South nor North Vietnam had honored

2899-655: A guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years, together with Dai Viet , eventually repelling the Mongols back to China by June 1285. After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288, Dai Viet king Trần Nhân Tông spent his retirement years in Northern Champa, and arranged a marriage between his daughter, Princess Huyền Trân , and Prince Harijit – now reigning as Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) - in 1306 in exchange for peace and territory. From 1307 to 1401, not even

3122-837: A lengthy dry season from January to August and a shorter wet season from September to December, when 1,029 mm (41 in) of the city's total annual rainfall of about 1,300 mm (51 in) is received from the north-east monsoon. During the wet season extremely heavy rainfall from typhoons is not uncommon, though the city is shielded from the worst winds. Nha Trang is subdivided into 22 wards and communes, of which 14 are urban wards: Vĩnh Hải, Vĩnh Phước, Vĩnh Thọ, Vạn Thạnh, Phương Sơn, Ngọc Hiệp, Phước Hòa, Tân Tiến (founded in November 2024), Phước Hải, Lộc Thọ, Vĩnh Nguyên, Vĩnh Trường, Phước Long, Vĩnh Hòa; and 8 suburban communes: Vĩnh Phương, Vĩnh Trung, Vĩnh Thạnh, Vĩnh Thái, Vĩnh Hiệp, Vĩnh Ngọc, Vĩnh Lương, and Phước Đồng. Since 1998, due to

3345-485: A linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva . The worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed. Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century CE, the Cham might have reached India by themselves. King Gangaraja (r. 413–?) of Champa

3568-477: A long time by scholars until Po Dharma . Cham literature also have been greatly preserved in approximately more than 3,000 Cham manuscripts and printed books dating from the 16th to 20th centuries. The Southeast Asia Digital Library (SEADL) at Northern Illinois University currently contains an extensive collection of 977 digitized Cham manuscripts, totaling more than 57,800 pages of multigenre content. Modern scholarship has been guided by two competing theories in

3791-575: A massive invasion of the South, projected for 1976. A gas pipeline would be built from North Vietnam to the Việt Cộng provisional capital in Lộc Ninh , about 60 mi (97 km) north of Saigon. On 15 March 1973, US President Richard Nixon implied that the US would intervene militarily if the communist side violated the ceasefire. Public reaction was unfavorable, and on 4 June 1973 the US Senate passed

4014-799: A million South Vietnamese soldiers and 500,000 US soldiers in South Vietnam. In 1969, the North Vietnam-controlled Việt Cộng established the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG) to challenge the legitimacy of the South Vietnamese government. What started as a guerrilla war eventually turned into a more conventional fight as the balance of power became equalized. An even larger, armored attack from

4237-618: A mobile secretariat ( xingsheng ) in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks. It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia. The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of Vijaya forcing the Cham king Indravarman V (r. 1258–1287) and Prince Harijit to wage

4460-525: A new Buddhist dynasty founded by Indravarman II (r. ? – 893) moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again. Indravarman II established the city of Indrapura , near My Son and ancient Simhapura . Mahayana Buddhism eclipsed Hinduism, becoming the state religion. Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture (distinguish with modern Cham culture). Unfortunately,

4683-603: A new dynasty of Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). His successor Indravarman VI (r. 1400–1441) reigned for the next 41 years, expanding Champa's territory to the Mekong Delta amidst the decline of the Angkorian Empire . One of Indravarman's nephews, Prince Śrīndra-Viṣṇukīrti Virabhadravarman , became king of Champa in 1441. By the mid 15th century, Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline. No inscription survived after 1456. The Vietnamese under

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4906-462: A noble called Đoan Quận công Bùi Thế Đạt, the name Nha Trang Hải môn (Nha Trang Sea Gate) was also cited. In Vietnamese recorded historic bibliographies, these books are perhaps the earliest ones that mentioned this place name. In a work by Lê Quý Đôn called Phủ biên tạp lục (1776), many Nha Trang-related names were mentioned, such as đầm Nha Trang, dinh Nha Trang, nguồn Nha Trang, and đèo Nha Trang . Kauthara, also translated as an ancient clam,

5129-563: A nominal republic and he was an ally of the US. Based on mass-organizations and secret networks as effective instruments, the Cần Lao Party with the Person Dignity Theory played a considerable role in creating a political groundwork for the power of Diệm's family and helped them to control all political activities in South Vietnam. Throughout this period, the level of US aid and political support increased. In spite of this,

5352-481: A non-communist regime. Also in 1947, under a pressure of the domestic left , the French government of Prime Minister Paul Ramadier agreed that it would give a non-communist Vietnam independence and unification. With co-operation between indigenous anti-communists and France, two preliminary treaties at Ha Long Bay recognizing Vietnam's independence and unity were signed between ex-emperor Bao Dai (representative of

5575-454: A predecessor state in the region, began its existence in 192 CE. In the 4th century CE, wars with the neighbouring Kingdom of Funan in Cambodia and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of Indian culture into Cham society. Sanskrit was adopted as a scholarly language, and Hinduism , especially Shaivism , became the state religion. Starting from the 10th century CE,

5798-487: A prominent American "land-rights activist", who the US government of the time recruited within its efforts against communists. Drawing on experiences in other countries (particularly in Latin America), Prosterman proposed a "land-to-the-tiller" program to compete with the communists for the allegiance of the peasants. The plan mimicked the communists' land expropriation strategy, coupled with monetary compensation to

6021-450: A quasi-registral, incipiently tonal system . After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471, another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west, forming Haroi , which has reversal Bahnaric linguistic influences. According to Cham folk legends, Champa was founded by Lady Po Nagar –the divine mother goddess of the kingdom. She came from the Moon, arrived in modern Central Vietnam and founded

6244-667: A result, Phuoc Long was the first provincial capital to fall to the PAVN. In 1975, the PAVN launched an offensive at Ban Me Thuot in the Central Highlands . The South Vietnamese unsuccessfully attempted a defence and counterattack but had few reserve forces, as well as a shortage of spare parts and ammunition. As a consequence, Thiệu ordered a withdrawal of key army units from the Central Highlands, which exacerbated an already perilous military situation and undermined

6467-527: A result, all of the above functions were transferred to the State of Vietnam by France. According to the Élysée Accords, France gradually transferred management functions to Bao Dai's government. On 8 December 1950, the State of Vietnam and France signed a military agreement to establish the Vietnamese National Army by placing a number of Vietnamese military units established by France under

6690-459: A second-class municipal city. On April 22, 2009, former Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng recognized Nha Trang City as a first-class municipal city. Nha Trang city has a metropolitan area of 251 km (97 sq mi) and population of about 500,000. It borders Ninh Hòa town in the north, Cam Ranh city in the south, Diên Khánh town in the west and the East Sea to the east. The city is on

6913-579: A serious effort to establish any relations with it. Diệm attempted to stabilise South Vietnam with defending against communist activities by both propaganda and force ( Tố Cộng diệt Cộng ). He also launched military campaigns against three powerful group – the Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo and the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate whose military strength combined amounted to approximately 350,000 fighters (see also: Battle of Saigon (1955) ). By 1960

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7136-587: A single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa, and almost all of its 14th-century history has to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources. Engraving Sanskrit inscription, the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa, stopped in 1253. No other grand temple or other construction project was built after 1300. These facts marked the beginning of Champa's decline. From 1367 to 1390, according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources, Che Bong Nga , who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390, had restored Champa. He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during

7359-445: A small fraction, or about 40,000 Cham people in the old Panduranga remained in 1885 when the French completed their acquisition of Vietnam . The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples, putting an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham. But French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of

7582-467: A species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. Rolf Stein proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri , an ancient sacred city in Buddhism , for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa

7805-412: A strong monarch, the territories of the kingdom stretch from present-day Quảng Bình to Khánh Hòa . An internal division called viṣaya (district) was first introduced. There were at least two viṣaya: Caum and Midit. Each of them has a handful number of local koṣṭhāgāras –known as 'source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, northern Champa

8028-657: A two-day journey lay the country of Ma-i at Mindoro, Philippines; which Champa had trade relations with. Afterwards, during the 1000s, Rajah Kiling, the Hindu king of the Philippine Rajahnate of Butuan instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate, from the Chinese Empire , which was later denied by

8251-482: Is a common Cham and Montagnard place name, same as Ia Drang Valley . As far as the recorded naming of Nha Trang is concerned, in Toàn tập Thiên Nam Tứ Chí Lộ Đồ Thư , a geographical book written by a Vietnamese scholar with the family of Đỗ Bá in the second half of the 18th century, the name Nha Trang Môn ("Nha Trang gate") was mentioned. In another map dating to the 17th century, known as Giáp Ngọ Niên Bình Nam Đồ by

8474-415: Is a constituent state of the empire-leading kingdom and its ruling area is located in the area from today's Fu A province to Cam Ranh. Yanpunagara, the capital of Yangpu, occupies the faith of a man and is deeply influenced by religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. However, in addition to that, the gods who formerly occupied ruled the indigenous faith in the motherland, such as Çri Maladakuthara (釋利摩落陀古笪羅) in

