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149-663: When the Viet found a kingdom at the start of the 10th century, Champa , a kingdom to the south of Đại Việt , had become an established entity. As Champa had been independent, it found itself in need to defend its territory to contain the threat posed by the Khmer Empire in the west, and expand its territory to the north, hoping to conquer the Vietnamese nation. There, with the Vietnamese Kingdom in turmoil following

298-730: A South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice. The Champa civilization and what would later be the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug , which is also in the Philippines, engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries, establishing trading centers. There they were called Orang Dampuan and, due to their wealth, many of them were killed by native Sulu Buranuns. The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory killings by

447-614: A Cham Bani cleric – which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a Cham state for a short period of time, before being crushed by Minh Mang's forces. The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their and remnant of Champa's fate. A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to forced assimilation by the Vietnamese, while many Cham, including indigenous highland peoples, were indiscriminately killed by

596-499: A Cham king named Jaya Prakāśadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thorough knowledge of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying down the foundations for the Champa art and architectural styles. He also sent many embassies regularly to

745-598: A Christian majority until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. At Mecca , Muhammad is said to have received repeated embassies from Christian tribes. Like their Byzantine and late Sasanian predecessors, the Marwanid caliphs nominally ruled the various religious communities but allowed the communities' own appointed or elected officials to administer most internal affairs. Yet the Marwanids also depended heavily on

894-399: A Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king Le Hoan of Dai Viet , followed by Lưu Kế Tông (r. 986–989), a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983, brought mass destruction to Northern Champa. Indrapura was still one of the major centers of Champa until being surpassed by Vijaya in the 12th century. The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through

1043-430: A complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came." The result, he points out, can be seen in the diversity of Muslim societies today, with varying manifestations and practices of Islam. Conversion to Islam also came about as

1192-542: A confederation of kingdom(s) and individual city-states for most of its history. For several periods from the 700s to 1471, there was the king of kings or the overlord based out of the most significant powerful cities like Indrapura and Vijaya , who wielded more power, influence, and sense of unity over the other Cham kings and princes, and perhaps those minor local kings and princes (Yuvarāja – not necessary mean crown prince) or regional military commander/warlords (senāpati) were from local associates that had no connection with

1341-528: A global affiliation, the real heart of Muslim religious life remains outside politics—in local associations for worship, discussion, mutual aid, education, charity, and other communal activities. A third development is the growth and elaboration of transnational military organizations. The 1980s and 90s, with several major conflicts in the Middle East , including the Arab–Israeli conflict , Afghanistan in

1490-655: A guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years, together with Dai Viet , eventually repelling the Mongols back to China by June 1285. After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288, Dai Viet king Trần Nhân Tông spent his retirement years in Northern Champa, and arranged a marriage between his daughter, Princess Huyền Trân , and Prince Harijit – now reigning as Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) - in 1306 in exchange for peace and territory. From 1307 to 1401, not even

1639-402: A higher proportion of Muslims among the population. The Abbasids replaced the expanding empire and "tribal politics" of "the tight-knit Arabian elite with cosmopolitan culture and disciplines of Islamic science , philosophy , theology , law and mysticism became more widespread, and the gradual conversions of the empire's populations occurred. Significant conversions also occurred beyond

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1788-578: A law was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire to be Muslims. Both periods were also marked by significant migrations of Arab tribes outwards from the Arabian Peninsula into the new territories. Richard Bulliet 's "conversion curve" shows a relatively low rate of conversion of non-Arab subjects during the Arab centric Umayyad period of 10%, in contrast with estimates for the more politically-multicultural Abbasid period, which saw

1937-485: A linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva . The worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed. Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century CE, the Cham might have reached India by themselves. King Gangaraja (r. 413–?) of Champa

2086-477: A long time by scholars until Po Dharma . Cham literature also have been greatly preserved in approximately more than 3,000 Cham manuscripts and printed books dating from the 16th to 20th centuries. The Southeast Asia Digital Library (SEADL) at Northern Illinois University currently contains an extensive collection of 977 digitized Cham manuscripts, totaling more than 57,800 pages of multigenre content. Modern scholarship has been guided by two competing theories in

2235-671: A mobile secretariat ( xingsheng ) in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks. It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia. The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of Vijaya forcing the Cham king Indravarman V (r. 1258–1287) and Prince Harijit to wage

2384-525: A new Buddhist dynasty founded by Indravarman II (r. ? – 893) moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again. Indravarman II established the city of Indrapura , near My Son and ancient Simhapura . Mahayana Buddhism eclipsed Hinduism, becoming the state religion. Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture (distinguish with modern Cham culture). Unfortunately,

2533-603: A new dynasty of Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). His successor Indravarman VI (r. 1400–1441) reigned for the next 41 years, expanding Champa's territory to the Mekong Delta amidst the decline of the Angkorian Empire . One of Indravarman's nephews, Prince Śrīndra-Viṣṇukīrti Virabhadravarman , became king of Champa in 1441. By the mid 15th century, Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline. No inscription survived after 1456. The Vietnamese under

2682-454: A predecessor state in the region, began its existence in 192 CE. In the 4th century CE, wars with the neighbouring Kingdom of Funan in Cambodia and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of Indian culture into Cham society. Sanskrit was adopted as a scholarly language, and Hinduism , especially Shaivism , became the state religion. Starting from the 10th century CE,

2831-450: A quasi-registral, incipiently tonal system . After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471, another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west, forming Haroi , which has reversal Bahnaric linguistic influences. According to Cham folk legends, Champa was founded by Lady Po Nagar –the divine mother goddess of the kingdom. She came from the Moon, arrived in modern Central Vietnam and founded

2980-485: A regional power. After 1104, the two countries went on to establish more peaceful relations for nearly two centuries. After two peaceful centuries, and even an alliance during the Mongol invasions of Vietnam , tensions erupted once more due to the continued influx of Vietnamese settlers marching southward. Mistrust of the Vietnamese, which was prominent in the Cham court, led to a bloodier conflict from 1367 to 1396, in which

3129-402: A result of enhanced communications, media, travel, and migration makes meaningful the concept of a single Islam practiced everywhere in similar ways, and an Islam which transcends national and ethnic customs. This does not necessarily imply political or social organizations: Global Muslim identity does not necessarily or even usually imply organized group action. Even though Muslims recognize

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3278-487: A result of the breakdown of historically-religiously organized societies: with the weakening of many churches, for example, and the favouring of Islam and the migration of substantial Muslim Turkish populations into the areas of Anatolia and the Balkans, the "social and cultural relevance of Islam" were enhanced and a large number of peoples were converted. This worked better in some areas (Anatolia) and less in others (such as

3427-511: A return of the individual to Muslim values, communities, and dress codes, and a strengthened community. Another development is that of transnational Islam, elaborated upon by the French Islam researchers Gilles Kepel and Olivier Roy . It includes a feeling of a "growing universalistic Islamic identity" as often shared by Muslim immigrants and their children who live in non-Muslim countries: The increased integration of world societies as

3576-400: A similar meaning as "Islamization". 'Muslimization' has more recently also been used as a term coined to describe the overtly Muslim practices of new converts to the religion who wish to reinforce their newly acquired religious identity. Within the century of the establishment of Islam upon the Arabian Peninsula and the subsequent rapid expansion during the early Muslim conquests , one of

3725-587: A single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa, and almost all of its 14th-century history has to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources. Engraving Sanskrit inscription, the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa, stopped in 1253. No other grand temple or other construction project was built after 1300. These facts marked the beginning of Champa's decline. From 1367 to 1390, according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources, Che Bong Nga , who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390, had restored Champa. He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during

3874-498: A small fraction, or about 40,000 Cham people in the old Panduranga remained in 1885 when the French completed their acquisition of Vietnam . The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples, putting an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham. But French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of

4023-467: A species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. Rolf Stein proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri , an ancient sacred city in Buddhism , for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa

4172-412: A strong monarch, the territories of the kingdom stretch from present-day Quảng Bình to Khánh Hòa . An internal division called viṣaya (district) was first introduced. There were at least two viṣaya: Caum and Midit. Each of them has a handful number of local koṣṭhāgāras –known as 'source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, northern Champa

4321-657: A two-day journey lay the country of Ma-i at Mindoro, Philippines; which Champa had trade relations with. Afterwards, during the 1000s, Rajah Kiling, the Hindu king of the Philippine Rajahnate of Butuan instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate, from the Chinese Empire , which was later denied by

4470-636: Is also worshiped by the Vietnamese, a tradition that dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period. The Chams descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture between 1000 BCE and 200 CE, the predecessor of the Cham kingdom. The Cham language is part of the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham

4619-688: Is related most closely to modern Acehnese in northern Sumatra. The Sa Huỳnh culture was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present-day Central Vietnam coastal region. During its heyday, the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and had commercial links across the South China Sea with the Philippine archipelago and even with Taiwan (through Maritime Jade Road , Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere ), which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and are no longer hesitant in linking with

History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars - Misplaced Pages Continue

4768-400: Is richest for Indrapura ; in the 12th century CE, it is richest for Vijaya ; following the 15th century CE, it is richest for Panduranga . Some scholars have taken these shifts in the historical record to reflect the movement of the Cham capital from one location to another. According to such scholars, if the 10th-century record is richest for Indrapura, it is so because at that time Indrapura

4917-479: Is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia. Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham , Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia;

5066-600: Is the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Berber troops were used extensively by the Arabs in their conquest of Spain, which began in 711. No previous conqueror had tried to assimilate the Berbers, but the Arabs quickly converted them and enlisted their aid in further conquests. Without their help, for example, Andalusia could never have been incorporated into the Islamic state. At first only Berbers nearer

5215-423: Is the world's fastest-growing major religion . Alongside the terminology of the "spread of Islam", scholarship of the subject has also given rise to the terms "Islamization", "Islamicization", and "Islamification" ( Arabic : أسلمة , romanized :  aslamah ). These terms are used concurrently with the terminology of the "spread of Islam" to refer to the process through which a society shifts towards

5364-643: The Sakkarai dak rai patao , was a 5227-pages collection of Cham veritable records, documenting a history range from early legendary kings of 11th–13th century to the deposition of Po Thak The , the last king of Panduranga in 1832, reckoning in total 39 rulers of Panduranga, the tales of spread of Islam to Champa in 1000 CE, to Po Thak The . The annals were written in Akhar Thrah (traditional) Cham script with collection of Cham and Vietnamese seals imprinted by Vietnamese rulers. However, it had been dismissed for