8697-463: Is a stopover for annual yacht races starting in Hong Kong. In recent years, the city has welcomed many five-star sea cruises. In addition to sailboat racing, Nha Trang provides a rich variety of tourist activities for visitors. Island hopping, scuba diving, water sports and other sporting activities can be enjoyed. The Nha Trang Tourist Information Center (a non-governmental organisation), located near

8920-636: Is also worshiped by the Vietnamese, a tradition that dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period. The Chams descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture between 1000 BCE and 200 CE, the predecessor of the Cham kingdom. The Cham language is part of the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham

9143-552: Is located by Cam Ranh Bay, 28 km (17 mi) south of the city and was (as of 2007) the fourth busiest airport in passenger traffic in Vietnam serving more than 683,000 passengers in 2008. As of 2016, the airport has domestic connections to Hanoi , Hồ Chí Minh City , Hải Phòng, Đà Nẵng , Vinh . The city is next to the National Route 1 , the backbone north–south road of the country. The Reunification Railway crosses

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9366-425: Is particular are among the largest contributors to Vietnam's annual budget revenues. Lobster farming on the sea is an important industry for the people living in suburban areas. To the south of the city, by Cam Ranh Bay, several industrial parks are under construction and have been partly available for investors. Once the construction of the deep-water port on Vân Phong Bay has been completed, this area will become

9589-688: Is related most closely to modern Acehnese in northern Sumatra. The Sa Huỳnh culture was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present-day Central Vietnam coastal region. During its heyday, the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and had commercial links across the South China Sea with the Philippine archipelago and even with Taiwan (through Maritime Jade Road , Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere ), which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and are no longer hesitant in linking with

9812-400: Is richest for Indrapura ; in the 12th century CE, it is richest for Vijaya ; following the 15th century CE, it is richest for Panduranga . Some scholars have taken these shifts in the historical record to reflect the movement of the Cham capital from one location to another. According to such scholars, if the 10th-century record is richest for Indrapura, it is so because at that time Indrapura

10035-427: Is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia. Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham , Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia;

10258-403: Is well known for its beaches and scuba diving and has developed into a popular destination for international tourists, attracting large numbers of backpackers , as well as more affluent travelers on the south-east Asia circuit; it is already very popular with Vietnamese tourists, with Nha Trang Bay widely considered as among the world's most beautiful bays. Tourists are welcomed to participate in

10481-643: The Sakkarai dak rai patao , was a 5227-pages collection of Cham veritable records, documenting a history range from early legendary kings of 11th–13th century to the deposition of Po Thak The , the last king of Panduranga in 1832, reckoning in total 39 rulers of Panduranga, the tales of spread of Islam to Champa in 1000 CE, to Po Thak The . The annals were written in Akhar Thrah (traditional) Cham script with collection of Cham and Vietnamese seals imprinted by Vietnamese rulers. However, it had been dismissed for

10704-533: The 16th parallel north , while a British-led force occupied the south in September. The British-led force facilitated the return of French forces who started to fight the Viet Minh for control of the south on 23 September 1945, because French sovereignty over French Indochina (including Vietnam) got a legal recognition of the victorious Allies that France was their member. The young Vietnamese state itself

10927-495: The Acehnese from Northern Sumatra , Indonesia , along with elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic -speaking peoples in Central Vietnam. Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ( 林邑 , Middle Chinese ( ZS ): * liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚ ), that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in

11150-640: The Arab maritime routes in Mainland Southeast Asia as a supplier of aloe . Despite the frequent wars between the Cham and the Khmer , the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions. Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently. Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with

11373-523: The Buddhist crisis , provoking widespread protests and civil resistance . The situation came to a head when the Special Forces were sent to raid Buddhist temples across the country , leaving a death toll estimated to be in the hundreds. However, the people who support Diem's regime claim he sponsored and supported many Buddhist organizations, and Buddhism flourished under his regime. Before Diệm

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11596-593: The Can Vuong movement in Binh Thuan. The King of Champa is the title ruler of Champa. Champa rulers often use two Hinduist style titles: raja-di-raja ( राजाधिराजः " raja of rajas" or king of kings : written here in Devanagari since the Cham used their own Cham script ) or pu po tana raya ("lord of all territories"). They would be addressed by style ganreh patrai (his Majesty). Officially,

11819-527: The Case–Church Amendment to prohibit such intervention. The oil price shock of October 1973 caused significant damage to the South Vietnamese economy. A spokesman for Thiệu admitted in a TV interview that the government was being "overwhelmed" by the inflation caused by the oil shock, while an American businessman living in Saigon stated after the oil shock that attempting to make money in South Vietnam

12042-460: The Cham–Vietnamese War (1471) , Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed. 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20–30,000 were taken prisoners and deported, including the king of Champa Tra Toan , who died along his way to the north in captivity. Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to

12265-463: The Cho Dam Market has been set up to provide information for visitors. The local cuisine is most famous for fresh seafood and barbecued pork rolled in rice paper. The area's bird's nest soup is deemed one of the best in Vietnam. Bird's nests are collected in the wild, on bird farms on the islands off the coast and even in some houses in the inner city. The farmed bird in question belongs to

12488-598: The Eastern Han dynasty of China in Xianglin who rebelled against Chinese rule in 192. Around the 4th century CE, Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences , probably through its neighbor, Funan . Hinduism was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples . The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman , who reigned from 380 to 413 CE. At Mỹ Sơn , King Bhadravarman established

12711-587: The French National Assembly ; but unlike Algeria , it was not part of France. The northern part of Vietnam or Tonkin ( Bắc Kỳ ) was under a French resident general ( thống sứ ). Between Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south was Annam ( Trung Kỳ ), under a French resident superior ( khâm sứ ). The Nguyễn dynasty emperors of Vietnam, residing in Huế , since the Treaty of Huế (1883) had been

12934-799: The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere . After the Japanese emperor claimed to surrender to the Allies on the radio on August 15, with the August Revolution of different political organizations led by communists, Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated on 25 August 1945 and Việt Minh leader Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in Hanoi ( Northern Vietnam ) on September 2. While

13157-653: The Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago , its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Ma-i . Butuan , and Sulu in the Philippines. Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around Aceh confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia; this is indicated by the use of the Chamic language Acehnese as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh. Linguists believe

13380-429: The Mekong Delta . South Vietnam's time zone was one hour ahead of North Vietnam, belonging to the UTC+8 time zone with the same time as the Philippines , Brunei , Malaysia , Singapore , China , Taiwan and Western Australia . South Vietnam went through many political changes during its short life. Initially, former Emperor Bảo Đại served as Head of State of the State of Vietnam and Emperor of its Domain of

13603-532: The North . On 8 March 1949, the French formed the State of Vietnam with the Élysée Accords , it was a rival state of anti-communist Vietnamese politicians in Saigon, led by former Nguyễn emperor Bảo Đại . With this event as part of decolonization , the French abolished the old-style colonial regime in Vietnam, France recognized the independence and unification of Vietnam within the French Union ; but Vietnam still depended on France as an associated state like other two countries within Indochina. The state

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13826-460: The Pasteur Institute of Nha Trang , one of the many famous Pasteur Institutes . The French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin , discoverer of the Yersinia pestis bacterium lived in Nha Trang for 50 years and was affectionately known as Ông Năm . He established the Indochinese Pasteur Institute (now known as the Pasteur Institute of Nha Trang ), devoted to researching the bubonic plague . Yersin died in Nha Trang on 1 March 1943. A street in

14049-401: The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) of North Vietnam and its Việt Cộng broke the traditional truce accompanying the Tết (Lunar New Year) holiday. The Tet Offensive failed to spark a national uprising and was militarily disastrous. By bringing the war to South Vietnam's cities, however, and by demonstrating the continued strength of communist forces, it marked a turning point in US support for

14272-551: The Rade , Jarai , Chru , Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?," Vickery doubts. The historiography of Champa relies upon four types of sources: Approximately four hundred Champa inscriptions have been found. Around 250 of them were deciphered and studied throughout

14495-433: The Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on par with the Korean kingdoms of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — "though the latter was rivaled by Japan." Between the 7th to 10th centuries CE, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled

14718-477: The Trotskyists competed for control. Since its establishment, the Viet Minh had never publicized it as a communist organization but as a neutral and nationalist one to attract or cooperate with non-communists and receive support from the people, however the communists sought to suppress politicians and political organizations who did not submit to them with the goal of establishing a future communist state for Vietnam. The communist Việt Minh even oppressed

14941-421: The Trotskyists , who shared their communist ideological background. The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng was considered biggest enemy by the communists. On 11 November 1945, the communists issued a communique to dissolve their party, but only in name. Nguyen Van Thieu , the future president of anti-communist South Vietnam, joined the Việt Minh in 1945 but quickly left the organization a year later after realizing it

15164-477: The US Congress voted to reduce assistance to South Vietnam from $ 1 billion a year to $ 700 million. By this time, the Ho Chi Minh trail, once an arduous mountain trek, had been upgraded into a drivable highway with gasoline stations. On 10 December 1974, South Vietnam did recapture a series of hills from communist North Vietnam in the Battle of Phú Lộc , but this was the army's last victory before suffering repeated defeats and collapse. On 12 December 1974,

15387-501: The United States and other Western countries (including Australia , France , West Germany , and Canada ), although the actual number has been variously reported. Morale was low in South Vietnam as the PAVN advanced. A last-ditch defense was made mostly by the ARVN 18th Division led by Brigadier General Lê Minh Đảo at the Battle of Xuân Lộc from 9–21 April. The North Vietnamese communists demanded that Thieu resign so peace negotiations could take place; under pressure from within

15610-420: The de jure capital of the Viet Minh communist government (DRV) during the war, was taken over by the Viet Minh on 10 October 1954 after the withdrawal of French Union troops. At the time of the conference, it was expected that the South would continue to be a French dependency. However, South Vietnamese Premier Ngô Đình Diệm , who preferred American sponsorship to French, rejected the agreement. North Vietnam of

15833-446: The matrilocal structure of Cham families. And compared to other Vietnamese ethnic groups, the Cham do not share ancestry with southern Han Chinese, along with Austronesian-speaking Mang. Champa was known to the Chinese as 林邑 Linyi in Mandarin, Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp (which is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of 林邑). The state of Champa was founded in 192 CE by Khu Liên (Ou Lian), an official of

16056-482: The swiftlet group, popularly referred to as yến hàng ( Aerodramus fuciphagus and A. germani ). Scuba diving and kite boarding are available, as are catamaran sailboats. Winds are steady. Local culinary specialities that attract people are bánh canh chả cá ( bánh canh with fish cakes and fish broth), bún cá sứa (rice vermicelli with jelly fish) and bánh xèo mực (crepes with squid). When Cam Ranh Bay used to be an important naval base, Nha Trang Airport

16279-511: The yellow flag of the old regime was started to be banned by the communist regimes in Vietnam but was started to be used in anti-communist Vietnamese overseas communities (but not all Vietnamese dissidents ) and started to be recognized by many places in Australia , the US , and Canada . The South was divided into coastal lowlands, the mountainous Central Highlands (Cao-nguyen Trung-phan) and

16502-440: The Đông Yên Châu inscription , the oldest known native Southeast Asian literature written in a native Southeast Asian language dating to around c. 350 CE, predating first Khmer , Mon , Malay texts by centuries. Scholarly consensus has shifted several times as to what degree Champa functioned as a unified entity. Originally being viewed as a unified kingdom throughout most of its history, later authors suggested that Champa

16725-470: The "Government of Vietnam", or simply "Vietnam". Before World War II , the southern part of present-day Vietnam ( Nam Kỳ ) had been taken over and administered as a complete colony of France since the Treaty of Saigon (1862) between France and the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty , it was Cochinchina . It had been directly ruled by France and a French governor ( thống đốc ) and even elected a deputy to

16948-557: The 1930 Yên Bái mutiny of the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng led by Nguyễn Thái Học failed; in the long run, it allowed the communists of Hồ Chí Minh to inherit the status of this organization as the leading anti-colonial revolutionary movement. Communist rebellions against the French colonialists also failed in the 1930-1931 uprising of the Nghệ-Tĩnh soviets and the 1940 Cochinchina uprising . During World War II , French Indochina

17171-580: The 19th century, Nha Trang was a deserted area rich in wildlife (animals like tigers ) and was a part of Hà Bạc, Vĩnh Xương County, Diên Khánh Province. After just two decades in the early 20th century, Nha Trang underwent a rapid change. On August 30, 1924, the Governor-General of French Indochina decreed Nha Trang as a townlet (urban centre). Nha Trang Townlet was established from the ancient villages of Xương Huân, Phương Câu, Vạn Thạnh, Phương Sài, and Phước Hải. During French Indochina , Nha Trang

17394-538: The 302 seats, although the distribution of seats between parties had been decided publicly before the elections by the Việt Minh themselves due to Chinese pressure. Most Vietnamese people at that time were illiterate and even the Viet Minh forcing people to vote for them was discovered. The ballot was not secret and ballot papers were filled out in the presence of aides who were "to help comrades who had difficulty in making out their ballots". Although former emperor Bao Dai

17617-502: The 9th and 10th centuries CE. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt , the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi . In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories. Hinduism , adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th century CE, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by

17840-514: The ARVN and other South Vietnamese who were seen as potential targets for persecution by the Communists. Many of the evacuees were taken directly by helicopter to multiple aircraft carriers waiting off the coast. Following the surrender of Saigon to North Vietnamese armed forces on 30 April 1975; South Vietnam was de facto overthrown, while the communists took power throughout Vietnam and there

18063-1012: The Acehnese language, a descendant of the Proto-Chamic language, separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium BCE. However, scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh-Chamic relations vary. Tsat , a northern Chamic language spoken by the Utsul on the Hainan Island, is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably, but precise details remain inadequate. Under Chinese language influence over Hainan, Tsat has become fully monosyllabic, while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in Eastern Cham (in contact with Vietnamese). Eastern Cham has developed

18286-557: The Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region. Although Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century, Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams, when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century. Champa came to serve as an important link in the spice trade , which stretched from the Persian Gulf to South China , and later in

18509-681: The Bacam ( Bacham , Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non- Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese people of Indonesia . The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/ ), which refers to Magnolia champaca ,

18732-407: The Cham of Panduranga a Tân Dân (new people), denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese. Minh Mang's son and successor Thiệu Trị , however, reverted most of his father's strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minorities. Under Thiệu Trị and Tu Duc , the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition. Only

18955-409: The Cham subjects. Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly, systematically destroyed. Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions, pushing the Cham to far-inland arid highlands, and the Cham were subjected to heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions. Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang's oppression arose in 1833–1835, the latter led by khatib Ja Thak Wa -

19178-495: The Champa Alliance. Started from the 17th century, Champa kings used title Paduka Seri Sultan in some occasions, a borrowed honorific from Muslim Malay rulers. The 13th-century Chinese gazetteer account Zhu Fan Zhi (c. 1225) describes the Cham king 'wears a headdress of gold and adorns his body with strings of jewels' and either rides on an elephant or is lifted on a 'cloth hammock by four men' when he goes outside

19401-463: The Champa rulers originated from the Hindu tradition, often consisting of titles and aliases. Titles (prefix) like: Jaya ( जय "victory"), Maha ( महा "great"), Sri ( श्री "glory"). Aliases (stem) like: Bhadravarman, Vikrantavarman, Rudravarman, Simhavarman, Indravarman, Paramesvaravarman, Harivarman... Among them, the suffix -varman belongs to the Kshatriya class and is only for those leaders of

19624-546: The Chinese Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism for the Champa civilization. However, the future Rajah of Butuan, Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a golden tablet, some white dragon ( Bailong 白龍) camphor , Moluccan cloves, and

19847-458: The Chinese court: "Annam destroyed our country" with additional notes of massive burning and looting, in which 40 to 60,000 people were slaughtered. The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang and Phan Rang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia . Champa was reduced to the principalities of Panduranga and Kauthara at the beginning of the 16th century. Kauthara was annexed by

20070-578: The Crown , he was still officially titled as the "Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty". This was known as the "Bảo Đại Solution" of France, supported by native anti-communists who wanted to seek an independent and unified Vietnam without communism. The colonial war of France in Vietnam became part of the global Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union with the communist Việt Minh (DRV) being part of

20293-574: The Crown . He was unpopular however, largely because monarchical leaders were considered collaborators during French rule and because he had spent his reign absent in France. In 1955, Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm held a referendum to decide whether the State of Vietnam would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Under the Elysee Accords and the subsequent legislation that created the State of Vietnam in 1949, Bảo Đại's position as head of state

20516-707: The French National Assembly on 20 May 1949. On 4 June 1949, Cochinchina and Vietnam were formally merged. The Élysée Accords took effect when Bao Dai and the French High Commissioner in Indochina Léon Pignon exchanged letters at City Hall in Saigon on 14 June 1949. The Accords were completed when they received final ratification by the French National Assembly on 29 January 1950 and were signed by French President Vincent Auriol on 2 February 1950. The State of Vietnam

20739-622: The French government issued a declaration of its intention to complete the independence of three Indochinese countries (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia). After the decisive defeat of the French Union in Điện Biên Phủ , on 4 June 1954, the French government of Prime Minister Joseph Laniel signed the Matignon Accords with the State of Vietnam government of Prime Minister Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Lộc in the Hôtel Matignon to recognize

20962-627: The French: 75% support for the NLF, 20% trying to remain neutral and only 5% firmly pro-Saigon government". However, the land reform in communist North Vietnam was also a serious disaster. The Diệm government lost support among the populace, and from the Kennedy administration , due to its repression of Buddhists and military defeats by the Việt Cộng. Notably, the Huế Phật Đản shootings of 8 May 1963 led to

21185-526: The Khmer king, leading to a Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years. Jayavarman VII of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s (1190, 1192, 1194–1195, 1198–1203), conquering Champa and making it a dependency of the Khmer Empire for 30 years. Champa was subjected to a Mongol Yuan invasion in 1283–1285. Before the invasion, Kublai Khan ordered the establishment of

21408-694: The Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates, Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura, near Phan Rang . The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I (r. 787–801) in 799. In 875,