5513-495: The Acehnese from Northern Sumatra , Indonesia , along with elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic -speaking peoples in Central Vietnam. Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ( 林邑 , Middle Chinese ( ZS ): * liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚ ), that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in

5662-640: The Arab maritime routes in Mainland Southeast Asia as a supplier of aloe . Despite the frequent wars between the Cham and the Khmer , the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions. Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently. Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with

5811-746: The Balkans and the Indian subcontinent . The earlier period also saw the acceleration in the rate of conversions in the Muslim heartland, and in the wake of the conquests, the newly-conquered regions retained significant non-Muslim populations. That was contrast to the regions in which the boundaries of the Muslim world contracted, such as the Emirate of Sicily (Italy) and Al Andalus (Spain and Portugal), where Muslim populations were expelled or forced to Christianize in short order. The latter period of that phase

5960-500: The Balkans , often to evade the jizya tax. Similarly, Christian sources mention requests for mass conversions to Islam, such as in Cyprus , where Ottoman authorities refused, fearing economic repercussions. As of 2016, there were 1.7 billion Muslims, with one out of four people in the world being Muslim, making Islam the second-largest religion . Out of children born from 2010 to 2015, 31% were born to Muslims, and currently Islam

6109-593: The Can Vuong movement in Binh Thuan. The King of Champa is the title ruler of Champa. Champa rulers often use two Hinduist style titles: raja-di-raja ( राजाधिराजः " raja of rajas" or king of kings : written here in Devanagari since the Cham used their own Cham script ) or pu po tana raya ("lord of all territories"). They would be addressed by style ganreh patrai (his Majesty). Officially,

History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars - Misplaced Pages Continue

6258-460: The Cham–Vietnamese War (1471) , Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed. 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20–30,000 were taken prisoners and deported, including the king of Champa Tra Toan , who died along his way to the north in captivity. Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to

6407-598: The Eastern Han dynasty of China in Xianglin who rebelled against Chinese rule in 192. Around the 4th century CE, Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences , probably through its neighbor, Funan . Hinduism was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples . The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman , who reigned from 380 to 413 CE. At Mỹ Sơn , King Bhadravarman established

6556-635: The Indian subcontinent , the Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Samanids in Persia, Timurids , and the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia significantly changed the course of history. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, physicians, and philosophers , all contributing to

6705-653: The Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago , its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Ma-i . Butuan , and Sulu in the Philippines. Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around Aceh confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia; this is indicated by the use of the Chamic language Acehnese as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh. Linguists believe

6854-711: The Mediterranean Sea : Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Venice with its eastern Mediterranean colonies. Later, the Ottoman Empire set on to conquer territories from these rivals: Cyprus and other Greek islands (except Crete ) were lost by Venice to the Ottomans, and the latter conquered territory up to the Danube basin as far as Hungary . Crete was conquered during the 17th century, but

7003-646: The Middle East , and south to Somalia by the Companions of the Prophet , most notably the Rashidun Caliphate and military advents of Khalid Bin Walid , Amr ibn al-As , and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas . The historic process of Islamization was complex and involved merging Islamic practices with local customs. This process took place over several centuries. Some scholars reject the stereotype that this process

7152-553: The Quran , which does not give much detail about the right conduct with non-Muslims, but it in principle recognises the religion of "People of the Book" (Jews, Christians and sometimes others as well) and securing a separate tax from them that replaces the zakat , which is imposed upon Muslim subjects. Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to

7301-656: The Rade , Jarai , Chru , Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?," Vickery doubts. The historiography of Champa relies upon four types of sources: Approximately four hundred Champa inscriptions have been found. Around 250 of them were deciphered and studied throughout

7450-753: The Red Sea and down East Africa through settlements such as Mombasa and Zanzibar . The initial conversions were of a flexible nature. The reasons that by the end of the 10th century, a large part of the population had converted to Islam are diverse. According to the British-Lebanese historian Albert Hourani , one of the reasons may be that "Islam had become more clearly defined, and the line between Muslims and non-Muslims more sharply drawn. Muslims now lived within an elaborated system of ritual, doctrine and law clearly different from those of non-Muslims. (...) The status of Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians

7599-736: The Samaritans . Muslim dynasties were soon established and subsequent empires such as those of the Umayyads , Abbasids , Mamluks , Seljukids , and the Ayyubids were among some of the largest and most powerful in the world. The Ajuran and Adal Sultanates , and the wealthy Mali Empire , in North Africa , the Delhi , Deccan , and Bengal Sultanates , and Mughal and Durrani Empires , and Kingdom of Mysore and Nizam of Hyderabad in

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7748-680: The Somali people 's connection with Muhammad . The early Muslims fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day Somaliland to seek protection from the Quraysh at the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-day Ethiopia . Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over

7897-433: The Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on par with the Korean kingdoms of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — "though the latter was rivaled by Japan." Between the 7th to 10th centuries CE, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled

8046-418: The Vietnam War that followed. This led to Cham participation in various separatist struggles against both regimes, including the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races , or FULRO, founded in 1964. Some Chams consider this as part of its jihad struggle; other observers have claimed that they were aided by the Cambodian and Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnages . In response,

8195-446: The matrilocal structure of Cham families. And compared to other Vietnamese ethnic groups, the Cham do not share ancestry with southern Han Chinese, along with Austronesian-speaking Mang. Champa was known to the Chinese as 林邑 Linyi in Mandarin, Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp (which is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of 林邑). The state of Champa was founded in 192 CE by Khu Liên (Ou Lian), an official of

8344-440: The Đông Yên Châu inscription , the oldest known native Southeast Asian literature written in a native Southeast Asian language dating to around c. 350 CE, predating first Khmer , Mon , Malay texts by centuries. Scholarly consensus has shifted several times as to what degree Champa functioned as a unified entity. Originally being viewed as a unified kingdom throughout most of its history, later authors suggested that Champa

8493-496: The 1830s, while the Siamese–Vietnamese wars were underway, the Chams initiated a major rebellion led by Katip Sumat, a Sunni Muslim cleric, which marked the first ever jihadist war against Vietnam in history. This rebellion, along with the Ja Thak Wa uprising beginning in 1834, was suppressed by the Nguyễn dynasty . The Vietnamese Empire adopted repressive measures against the Chams, which some commentators have labeled genocide. Many Cham survivors fled to Cambodia, Thailand and

8642-423: The 1980s and 2001, and the three Gulf Wars ( 1980–88 , 1990–91 , 2003–2011 ) were catalysts of a growing internationalization of local conflicts. Figures such as Osama bin Laden and Abdallah Azzam have been crucial in these developments, as much as domestic and world politics. Muslim Arab expansion in the first centuries after Muhammad's death soon established dynasties in North Africa , West Africa , to

8791-441: The 9th and 10th centuries CE. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt , the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi . In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories. Hinduism , adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th century CE, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by

8940-669: The Acehnese language, a descendant of the Proto-Chamic language, separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium BCE. However, scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh-Chamic relations vary. Tsat , a northern Chamic language spoken by the Utsul on the Hainan Island, is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably, but precise details remain inadequate. Under Chinese language influence over Hainan, Tsat has become fully monosyllabic, while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in Eastern Cham (in contact with Vietnamese). Eastern Cham has developed

9089-424: The Arab dynasty established the empire's first school, which taught the Arabic language and Islamic studies. The caliphs furthermore began the ambitious project of building mosques across the empire, many of which remain today, such as the Umayyad Mosque , in Damascus. At the end of the Umayyad period, less than 10% of the people in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain were Muslim. Only the Arabian Peninsula had

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9238-446: The Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region. Although Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century, Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams, when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century. Champa came to serve as an important link in the spice trade , which stretched from the Persian Gulf to South China , and later in

9387-419: The Arabs." Only in subsequent centuries, with the development of the religious doctrine of Islam and with that the understanding of the Muslim ummah , would mass conversion take place. The new understanding by the religious and political leadership in many cases led to a weakening or breakdown of the social and religious structures of parallel religious communities such as Christians and Jews. The caliphs of

9536-455: The Bacam ( Bacham , Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non- Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese people of Indonesia . The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/ ), which refers to Magnolia champaca ,

9685-454: The Balkans in which "the spread of Islam was limited by the vitality of the Christian churches".) During the Abbasid period, economic hardships, social disorder, and pressure from Muslim attackers, led to the mass conversion of Samaritans to Islam. Along with the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, Arabic numerals and Arab customs spread throughout the empire. A sense of unity grew among many though not all provinces and gradually formed

9834-526: The Caucasus , Crimea , and the Volga ), and Southern Europe (in Spain , Portugal , and Sicily prior to re-Christianizations ). In contemporary usage, "Islamization" and its variants too can also be used with implied negative connotations to refer to the perceived imposition of an Islamist social and political system on a society with an indigenously different social and political background. The English synonym of "Muslimization", in use since before 1940 (e.g., Waverly Illustrated Dictionary ), conveys

9983-430: The Cham nation in 1471, also led to the surge of Islam to eventually become the dominant religion of the Cham people. On the other hand, persecution against Chams became widespread and systematic assimilation became policy. The Chams, however, continued to rebel against the Vietnamese rulers, with the Chams revolting against Vietnamese rule five to six times in the 17th century, with each revolt being bloodily suppressed by

10132-405: The Cham nearly conquered Đại Việt, but which ended in stalemate. After the war, the Trần dynasty was weakened and toppled by the Hồ dynasty , at which point the Chams allied with China once more, helping the Ming dynasty to conquer Vietnam in 1407. This, however, proved to be detrimental for Champa, as the Vietnamese held strong resentment toward the Cham after expelling the Chinese in 1427. At

10281-407: The Cham of Panduranga a Tân Dân (new people), denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese. Minh Mang's son and successor Thiệu Trị , however, reverted most of his father's strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minorities. Under Thiệu Trị and Tu Duc , the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition. Only

10430-409: The Cham subjects. Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly, systematically destroyed. Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions, pushing the Cham to far-inland arid highlands, and the Cham were subjected to heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions. Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang's oppression arose in 1833–1835, the latter led by khatib Ja Thak Wa -