21631-599: The Matignon Accords on 4 June 1954, however they were never nominally completed. After the Việt Minh with the aid of China defeated the French Union in the First Indochina War; an armistice and an accompanying declaration were made in the Geneva Conference on 21 July 1954, taking effect at 24:00 on July 22. The State of Vietnam was forced to abandon its claims to the North while the Việt Minh's state

21854-594: The Nguyễn dynasty collapsed. The Revolution ended when the Việt Minh formed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), known as "North Vietnam", in Hanoi on 2 September 1945. The French returned to French Indochina (including Vietnam) to re-establish their colonial rule here on 23 September 1945. French army later clashed with the Việt Minh in Hanoi on 19 December 1946, leading to the First Indochina War . The Viet Minh government then had to withdraw to

22077-602: The North Vietnam-controlled Viet Cong (NLF/VC) was driven by resentment of Diem's reversal of Viet Minh land reforms in the countryside. The Viet Minh had confiscated large private landholdings, reduced rents and debts, and leased communal lands, mostly to poorer peasants. Diem brought the landlords back, people who had been farming land for years had to return it to landlords and pay years of back rent. Marilyn B. Young wrote that "The divisions within villages reproduced those that had existed against

22300-478: The North commenced during the 1972 Easter Offensive following US ground-forces withdrawal . Under the support of the US air force, the South Vietnamese army successfully stopped the communist attack. In the Second Battle of Quảng Trị , the South Vietnamese army (ARVN) successfully recaptured part of Quang Tri territory from the enemy. However, the Saigon government still lost about 10% of its territory to

22523-474: The North on 4 February 1977. Non- communist party members of the Việt Cộng became dissatisfied with Hanoi after the fall of Saigon due to its conservative and harsh policies in managing the country and treating those who had worked for the old regime. Although the communistization of South Vietnam had taken place before; Vietnamese communists only publicly announced the implementation of communism ( Marxism-Leninism ) nationwide on 20 December 1976, after Vietnam

22746-491: The North, and it was hoped he might be able to negotiate a more favourable settlement to end the war. After that, on 28 April 1975, South Vietnamese president Minh immediately asked the US defense attaché to leave South Vietnam to create conditions for negotiations with Hanoi. The communist North, however, was not interested in negotiations to create a coalition government in the South with anti-communists and neutrals, and its forces attacked Saigon . Minh did not want to evacuate

22969-656: The Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored. The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa. The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare, Khmer invasions were frequent. The Khmer Empire conquered Northern Champa in 1145, but were quickly repulsed by king Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1148–1167). Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by Suryavarman II in summer 1150 also

23192-481: The PAVN attacked at Phuoc Long as the beginning of the 1975 spring offensive to test the South Vietnamese combat strength and political will and whether the US would respond militarily. With no US military assistance forthcoming, the ARVN were unable to hold and the PAVN successfully captured many of the districts around the provincial capital of Phuoc Long, weakening ARVN resistance in stronghold areas. President Thiệu later abandoned Phuoc Long in early January 1975. As

23415-576: The Republic of Vietnam government to whom land had previously been distributed by the communists. US and South Vietnamese forces launched a series of attacks on PAVN/VC bases in Cambodia in April–July 1970. South Vietnam launched an invasion of North Vietnamese bases in Laos in February/March 1971 and were defeated by the PAVN in what was widely regarded as a setback for Vietnamization. Thiệu

23638-583: The Saigon government to the Mekong Delta to continue military resistance against the communist faction. Minh unconditionally surrendered to North Vietnam on the radio at 10:24 on 30 April 1975, leading to the end of the Vietnam War and more than 26 years of existence of the Saigon regime. During the hours leading up to the surrender, the United States undertook a massive evacuation of US government personnel as well as high-ranking members of

23861-524: The Sea Festival, held biennially. According to some researchers, the name Nha Trang derives from a Vietnamese spelling of the Cham language name of the site Ea Dran (literally "Reed River"), the name of the Cai River as referred to by the Cham people . From the name of this river, the name was adopted to call what is now Nha Trang, which was officially made Vietnam's territory in 1698. Ea Dran

24084-711: The South China Sea because China was one of two main allies in the Vietnam War. The "Operation Tran Hung Dao 48" was a campaign conducted by the South Vietnamese Navy in February 1974 to station troops on unoccupied islands to assert Vietnam's sovereignty over the Spratly archipelago after the Battle of the Paracel Islands. After communist reunification in 1976, Hanoi started to carefully praised

24307-541: The South Vietnamese forces that took part in the battle, while trying to avoid praising the Saigon regime as always to keep the image of their regime. After the battle, the US refused Saigon's requests for assistance because the US signed the Paris Peace Accords and the US and South Vietnam had no mutual defense treaty. In August 1974, Nixon was forced to resign as a result of the Watergate scandal , and

24530-474: The South were permitted to remain in place. According to Finnish historian Jussi Hanhimäki , due to triangular diplomacy which isolated it, South Vietnam was "pressurized into accepting an agreement that virtually ensured its collapse". North Vietnam violated the Paris Peace Accords first on the evening of January 29 when they counterattacked at Cửa Việt Base with the goal of retaking this place from South Vietnam. North Vietnamese leaders had expected that

24753-600: The US Senate would not release extra money to provide aid to South Vietnam, and had already passed laws to prevent further involvement in Vietnam. In desperation, Thiệu recalled Kỳ from retirement as a military commander, but resisted calls to name his old rival prime minister. On 17 April 1975, Cambodia fell to the communist Khmer Rouge , an ally of North Vietnam. South Vietnam's ally here collapsed. With Operation Babylift from 3 April to 26 April 1945; over 3,300 South Vietnamese infants and children had been airlifted by

24976-425: The United States did not keep its word. Is an American's word reliable these days? The United States did not keep its promise to help us fight for freedom and it was in the same fight that the United States lost 50,000 of its young men. After only one week in office, the South Vietnamese national assembly voted to hand over the presidency to General Dương Văn Minh . Minh was seen as a more conciliatory figure toward

25199-403: The Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍuraṅga had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its foreign affairs without permission from

25422-435: The Vietnamese in 1653. From 1799 to 1832, Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status, with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in Huế . The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga, survived until August 1832, when Minh Mang of Vietnam began his purge against rival Le Van Duyet 's faction, and accused the Cham leaders of supporting Duyet. Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king Po Phaok The and

25645-497: The Vietnamese in massacres, particularly from 1832 to 1836, during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings. Bani mosques were razed to the ground. Temples were set on fire. Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated. By that time, the Cham totally lost their ancestors' seafaring and shipbuilding traditions. After finalizing these heavy-handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies, emperor Minh Mang declared

25868-658: The Vietnamese in the North and Central and South, including the paramilitary organization of the Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam in the North. In 1953, Bảo Đại responded to the communist Việt Minh program of land redistribution and rent reduction with a decree declaring that rents for land should not exceed 15 percent of the crop. The decree was unenforceable and rendered null by a failing colonial government and, in any case, contained loopholes that could have been exploited by landlords. Under increasing financial pressure and European defense commitments, on 3 July 1953,

26091-528: The Việt Minh (DRV) agreed at the Geneva Conference with an armistice effective at 24:00 on July 22 accompanied by a declaration that the Viet Minh army withdrew all to the North and the French Union army withdrew all to the South, and Vietnam would be temporarily divided at 17th parallel north and State of Vietnam would rule the territory south of the 17th parallel, pending unification on the basis of supervised elections in 1956. France also re-recognised complete independence of Vietnam with these agreements. Hanoi,

26314-411: The Việt Minh itself was also forced to sign the agreement under Chinese pressure. When Vietnam was divided, about 1.2 million North Vietnamese went to the South with Operation Passage to Freedom . About 90,000 Việt Minh were evacuated to the North while 5,000 to 10,000 cadre remained in the South, most of them with orders to refocus on political activity and agitation. The Saigon-Cholon Peace Committee,

26537-640: The Việt Minh's state as a " Free State " within the French Union with an agreement on 6 March 1946. In June 1946, France declared Cochinchina an autonomous republic, separate from the northern and central parts. The French Indochina War began on 19 December 1946, the French defeated the Việt Minh in Hanoi on 18 February 1947. The Viet Minh government had to withdraw to the North . As part of decolonization , France returned to Vietnam (Tonkin and Annam) but no longer recognized this place as normal colonies but

26760-507: The ancestors of the Austronesian Cham and Chamic -speaking peoples. While Northern Vietnam Kinh people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population, have a sinicized culture, Cham people carry the patrilineal R-M17 haplogroup of South Asian Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no matrilineal South Asian mtDNA , and this fits with

26983-511: The ancient Gur'an region in the south, are one of those who can preserve the old God Most of the old gods who dominated the motherland were replaced by brahmanist gods such as the goddess Yan Pu Nagara (楊浦那竭羅) and the Bhagavati (妻婆伽婆底), Replaced, located in Nha Trang near today. Bhagavati is mixed with Yan Pu Nagara, a goddess in the local faith, which is quite revered by the people and has dedicated ancestral temples to enshrine it. From 1653 to

27206-477: The ancient villages merged to make the town: Xương Huân, Phương Câu, Vạn Thạnh, Phương Sài, and Phước Hải. On 27 January 1958, the president of the Republic of Vietnam , Ngô Đình Diệm by Decree 18-BNV abrogated the town status of Nha Trang and divided Nha Trang into two rural communes: Nha Trang Đông (Eastern Nha Trang) and Nha Trang Tây (Western Nha Trang), under the administration of Vĩnh Xương County. During

27429-534: The anti-communist faction) and France on 7 December 1947 and 5 June 1948, and the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam was established on 27 May 1948 as a transitional government partly replacing the French protectorates of Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) and Annam (Central Vietnam), until French Cochinchina (southern part) could be reunited with the rest of the country under a unified French-associated administration. The State of Vietnam

27652-661: The armistice agreement: "The elections were not held. South Vietnam, which had not signed the Geneva Accords, did not believe the Communists in North Vietnam would allow a fair election. In January 1957, the ICC agreed with this perception, reporting that neither South nor North Vietnam had honored the armistice agreement. With the French gone, a return to the traditional power struggle between north and south had begun again." In October 1956, Diệm, with US prodding, launched

27875-463: The beautiful Nha Trang Bay, which was chosen by Travel + Leisure in two succeeding years as one of 29 most beautiful bays in the world. Nha Trang is surrounded on all three sides by mountains and a large island and four smaller ones on the fourth side (in the ocean directly in front of the city's main area), blocking major storms from potentially damaging the city. Nha Trang has a tropical savanna climate ( Köppen climate classification : As ), with

28098-561: The cadre of military advisors guiding the Southern armed forces . North Vietnam was also helped by foreign armies, mostly Chinese. A regular bombing campaign over North Vietnam was conducted by offshore US Navy airplanes, warships, and aircraft carriers joined by the South Vietnamese and American Air Force squadrons from 1965 to 1968. Fighting peaked up to that point during the Tet Offensive of February 1968, when there were over

28321-549: The ceasefire period. In reality, fighting began almost immediately after the agreement took effect, due to a series of mutual retaliations, and by March 1973, full-fledged war had resumed. The same month, China attacked South Vietnamese forces in the Paracel Islands on the South China Sea , taking control of the islands. Saigon later objected diplomatically. North Vietnam recognized Chinese territorial claims in

28544-405: The ceasefire terms would favour their side. As Saigon began to roll back the Việt Cộng, they found it necessary to adopt a new strategy, hammered out at a series of meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà . As the Việt Cộng's top commander, Trà participated in several of these meetings. A plan to improve logistics was prepared so that the PAVN would be able to launch

28767-1821: The city and stops at Nha Trang Railway Station . The construction work of Vân Phong Port , north of the city, a deep-water project capable of handling ships up to 100,000 tonnes, and with a capacity of 100 million tonnes of cargo per annum, is under progress by a consortium of Japanese corporations. The estimated investment capital for this port-city complex project is expected to reach US$ 15 billion. Ward (19): Lộc Thọ   · Ngọc Hiệp   · Phước Hải   · Phước Hòa   · Phước Long   · Phước Tân   · Phước Tiến   · Phương Sài   · Phương Sơn   · Tân Lập   · Vạn Thắng   · Vạn Thạnh   · Vĩnh Hải   · Vĩnh Hòa   · Vĩnh Phước   · Vĩnh Trường   · Vĩnh Nguyên   · Vĩnh Thọ   · Xương Huân commune (8): Phước Đồng   · Vĩnh Phương   · Vĩnh Thạnh   · Vĩnh Trung   · Vĩnh Thái   · Vĩnh Hiệp   · Vĩnh Ngọc   · Vĩnh Lương Cam An Bắc   · Cam An Nam   · Cam Hải Đông   · Cam Hải Tây   · Cam Hiệp Bắc   · Cam Hiệp Nam   · Cam Hòa   · Cam Phước Tây   · Cam Tân   · Cam Thành Bắc   · Suối Tân   · Sơn Tân   · Suối Cát Kingdom of Champa Champa ( Cham : ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چامفا; Khmer : ចាម្ប៉ា ; Vietnamese : Chiêm Thành 占城 or Chiêm Bá 占婆)

28990-457: The city is named after him, and a shrine has been built over his tomb. There is a Yersin Museum dedicated to his achievements. Nha Trang's economy relies largely on tourism. In the suburban areas around the city, the shipbuilding industry has developed and contributed significantly to the local economy. Fishery and services are also important to the city. Khanh Hoa Province in general and Nha Trang

29213-631: The coast. The possibly most beautiful street of Nha Trang is Tran Phu Street along the seaside, sometimes referred to as the North-South Expressway East of Vietnam. Lying off Nha Trang is the Hon Tre Island (Bamboo Island), with a major resort operated by the Vinpearl Group. The Vinpearl Cable Car , a gondola lift system, links the mainland to the five-star resort and theme park on Hon Tre Island. Nha Trang

29436-423: The command of the State of Vietnam. It was expected that this army would include 120,000 soldiers and 4,000 officers. All officers had to be Vietnamese. However, the army of this state was established before. According to the national defense decree of the State of Vietnam dated April 13, 1949; a national military force named the "National Guard" established on the basis of the pro-French autonomous military forces of

29659-633: The communist Eastern Bloc and the State of Vietnam being part of the anti-communist and capitalist Western Bloc . This state was proclaimed on 2 July 1949. France itself was also part of the Western Bloc led by the US. On 1 October 1949, China became a communist state after the Chinese Civil War , the Kuomintang 's government (Republic of China) that was pro-Western later had to withdraw to Taiwan . The victory of Chinese communists

29882-413: The communist government in the North created conditions that made a fair election impossible in that region. Dennis J. Duncanson described the circumstances prevailing in 1955 and 1956 as "anarchy among sects and of the retiring Việt Minh in the South, the 1956 campaign of terror from Hanoi's land reform and resultant peasant uprising around Vinh in the North". A victory for communist Ho Chi Minh in

30105-453: The communists themselves felt happy. General Dương Văn Minh became president, but he was ousted in January 1964 by General Nguyễn Khánh . Phan Khắc Sửu was named head of state, but power remained with a junta of generals led by Khánh, which soon fell to infighting. Meanwhile, the Gulf of Tonkin incident of 2 August 1964 led to a dramatic increase in direct US-allied participation in

30328-555: The communists. Despite a truce agreement under the Paris Peace Accords , signed on 27 January 1973 and taking effect at 8:00 on January 28 after five years of on-and-off negotiations, fighting continued almost immediately afterwards. The regular North Vietnamese army (PAVN) and their Viet Cong auxiliaries launched a major second combined-arms conventional offensive in 1975 . Communist forces overran Saigon and South Vietnamese president unconditionally surrendered on

30551-526: The complete independence of Vietnam within the French Union. However, the Accords had never been completed because they had never been ratified by the heads of both countries. While the US provided aid to the State of Vietnam and France, China provided massive and abundant aid to the Viet Minh and this was the main factor leading to France's defeat in Indochina. On 21 July 1954, the war ended, France and

30774-516: The confidence of the ARVN soldiers in their leadership. The retreat became a rout exacerbated by poor planning and conflicting orders from Thiệu. PAVN forces also attacked south and from sanctuaries in Laos and Cambodia capturing Huế and Da Nang and advanced southwards. As the military situation deteriorated, ARVN troops began deserting. By early April, the PAVN had overrun almost 3/5th of the South. Thiệu requested aid from US President Gerald Ford , but

30997-403: The country, Thiệu was forced to resign on 21 April 1975, and fled to Taiwan under the name of an envoy of the South Vietnamese president. He nominated his Vice President Trần Văn Hương as his successor. When Thiệu resigned, he accused the U.S. of betrayal in a TV and radio address: At the time of the peace agreement the United States agreed to only replace equipment on a one-by-one basis. But

31220-649: The court of the king of kings. Republic of Vietnam South Vietnam , officially the Republic of Vietnam ( RVN ; Vietnamese : Việt Nam Cộng hòa ; VNCH , French : République du Viêt Nam ), was a country in Southeast Asia from 1955 to 1975, with first international recognition in 1949 as the State of Vietnam . Its capital was located in Saigon , a city in Southern Vietnam . It

31443-412: The deadly Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390) , sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, nearly bringing the Dai Viet to its collapse. Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war. After Che Bong Nga , Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under

31666-424: The dominant ruling dynasty or could be a member of that royal lineage within the perimeter of the mandala. Mandala is the term coined by O. W. Wolters describing the distribution of state power among small states within large kingdoms in premodern Southeast Asia. Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga . When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to

31889-410: The early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were

32112-412: The early Southeast Asian peoples, Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in peaceful conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism in Champa with little resistance. Rudravarman I of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line, became king of Champa in 529 CE. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He

32335-524: The final remaining principality of Champa was annexed by Emperor Minh Mạng of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty as part of the expansionist Nam tiến policy. The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa ( Sanskrit : नगरचम्प ), Champa (ꨌꩌꨛꨩ) in modern Cham , and Châmpa ( ចាម្ប៉ា ) in the Khmer inscriptions , Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese , Campa in Malay , Zhànchéng ( Mandarin : 占城) in Chinese records, and al-Ṣanf ( Arabic : صَنْف) in Middle Eastern Muslim records. Early Champa evolved from