10579-430: The Champa Alliance. Started from the 17th century, Champa kings used title Paduka Seri Sultan in some occasions, a borrowed honorific from Muslim Malay rulers. The 13th-century Chinese gazetteer account Zhu Fan Zhi (c. 1225) describes the Cham king 'wears a headdress of gold and adorns his body with strings of jewels' and either rides on an elephant or is lifted on a 'cloth hammock by four men' when he goes outside

10728-463: The Champa rulers originated from the Hindu tradition, often consisting of titles and aliases. Titles (prefix) like: Jaya ( जय "victory"), Maha ( महा "great"), Sri ( श्री "glory"). Aliases (stem) like: Bhadravarman, Vikrantavarman, Rudravarman, Simhavarman, Indravarman, Paramesvaravarman, Harivarman... Among them, the suffix -varman belongs to the Kshatriya class and is only for those leaders of

10877-685: The Chams to counter the more populous Buddhist Vietnamese people. Political Islam gained popularity in response to the growing Vietnamese nationalist movement, which was seen as threatening to the Chams. The Salafist movement began to spread in Vietnam later, beginning during the Vietnam War, due to the efforts of Mohammad Badri, a Cham who had studied in Saudi Arabia . Both governments openly persecuted Chams, both Hindus and Muslims alike, during

11026-546: The Chinese Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism for the Champa civilization. However, the future Rajah of Butuan, Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a golden tablet, some white dragon ( Bailong 白龍) camphor , Moluccan cloves, and

11175-403: The Chinese court: "Annam destroyed our country" with additional notes of massive burning and looting, in which 40 to 60,000 people were slaughtered. The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang and Phan Rang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia . Champa was reduced to the principalities of Panduranga and Kauthara at the beginning of the 16th century. Kauthara was annexed by

11324-673: The Christian inhabitants to Islam. A Christian community is recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria. There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 CE to tombs of Catholic saints outside of the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Arab Spain. In addition, calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome. During

11473-881: The Holy Sepulchre, with the tall minaret, is known as the place to which he retired for his prayer. Bishop Arculf , whose account of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the seventh century, De locis sanctis , written down by the monk Adamnan, described reasonably pleasant living conditions of Christians in Palestine in the first period of Muslim rule. The caliphs of Damascus (661-750) were tolerant princes who were on generally good terms with their Christian subjects. Many Christians, such as John of Damascus , held important offices at their court. The Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad (753-1242), as long as they ruled Syria, were also tolerant to Christians. Harun Abu Jaʻfar (786-809), sent

11622-602: The Islamic Golden Age. The Timurid Renaissance and the Islamic expansion in South and East Asia fostered cosmopolitan and eclectic Muslim cultures in the Indian subcontinent, Malaysia, Indonesia and China. The Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the Middle East and North Africa in the early modern period, also did not officially endorse mass conversions, but evidence suggests they occurred, particularly in

11771-466: The Khmer king, leading to a Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years. Jayavarman VII of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s (1190, 1192, 1194–1195, 1198–1203), conquering Champa and making it a dependency of the Khmer Empire for 30 years. Champa was subjected to a Mongol Yuan invasion in 1283–1285. Before the invasion, Kublai Khan ordered the establishment of

11920-694: The Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates, Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura, near Phan Rang . The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I (r. 787–801) in 799. In 875,

12069-468: The Malay Peninsula, and Islamic radicalism achieved a foothold among the Cham people. The Cham Hindus, while less active, were also accused and persecuted. While French imperialism largely ended the overt conflicts between Chams and Vietnamese, the two communities remained hostile to each other. The French government aggravated the mistrust between the two communities by favoring the Islamization of

12218-598: The Muslim population grow from around 40% in the mid-9th century, with almost the entire population being converted by the end of the 11th century. That theory does not explain the continuing existence of large minorities of Christians during the Abbasids. Other estimates suggest that Muslims were not a majority in Egypt until the mid-10th century and in the Fertile Crescent until 1100. What is now Syria may have had

12367-656: The Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored. The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa. The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare, Khmer invasions were frequent. The Khmer Empire conquered Northern Champa in 1145, but were quickly repulsed by king Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1148–1167). Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by Suryavarman II in summer 1150 also

12516-589: The Ottomans lost Hungary to the Holy Roman Empire , and other parts of Eastern Europe, which ended with the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. The Ottoman sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922 and the caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924. Islam has continued to spread through commerce and migrations, especially in Southeast Asia, America and Europe. Modern day Islamization appears to be

12665-726: The Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had then all adopted Islam , and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs . Through commerce, Islam spread amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to

12814-684: The United Arab Emirates; some later settled in the United States. The insurgency would end up in complete failure, as Vietnam enacted Đổi mới and rejoined the world. By this point, the remaining Cham population in Vietnam had been significantly reduced. While tensions between them have abated, the Chams and Vietnamese maintain their distance. Vietnamese army sacks and burns the Indrapudra city, Champa kingdom capital city moves to Vijaya . The death of Trần Duệ Tông leads to