32558-411: The first communist front, was founded in 1954 to provide leadership for this group. Operation Passage to Freedom was marked by an American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)-backed propaganda campaign on behalf of South Vietnam's Roman Catholic Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem . The campaign was usually viewed to exhort Catholics to flee "impending religious persecution" under communism, and around 60% of

32781-411: The former landowners. On 26 March 1970, with the war still underway, the government of South Vietnam began implementation of the Land-to-the-Tiller program following Prosterman's model. In total, the United States financed 339 million US dollars of the reform's 441 million dollars of expenses. Individual holdings were limited to 15 hectares. Legal titles were extended to peasants in areas under control of

33004-403: The foundation for the possibility of achieving independence in peace. In 1947, Nguyễn Văn Xuân who was a Vietnamese anti-communist became Prime Minister of the autonomous republic of French Cochinchina , he renamed the "Provisional Government of the Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina" as the "Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam", suggesting that his aim was to reunite all of Vietnam under

33227-410: The free general election was certain because Ho hid in the name of nationalism and neutrality to fight against the French by force although in the Saigon regime Ngo Dinh Diem had more prestigious than Bao Dai , however the International Control Commission (ICC) held that both North and South Vietnam did not comply with the Geneva armistice agreement (although South Vietnam did not sign it) and neither

33450-427: The government by Decree 357-ĐUHC/NC/NĐ dated 5 June 1971 divided Nha Trang into 11 urban zones. On 2 April 1975, communist ( Viet Cong / PRG / VPA ) forces captured the city. On 4 April 1975, Khánh Hòa Military Commission ( Ủy ban Quân quản Khánh Hòa ) divided Nha Trang into three administrative districts: District 1, District 2 and Vĩnh Xương District. In September 1975, the districts were merged to become one entity,

33673-415: The government in South Vietnam. The new administration of Richard Nixon introduced a policy of Vietnamization to reduce US combat involvement and began negotiations with the North Vietnamese to end the war. Thiệu used the aftermath of the Tet Offensive to sideline Kỳ, his chief rival. The Land to the Tiller project carried out in South Vietnam from 1970 to 1973 was based on a proposal by Roy Prosterman ,

33896-409: The government. They imposed censorship and suspended civil liberties, and intensified anticommunist efforts. Under pressure from the US, they held elections for president and the legislature in 1967. The Senate election took place on 2 September 1967. The Presidential election took place on 3 September 1967, Thiệu was elected president with 34% of the vote in a widely criticised poll. Like Diệm, Thiệu

34119-423: The high pace of urbanization, many urban planned zones have been built: Hòn Rớ, Bắc Việt, Thánh Gia, Đường Đệ, and Nam Hòn Khô. Nha Trang is home to the multidisciplinary Nha Trang University (formerly Nha Trang Fishery University); the Naval and Aviation Academy; a teachers' training college; Khanh Hoa University, as well as the Nha Trang Oceanography Institute a unique institute of oceanography in Vietnam and

34342-409: The historiography of Champa. Scholars agree that historically Champa was divided into several regions or principalities spread out from south to north along the coast of modern Vietnam and united by a common language, culture, and heritage. It is acknowledged that the historical record is not equally rich for each of the regions in every historical period. For example, in the 10th century CE, the record

34565-430: The illusion of a unified Champa. Recent revisionist historians in the 1980s, for example Po Dharma and Trần Quốc Vượng , refuted the concept of single Champa. Chinese historical texts, Cham inscriptions, and especially the Cham annals, the Sakkarai dak rai patao , both confirm the existence of multi-Campa scenarios. Po Dharma argues that Champa was not a single kingdom or centralized in the manner of Đại Việt but likely

34788-413: The key factors of the process. On the other hand, Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peaceful acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite was likely related to the tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal , coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies tended to practice animism , most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To

35011-426: The king was the patron of art and construction. Majestic temples and shrines were built dedicated to the honor of the king of kings, his ancestors, and their beloved gods (usually Śiva). Some charismatic Cham kings declared themselves Protector of Champa in celebrating royal ceremony and coronation ( abhiseka ) which involves supernatural and spiritual rituals to demonstrate the king's authority. The regnal name of

35234-406: The kingdom, but a typhoon drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China, where she married a Chinese prince, and returned to Champa. The Po Nagar temple built in Nha Trang during the 8th century, and rebuilt in the 11th century was dedicated to her. Her portrayal image in the temple is said to date from 965 CE, it is of a commanding personage seated cross-legged upon a throne. She

35457-442: The land reform process had stalled. Diệm had never truly supported reform because many of his biggest supporters were the country's largest landowners. While the US threatened to cut aid unless land reform and other changes were made, Diệm correctly assessed that the US was bluffing. Like Bảo Đại , the Saigon regime under Ngô Đình Diệm was a dictatorship but not a liberal democracy ; although Diệm overthrew Bảo Đại to establish

35680-577: The last century. Many Cham inscriptions were destroyed by American bombing during the Vietnam War . Currently, the Project Corpus of the Inscriptions of Campā launched by French School of Asian Studies (EFEO) partnering with the Institute for Study of the Ancient World (ISAW) of New York University is tasked for cataloging, sustaining and preserving ancient Cham inscriptions into an online index library and publications of scholarship's epigraphical studies into English, French, and Vietnamese. The Cham have their written records in form of paper book, known as

35903-427: The late 1960s, the U.S. Army's First Field Force, Vietnam (1FFV) was headquartered in Nha Trang. 1FFV was a corps-level major subordinate command of the U.S. Army Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV). On 22 October 1970, the government of the Republic of Vietnam by Decree 132-SL/NV reestablished Nha Trang Town on the ground of Nha Trang Đông and Nha Trang Tây and other rural communes. Following that establishment,

36126-437: The latter resulting in Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ becoming prime minister and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu becoming nominal head of state. A regular bombing campaign over North Vietnam was conducted by offshore US Navy airplanes, warships, and aircraft carriers joined by the South Vietnamese and American Air Force squadrons from 1965 to 1968. Kỳ and Thiệu functioned in those roles until 1967, bringing much-desired stability to

36349-450: The many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands. Mỹ Sơn , a former religious center, and Hội An , one of Champa's main port cities, are now World Heritage Sites . Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam , a conversion which began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century; they are called the Bani ( Ni tục , from Arabic: Bani ). There are, however,

36572-543: The nation's official name was changed back to "Vietnam" by the government of Bảo Đại . The name is also sometimes rendered as "Viet Nam" in English. The term "South Vietnam" became common usage in 1954, when the Geneva Conference provisionally partitioned Vietnam into communist and capitalist parts, one year before the republic was proclaimed in the southern part. Other names of this state were commonly used during its existence such as "Free Vietnam", "Free South", "Republican South", "National Government", "National side",

36795-450: The nation. An elected constituent assembly including representatives of all the branches of the military decided to switch the nation's system of government to a semi-presidential system. Military rule initially failed to provide much stability however, as internal conflicts and political inexperience caused various factions of the army to launch coups and counter-coups against one another, making leadership very tumultuous. The situation within

37018-447: The new front as the Việt Minh. Later, after communists took power in North Vietnam, the United Front (Việt Minh) changed into the current communist Vietnam Fatherland Front ( Mặt trận Tổ quốc Việt Nam ) on 10 September 1955. Before that, in 1951, Vietnamese communists restored their party; with the 1959 Constitution of North Vietnam (DRV), Vietnamese communists formalized their rule and implementation of communism ( Marxism-Leninism ) in

37241-509: The nominal rulers of Annam and Tonkin protectorates , which were French colonies like Cochinchina but had parallel French and Vietnamese systems of administration. French political power in Tonkin was stronger than in Annam. A French governor-general ( toàn quyền ) administered all the five parts of French Indochina (Tonkin, Annam, Cochinchina, Laos , and Cambodia ). Under French rule, nationalist movements and armed uprisings of Vietnamese people (both communists and non-communists) emerged. After

37464-469: The north's 1.14 million Catholics immigrated. However, the communist Viet Minh also tried to forcefully prevent would-be refugees from leaving, especially in rural areas where there were no French or American military forces. About the communist Việt Minh, on 7 March 1951, it and the communist National United League of Vietnam ( Hội Liên Việt ) merged to form the communist Vietnamese United Front ( Mặt trận Liên Việt ). Nonetheless, people continued to call

37687-484: The ongoing war but no longer in the name of a colonial army but a part of the French Union to help another independent member of this organization. From June to October 1950, the State of Vietnam and France met in Pau (France) to discuss the transfer of management functions on immigration, diplomatic relations, foreign trade, customs and finance for the State of Vietnam. Finance was the most controversial issue including controlling profits from foreign exchange operations. As

37910-410: The palace. When the king attends the court audience, he is encircled by 'thirty female attendants who carry swords and shields or betel nuts'. Court officials would make reports to the king, then make one prostration before leaving. The last king of Champa, Po Phaok The , was deposed by Minh Mạng in 1832. During the reign of the king Prakasadharma (r. 653–686 AD), when Champa was briefly ruled by

38133-415: The people celebrated their victory in the north, the communist Việt Minh faced various problems in the south, which was politically more diverse than the north. The communist Việt Minh had been unable to establish the same degree of control in the south as in the north. There were serious divisions in the independence movement in the south, where the Việt Minh, Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo , other nationalist groups and

38356-411: The president of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam. South Vietnam withdrew from the French Union on 9 December 1955. The French, who needed troops to fight in Algeria (then French internal part ) and were increasingly sidelined by the United States, completely withdrew from Vietnam by April 1956. Under Bảo Đại , the State of Vietnam planned to organize parliamentary elections and promulgate

38579-482: The radio on 30 April 1975, marking the end of capitalist South Vietnam and the Vietnam War. In 1976, the North Vietnam-controlled Republic of South Vietnam (PRG) and North Vietnam merged to form the communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam . The official name of the South Vietnamese state was the "Republic of Vietnam" (Vietnamese: Việt Nam Cộng hòa ; French: République du Viêt Nam ). The "State of Vietnam" (Vietnamese: Quốc gia Việt Nam ; French: État du Viêt Nam )

38802-530: The ranks of the military stabilised in mid-1965 when the Republic of Vietnam Air Force chief Nguyễn Cao Kỳ became Prime Minister, with General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu as the figurehead chief of state. As Prime Minister, Kỳ consolidated control of the South Vietnamese government and ruled the country with an iron fist. In June 1965, Kỳ's influence over the ruling military government was solidified when he forced civilian prime minister Phan Huy Quát from power. Often praising aspects of Western culture in public, Ky

39025-446: The representative of Vietnam; the communists accused Saigon of being puppet government ( ngụy quyền ) of France then the US to disguise foreign rule, while Saigon accused its enemy of being anti-free and spreading communism ( Marxism-Leninism ) under nationalist guise. The Vietnam War , a Cold War military conflict between North and South Vietnam, started on 1 November 1955 and escalated in March 1959 when North Vietnam accepted

39248-427: The seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. Its emergence in the late 2nd century CE exemplifies early Southeast Asian statecraft at a crucial stage of the making of Southeast Asia . The peoples of Champa maintained a system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia , until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also found

39471-449: The south, but the Chinese also put pressure to prevent the Viet Minh from monopolizing the new Vietnamese state. National Assembly elections were held in areas controlled by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) but not controlled by France on 6 January 1946. Held under its 1946 constitution , they resulted in a victory for the communist Việt Minh (who de facto ruled the state and did not say they were communist), which won 182 of

39694-466: The strong king Le Thanh Tong launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 , decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa. For early historians like Georges Maspero , "the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom." Maspero, like other early orientalist scholars, by his logics, arbitrated the history of Champa as becoming a "worthy" subject for their study when it adapted and maintained "superior" Indian civilization. In

39917-412: The territories having a high autonomy and democracy. France and the United Kingdom two colonial superpowers won World War II but were seriously weakened while the United States and the Soviet Union that opposed colonialism and were two main victors became new superpowers and the right to national self-determination was clearly written into the UN Charter as an international legal right, leading to

40140-511: The territories they controlled. In July 1955, Diệm announced in a broadcast that South Vietnam would not participate in the elections specified in the Geneva Accords. As Saigon's delegation did not sign the Geneva Accords, it was not bound by it, despite having been an associated state but not sovereign state of the French Union , which was itself bound by the Accords because the Matignon Accords that made Saigon gain complete independence from France never took effect legally. He also claimed

40363-411: The third important economic zone in the province (besides Nha Trang and Cam Ranh). Nha Trang is one of the most important tourist hubs of Vietnam, thanks to its beaches with fine and clean sand and the clear ocean water with mild temperatures all year round. There are several resorts — such as Vinpearl, Diamond Bay and Ana Mandara — and amusement and water parks, in the city and on islands off

40586-470: The town of Nha Trang. On 30 March 1977, the Council of the Government (now the cabinet) of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam by Decision 391-CP/QĐ upgraded Nha Trang to city status, a county-level city under the administration of Phú Khánh Province (a province created by merger of now Phú Yên Province and Khánh Hòa Province ). Seven communes of former Vĩnh Xương County, namely Vĩnh Thái, Vĩnh Ngọc, Vĩnh Hiệp, Vĩnh Lương, Vĩnh Trung, Vĩnh Thạnh, Vĩnh Phương

40809-442: The trade in spices and silk in the South China Sea , between China, the Indonesian archipelago and India . They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding. However, the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese ( Javaka , probably refers to Srivijaya , ruler of

41032-399: The two sides and reached an important consensus with the communists. Although the coup was successful in overthrowing the dictatorship; Diệm's removal set off a period of political instability and declining legitimacy of the Saigon government, Saigon's ability to fight communism as well as build and govern the country was seriously weakened after the fall of his dictatorship to the point that

41255-478: The use of force in the South. North Vietnam de facto established the National Liberation Front for South Vietnam (Việt Cộng) the next year. North Vietnam was aided mainly from China and the Soviet Union while South Vietnam was aided mainly from the US. Larger escalation of the insurgency occurred in 1965 with foreign intervention to help South Vietnam ( mostly the U.S. ) and the introduction of regular forces of Marines , followed by Army units to supplement

41478-639: The vice-king Po Dhar Kaok to be arrested in Hue, while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are the Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces . To enforce his finger grip, Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in phủ Ninh Thuan while removing the traditional Cham customary laws. Administratively, Panduranga was integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures. These reforms were known as cải thổ quy lưu ("replacing thổ [aboriginal] chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system"). Speaking Vietnamese and following Vietnamese customs became strictly mandatory for

41701-456: The war in South Vietnam, with nearly 200,000 American troops deployed by the end of the year. North Vietnam was also helped by foreign armies, mostly Chinese. Khánh sought to capitalize on the crisis with the Vũng Tàu Charter , a new constitution that would have curtailed civil liberties and concentrated his power, but was forced to back down in the face of widespread protests and strikes. Coup attempts followed in September and February 1965 ,

41924-439: Was de facto controlled by the communist North. On 2 July 1976, South Vietnam and North Vietnam merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam . At the end of the Second World War , the communist Việt Minh of Hồ Chí Minh , started the August Revolution against the Nguyễn dynasty and its Japanese puppet state on 16 August 1945. On August 19, the Việt Minh took control of Hanoi ( Northern Vietnam ). On August 25,

42147-458: Was "like making love to a corpse". One consequence of the inflation was the South Vietnamese government had increasing difficulty in paying its soldiers and imposed restrictions on fuel and munition usage. After two clashes that left 55 South Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thiệu announced on 4 January 1974 that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no longer in effect. There were over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during

42370-452: Was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century CE until 1832. According to earliest historical references found in ancient sources, the first Cham polities were established around the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE, in the wake of Khu Liên 's rebellion against the rule of China's Eastern Han dynasty , and lasted until when

42593-413: Was a member of the anti-communist and capitalist Western Bloc during the Cold War . With the division of Vietnam on 21 July 1954, South Vietnam was bordered by North Vietnam (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and Thailand across the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. In 1975, it was succeeded by the Republic of South Vietnam , which

42816-532: Was a turning point in the First Indochina War . In 1950; communist countries such as China , the Soviet Union, East Germany , North Korea , Hungary, Mongolia, Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Bulgaria recognised the Việt Minh's state (DRV). As of early 1950, there were 35 non-communist countries recognizing the State of Vietnam; among them were the United States, South Korea , Thailand, Iran, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia , Greece , Spain, and countries in South America. The First Indochina War of France itself

43039-425: Was administered by Vichy France and occupied by Japan in September 1940. The communist Việt Minh was formed as one of nationalist groups of Vietnam in 1941. After Japanese troops overthrew the Vichy administration on 9 March 1945, Nguyễn Emperor Bảo Đại proclaimed his Vietnam independent and to regain Cochinchina to establish the Empire of Vietnam on 11 March 1945. However, it was a puppet state of Japan within

43262-425: Was also popular at this time and won a seat in the Assembly, the election did not allow voters to express a preference between Bao Dai and Ho Chi Minh. There was minimal campaigning and most voters had no idea who the candidates were. In many districts, a single candidate ran unopposed. The French army then moved north to replace the Chinese army. The Việt Minh also tried to make peace with France and France recognized

43485-458: Was also similar to the Malayan Emergency (1948-1960) of the British . The arrangement afforded Vietnam a limited degree of internal and external sovereignty (for example, it was allowed to enter into diplomatic relations with a small number of countries), but for the most part reserved for France effective control over foreign relations, as well as military, judicial, administrative, and economic activities. The French army remained to fight in

43708-502: Was among the hardline anti-communists and did not accept a political alliance with the South Vietnamese communists ( de facto controlled by the North ); however, despite the South Vietnamese constitution considering Vietnam a unified country, he advocated a two-state solution with North Vietnam to join the United Nations together and co-exist peacefully to wait for the day of democratic unification. The Parliamentary election took place on 22 October 1967. On 31 January 1968,

43931-413: Was better considered to be a federation of independent states. A number of modern scholars have suggested that Champa did form a unified kingdom in some periods but was disunified in others. The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that