12963-552: The Vietnamese Nguyễn lords . The last remnants of Cham independence were wiped out in the 19th century, when the last Cham Kingdoms were absorbed by the Vietnamese. Two notable Cham revolts against Vietnamese encroachment in the early 19th century before the annexation of Champa by Dai Viet, Ja Lidong rebellion and Nduai Kabait rebellion , both featured indigenous Degar (highlander) tribes allying with indigenous Chams in struggle against pre-colonial Vietnamese colonisation. In

13112-552: The Vietnamese government intensified its repression of the Cham following the end of the Vietnam War to achieve the goal of creating a homogeneous Vietnamese nation, inciting what has been called the second Cham genocide. In Cambodia , about 90,000–500,000 Chams were murdered by the Pol Pot Khmer Rouge regime during the Cambodian genocide . The Khmer Rouge hates the Cham people vigorously comparable to how they hate

13261-403: The Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍuraṅga had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its foreign affairs without permission from

13410-482: The Vietnamese in 1653. From 1799 to 1832, Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status, with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in Huế . The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga, survived until August 1832, when Minh Mang of Vietnam began his purge against rival Le Van Duyet 's faction, and accused the Cham leaders of supporting Duyet. Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king Po Phaok The and

13559-497: The Vietnamese in massacres, particularly from 1832 to 1836, during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings. Bani mosques were razed to the ground. Temples were set on fire. Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated. By that time, the Cham totally lost their ancestors' seafaring and shipbuilding traditions. After finalizing these heavy-handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies, emperor Minh Mang declared

13708-606: The Vietnamese, and tentatively depicted the Cham Muslims "belonging to the rootless bourgeoisie race" by contrast to agrarian Khmers . After the Cambodian–Vietnamese War , the Cham insurgency spread with heavy casualties for both Vietnamese and Cham forces. By the 1980s, the Cham insurgency declined and eventually ended. Some Chams chose to emigrate rather than join in the insurgency, fleeing to Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Yemen, Qatar, Turkey, Oman, Saudi Arabia and

13857-476: The adoption of the client status of mawali . Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier since that deprived the provinces of revenues from the tax on non-Muslims. An enfranchisement was experienced by the mawali during the Abbasid period, and a shift was made in the political conception from that of a primarily-Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire. Around 930

14006-507: The ancestors of the Austronesian Cham and Chamic -speaking peoples. While Northern Vietnam Kinh people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population, have a sinicized culture, Cham people carry the patrilineal R-M17 haplogroup of South Asian Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no matrilineal South Asian mtDNA , and this fits with

14155-494: The assassination of Đinh Tiên Hoàng , Champa made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Đại Việt in 979 in support of China, but failed due to the strong defense of Vietnamese territory under the command of Lê Hoàn . This watershed moment would give birth to intense Cham–Vietnamese rivalry. Over the next centuries, conflicts between the two combatants intensified as a result of the Vietnamese Nam tiến policy, or "march to

14304-464: The capitulation in the spring of 637. Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Umar known as Umar's Assurance , allowing for the religious freedom for Christians in exchange for jizya , a tax to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called dhimmis . Under Muslim rule, the Jewish and Christian population of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed the usual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists. Having accepted

14453-597: The coast were involved, but by the 11th century Muslim affiliation had begun to spread far into the Sahara and Sahel . The conventional historical view is that the conquest of North Africa by the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate between CE 647–709 effectively ended Catholicism in Africa for several centuries. However, new scholarship has appeared that provides more nuance and details of the conversion of

14602-414: The consciousness of a broadly Arab-Islamic population. What was recognizably an Islamic world had emerged by the end of the 10th century. Throughout the period, as well as in the following centuries, divisions occurred between Persians and Arabs, and Sunnis and Shias, and unrest in provinces empowered local rulers at times. The expansion of Islam continued in the wake of Turkic conquests of Asia Minor ,

14751-423: The court of the king of kings. Islamization The spread of Islam spans almost 1,400 years. The early Muslim conquests that occurred following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE led to the creation of the caliphates , expanding over a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted by Arab Muslim forces expanding over vast territories and building imperial structures over time. Most of

14900-451: The creation of the Muslim world . The Islamic conquests , which culminated in the Arab empire being established across three continents ( Asia , Africa , and Europe ), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings. Trade played an important role in the spread of Islam in some parts of

15049-468: The deadly Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390) , sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, nearly bringing the Dai Viet to its collapse. Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war. After Che Bong Nga , Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under

15198-584: The decline of the Trần dynasty . Hồ Quý Ly takes the power of the government, overthrows the Trần dynasty in 1400 and establishes the Hồ dynasty . Champa becomes a vassal state of Đại Việt and moves its capital city to Panduranga ( Phan Rang ). Champa loses more territories to the Nguyễn lords . Champa Champa ( Cham : ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چامفا; Khmer : ចាម្ប៉ា ; Vietnamese : Chiêm Thành 占城 or Chiêm Bá 占婆)

15347-424: The dominant ruling dynasty or could be a member of that royal lineage within the perimeter of the mandala. Mandala is the term coined by O. W. Wolters describing the distribution of state power among small states within large kingdoms in premodern Southeast Asia. Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga . When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to

15496-410: The early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were

15645-412: The early Southeast Asian peoples, Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in peaceful conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism in Champa with little resistance. Rudravarman I of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line, became king of Champa in 529 CE. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He

15794-743: The extent of the empire such as that of the Turkic tribes in Central Asia and peoples living in regions south of the Sahara and north of the Sahel in Africa through contact with Muslim traders active in the area and Sufi orders . In Africa, Islam spread along three routes, across the Sahara and Sahel via trading towns such as Timbuktu , up the Nile Valley through the Sudan up to Uganda and across

15943-706: The final remaining principality of Champa was annexed by Emperor Minh Mạng of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty as part of the expansionist Nam tiến policy. The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa ( Sanskrit : नगरचम्प ), Champa (ꨌꩌꨛꨩ) in modern Cham , and Châmpa ( ចាម្ប៉ា ) in the Khmer inscriptions , Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese , Campa in Malay , Zhànchéng ( Mandarin : 占城) in Chinese records, and al-Ṣanf ( Arabic : صَنْف) in Middle Eastern Muslim records. Early Champa evolved from

16092-421: The help of non-Arab administrative personnel and on administrative practices (e.g., a set of government bureaus). As the conquests slowed and the isolation of the fighters ( muqatilah ) became less necessary, it became more and more difficult to keep Arabs garrisoned. As the tribal links that had so dominated Umayyad politics began to break down, the meaningfulness of tying non-Arab converts to Arab tribes as clients

16241-409: The historiography of Champa. Scholars agree that historically Champa was divided into several regions or principalities spread out from south to north along the coast of modern Vietnam and united by a common language, culture, and heritage. It is acknowledged that the historical record is not equally rich for each of the regions in every historical period. For example, in the 10th century CE, the record

16390-430: The illusion of a unified Champa. Recent revisionist historians in the 1980s, for example Po Dharma and Trần Quốc Vượng , refuted the concept of single Champa. Chinese historical texts, Cham inscriptions, and especially the Cham annals, the Sakkarai dak rai patao , both confirm the existence of multi-Campa scenarios. Po Dharma argues that Champa was not a single kingdom or centralized in the manner of Đại Việt but likely

16539-461: The key factors of the process. On the other hand, Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peaceful acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite was likely related to the tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal , coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies tended to practice animism , most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To

16688-585: The keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to Charlemagne , who built a hospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine. Rival dynasties and revolutions led to the eventual disunion of the Muslim world. In the ninth century, Palestine was conquered by the Fatimid Caliphate , whose capital was Cairo . Palestine once again became a battleground as the various enemies of the Fatimids counterattacked. At

16837-426: The king was the patron of art and construction. Majestic temples and shrines were built dedicated to the honor of the king of kings, his ancestors, and their beloved gods (usually Śiva). Some charismatic Cham kings declared themselves Protector of Champa in celebrating royal ceremony and coronation ( abhiseka ) which involves supernatural and spiritual rituals to demonstrate the king's authority. The regnal name of

16986-462: The kingdom, but a typhoon drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China, where she married a Chinese prince, and returned to Champa. The Po Nagar temple built in Nha Trang during the 8th century, and rebuilt in the 11th century was dedicated to her. Her portrayal image in the temple is said to date from 965 CE, it is of a commanding personage seated cross-legged upon a throne. She

17135-881: The last century. Many Cham inscriptions were destroyed by American bombing during the Vietnam War . Currently, the Project Corpus of the Inscriptions of Campā launched by French School of Asian Studies (EFEO) partnering with the Institute for Study of the Ancient World (ISAW) of New York University is tasked for cataloging, sustaining and preserving ancient Cham inscriptions into an online index library and publications of scholarship's epigraphical studies into English, French, and Vietnamese. The Cham have their written records in form of paper book, known as

17284-632: The majority until around the fourteenth century. In the initial invasion, the victorious Muslims granted religious freedom to the Christian community in Alexandria , and the Alexandrians quickly recalled their exiled Monophysite patriarch to rule over them, subject only to the ultimate political authority of the conquerors. In such a fashion the city persisted as a religious community under an Arab Muslim domination more welcome and more tolerant than that of Byzantium. (Other sources question how much

17433-501: The many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands. Mỹ Sơn , a former religious center, and Hội An , one of Champa's main port cities, are now World Heritage Sites . Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam , a conversion which began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century; they are called the Bani ( Ni tục , from Arabic: Bani ). There are, however,

17582-656: The masses. He noted: "The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at the point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply

17731-652: The most significant empires in world history was formed. For the subjects of the empire, formerly of the Byzantine and the Sasanian Empires, not much changed in practice. The objective of the conquests was mostly of a practical nature, as fertile land and water were scarce in the Arabian Peninsula. A real Islamization therefore came about only during the subsequent centuries. Ira M. Lapidus distinguishes between two separate strands of converts of

17880-573: The native population welcomed the conquering Muslims.) Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Tunisia from 647 to 648 and Morocco in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam. In 670, the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi established the city of Kairouan (in Tunisia) and its Great Mosque also known as the Mosque of Uqba; the Great Mosque of Kairouan

18029-410: The palace. When the king attends the court audience, he is encircled by 'thirty female attendants who carry swords and shields or betel nuts'. Court officials would make reports to the king, then make one prostration before leaving. The last king of Champa, Po Phaok The , was deposed by Minh Mạng in 1832. During the reign of the king Prakasadharma (r. 653–686 AD), when Champa was briefly ruled by