44154-510: Was brought by Indians to Central Vietnam. Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived by Louis Finot , a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient . In his 2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation of peśvara , Campādeśa , Campānagara ). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in Central Vietnam such as

44377-446: Was communist. In Paris 1946, asked by Daniel Guerin about the fate of Trotskyist leader Tạ Thu Thâu (executed in September), Hồ Chí Minh, while allowing that "Thâu was a great patriot", replied: "All those who do not follow the line which I have laid down will be broken." At his direction, the Việt Minh broke or substantially weakened all rival anti-colonial forces. A Chinese Kuomintang army arrived to occupy Vietnam's north of

44600-403: Was consisted by several known districts (viṣaya, zhou 洲): Amaravati ( Quảng Ngãi ), Ulik ( Thừa Thiên–Huế ), Vvyar ( Quảng Trị ), Jriy (southern Quảng Bình ), and Traik (northern Quảng Bình ). Other junctions like Panduranga remained quietly autonomous. The classical narrative of 'the Champa Kingdom' brought by earlier generations of scholarship, Georges Maspero and George Coedes , created

44823-422: Was created as an independent and unified country within the French Union by the Élysée Accords signed at the Élysée Palace by Bảo Đại (under the name of Vietnamese emperor) and French President Vincent Auriol on 8 March 1949. Its capital was in Saigon , Southern Vietnam . On 23 April 1949, the Cochinchinese assembly approved the merger with Vietnam (State of Vietnam), and its decision was in turn approved by

45046-403: Was credited with 133% of the vote. Diệm proclaimed himself the president of the newly formed Republic of Vietnam. Despite successes in politics, economics and social change in the first 5 years, Diệm quickly became a dictatorial leader . With the support of the United States government and the CIA , ARVN officers led by General Dương Văn Minh staged a coup and killed him in 1963. The military held

45269-417: Was credited with 98 percent of the votes. In many districts, there were more votes to remove Bảo Đại than there were registered voters (e.g., in Saigon, 133% of the registered population reportedly voted to remove Bảo Đại). His American advisors had recommended a more modest winning margin of "60 to 70 percent". Diệm, however, viewed the election as a test of authority. On 26 October 1955, Diệm declared himself

45492-458: Was eligible to hold a free general election for Vietnam. The communist Viet Minh still kept a large number of its cadres in the South while the population of the North itself was larger than the population of the South. Diệm held a referendum on 23 October 1955 to determine the future of the country. He asked voters to approve a republic, thus removing Bảo Đại as head of state. The poll was supervised by his younger brother, Ngô Đình Nhu . Diệm

45715-427: Was neither permanent nor indefinite. Sovereignty was presumed to rest solely upon the people, with Bảo Đại being a mere conduit. As a result, the referendum itself was within the law. This referendum was blatantly rigged in favor of a republic. Not only did an implausible 98% vote in favor of deposing Bảo Đại, but over 380,000 more votes were cast than the total number of registered voters; in Saigon , for instance, Diệm

45938-427: Was no place for neutrals and anti-communists. The Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG) of the Việt Cộng ( de facto controlled by the North) officially became the government of South Vietnam, which merged with North Vietnam to create the communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 2 July 1976. The North's flag, national anthem, capital, and constitution were still chosen. Saigon

46161-403: Was not completely a sovereign state but an associated state of France. However, in theory, the autonomy of the State of Vietnam within the French Union was still higher than that of Malaya within the British Commonwealth from 1948 to 1957. Former emperor Bảo Đại temporarily accepted the position of chief of state ( quốc trưởng ) before it could become a complete republic. In its Domain of

46384-399: Was overthrown, on 3 September 1963, South Vietnamese army (ARVN) also defeated communists in a small battle at Go Cong . Diệm feared the escalation of American military personnel in South Vietnam, which threatened his nationalist credentials and the independence of his government. In 1963, Diệm's government secretly discussed with North Vietnam on the issue of peace and reunification between

46607-399: Was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River , Northeast India . His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles. George Coedès notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and scholars travelled along

46830-433: Was proclaimed on 2 July 1949. The formation of the State of Vietnam on 8 March 1949 made this French colonial war part of the Cold War between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union , culminating in the American recognition of Saigon regime in February 1950 and subsequent aid to the French in the war against the communist Việt Minh. The French government agreed to give the State of Vietnam complete independence with

47053-414: Was quickly stalled, and Suryavarman died en route. Champa then plummeted into an eleven-year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions, which resulted in Champa reunifying under Jaya Harivarman by 1161. After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity, in June 1177 Jaya Indravarman IV (r. 1167–1192) launched a surprise naval assault on Angkor , capital of Cambodia, plundering it, slaying

47276-484: Was recognized by the French and took power in the North. With the American support, a 1955 referendum on the state's future form of government was widely marred by electoral fraud and resulted in the deposal of Bảo Đại by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm , who proclaimed himself president of the new republic on 26 October 1955. South Vietnam also withdrew from the French Union on 9 December 1955. South Vietnam then held parliamentary elections and subsequently promulgated

47499-422: Was reelected unopposed in the Presidential election on 2 October 1971. North Vietnam launched a Easter Offensive in South Vietnam in late March 1972 which was only finally repulsed by October with massive U.S air support. In accordance with the Paris Peace Accords signed on 27 January 1973 (taking effect January 28), US military forces withdrew from South Vietnam at the end of March 1973 while PAVN forces in

47722-406: Was renamed Ho Chi Minh City to honor Ho Chi Minh , the Vietnamese communist leader who died 7 years earlier in Hanoi. After reunification, Hanoi abandoned the policy of neutrality in its relations with the Soviet Union and China to choose to be pro-Soviet, leading to escalating tensions in Indochina. The North Vietnam-controlled Việt Cộng was merged with the Vietnamese Fatherland Front of

47945-431: Was reunited. Many South Vietnamese had to leave the country by boat because they could not stand the harsh conditions of Vietnam under the new regimes, especially since September 1978. With the 1988-1991 revolutions leading to the fall of most communist states and a good relationship with the US, Vietnamese communist government became opener when talking about the old regime. With the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975,

48168-517: Was seen as de facto capital of Khánh Hòa Province . The colonial administration offices (like Envoy Office, Commanding Office, Trade Office, Post Office) were situated in Nha Trang. Local royal offices like Province Chief, Provincial Judge, Military Commander are in Diên Khánh city (a walled military city 10  km south-west of Nha Trang). On 7 May 1937, the Governor-General of French Indochina by another decree upgraded Nha Trang Townlet to town. At this time, Nha Trang Town had five wards based on

48391-432: Was split from Khánh Xương County to become Nha Trang City territory. On 27 March 1978, the provincial government by Decision 54-BT founded Phước Đồng Commune under Nha Trang City. On 1 July 1989, Khanh Hoa was split from Phu Khanh Province to become Khánh Hòa Province as it was before, Nha Trang was made the capital of Khánh Hòa Province. On April 22, 1999, Phan Văn Khải by Decision 106/1999 recognized Nha Trang City as

48614-429: Was still weak and not recognized by any country. While the Chinese soldiers occupied northern part of Vietnam, the Việt Minh tried to appease the Chinese soldiers. They even had welcome parades in Hanoi and Haiphong, while reassuring the Vietnamese people that China supported Vietnam's independence. The Chinese occupation forces allowed the Viet Minh's state more influence than the British Army occupation authorities in

48837-548: Was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman (r. 572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-bhadreshvara. In 605, the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap , overrunning Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu . He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son, Kandarpadharma , who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son, Prabhasadharma , who died in 645. Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son , Tra Kieu , Hue , Khanh Hoa dated 653–687 report

49060-417: Was supported by the United States and its allied nations, though doubts began to circulate among Western officials by 1966 on whether or not Ky could maintain stability in South Vietnam. A repressive leader, Ky was greatly despised by his fellow countrymen. In early 1966, protesters influenced by popular Buddhist monk Thích Trí Quang attempted an uprising in Quang's hometown of Da Nang. The uprising

49283-581: Was the capital of Champa. Other scholars have disputed this contention, holding that Champa was never a united country, and arguing that the presence of a particularly rich historical record for a given region in a given period is no basis for claiming that the region functioned as the capital of a united Champa during that period. Through the centuries, Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from Cambodia , China, Java and India amongst others. An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in modern central Vietnam, and Lâm Ấp ,

49506-407: Was the main airport of the city. This airport was used by the United States Air Force and Republic of Vietnam Air Force during the Vietnam War . When part of Cam Ranh Bay was made an economic development zone by the Vietnamese government, Cam Ranh International Airport (also a military airport built by the United States during Vietnam War) was made the new civilian airport of the city. This airport

49729-439: Was the official name of its predecessor state from 1949 to 1955. The communist North was known as the " Democratic Republic of Vietnam ". Việt Nam ( Vietnamese pronunciation: [vjə̀tnam] ) was the name adopted by Emperor Gia Long in 1804. It is a variation of " Nam Việt " ( 南 越 , Southern Việt ), a name used in ancient times. In 1839, Emperor Minh Mạng renamed the country Đại Nam ("Great South"). In 1945,

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