18178-535: The reign of Umar II , the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam by his just administration, and other early notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin who started a movement which caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam. The history of commercial and intellectual contact between the inhabitants of the Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula may help explain

18327-878: The religion of Islam and becomes largely Muslim . Societal Islamization has historically occurred over the course of many centuries since the spread of Islam outside of the Arabian Peninsula through the early Muslim conquests , with notable shifts occurring in the Levant , Iran , North Africa , the Horn of Africa , West Africa , Central Asia , South Asia (in Afghanistan , Maldives , Pakistan , and Bangladesh ), Southeast Asia (in Malaysia , Brunei , and Indonesia ), Southeastern Europe (in Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Kosovo , among others), Eastern Europe (in

18476-412: The religious and spiritual reasons that individuals may have had, conversion to Islam "represented the response of a tribal, pastoral population to the need for a larger framework for political and economic integration, a more stable state, and a more imaginative and encompassing moral vision to cope with the problems of a tumultuous society." In contrast, for tribal, nomadic, monotheistic societies, "Islam

18625-491: The same time, Arab and Malay traders brought Islam to the region. While Islam had started to spread in the 7th century in Southeast Asia, it was not until the 15th century that witnessed the growing development of Islam in Champa territory, then still dominated by Hinduism . Conversion to Islam among Chams started at the same time the restored Vietnamese Kingdom re-emerged as stronger and more aggressive, invading Champa in 1446. Subsequent Vietnamese attacks that finally demolished

18774-738: The same time, the Byzantines continued to attempt to regain their lost territories, including Jerusalem. Christians in Jerusalem who sided with the Byzantines were put to death for high treason by the ruling Shiʻi Muslims. In 969, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, John VII, was put to death for treasonous correspondence with the Byzantines. As Jerusalem grew in importance to Muslims and pilgrimages increased, tolerance for other religions declined. Christians were persecuted and churches destroyed. The Sixth Fatimid caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah , 996–1021, who

18923-487: The seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. Its emergence in the late 2nd century CE exemplifies early Southeast Asian statecraft at a crucial stage of the making of Southeast Asia . The peoples of Champa maintained a system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia , until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also found

19072-543: The significant expansion occurred during the reign of the rāshidūn ("rightly-guided") caliphs from 632 to 661 CE, which were the first four successors of Muhammad. These early caliphates , coupled with Muslim economics and trading , the Islamic Golden Age , and the age of the Islamic gunpowder empires , resulted in Islam 's spread outwards from Mecca towards the Indian , Atlantic , and Pacific Oceans and

19221-447: The south" by penetrating Champa. As more Vietnamese settlers moved southward they began to expand their sphere of influence over the Cham indirectly, giving rise to numerous wars between the Vietnamese and the Chams. As Vietnamese expansionist policy continued under the Lý dynasty , the Vietnamese managed to occupy more Cham territory, which ultimately resulted in the emergence of the Dai Viet as

19370-530: The strong king Le Thanh Tong launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 , decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa. For early historians like Georges Maspero , "the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom." Maspero, like other early orientalist scholars, by his logics, arbitrated the history of Champa as becoming a "worthy" subject for their study when it adapted and maintained "superior" Indian civilization. In

19519-512: The surrender, Omar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius "and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities". When the hour for his prayer came, Omar was in the Anastasis church, but refused to pray there, lest in the future Muslims should use that as an excuse to break the treaty and confiscate the church. The Mosque of Umar , opposite the doors of the Church of

19668-434: The time: animists and polytheists of tribal societies of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent and the native Christians and Jews existing before the Muslims arrived. The empire spread from the Atlantic Ocean to the Aral Sea , from the Atlas Mountains to the Hindu Kush . It was bounded mostly by "a combination of natural barriers and well-organized states". For the polytheistic and pagan societies, apart from

19817-442: The trade in spices and silk in the South China Sea , between China, the Indonesian archipelago and India . They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding. However, the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese ( Javaka , probably refers to Srivijaya , ruler of

19966-639: The vice-king Po Dhar Kaok to be arrested in Hue, while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are the Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces . To enforce his finger grip, Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in phủ Ninh Thuan while removing the traditional Cham customary laws. Administratively, Panduranga was integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures. These reforms were known as cải thổ quy lưu ("replacing thổ [aboriginal] chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system"). Speaking Vietnamese and following Vietnamese customs became strictly mandatory for

20115-401: The world, such as Indonesia. During the early centuries of Islamic rule, conversions in the Middle East were mainly individual or small-scale. While mass conversions were favored for spreading Islam beyond Muslim lands, policies within Muslim territories typically aimed for individual conversions to weaken non-Muslim communities. However, there were exceptions, like the forced mass conversion of

20264-452: Was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century CE until 1832. According to earliest historical references found in ancient sources, the first Cham polities were established around the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE, in the wake of Khu Liên 's rebellion against the rule of China's Eastern Han dynasty , and lasted until when

20413-462: Was believed to be "God made manifest" by his most zealous Shiʻi followers, now known as the Druze , destroyed the Holy Sepulchre in 1009. This powerful provocation helped ignite the flame of fury that led to the First Crusade . The dynasty was later overtaken by Saladin of the Ayyubid dynasty . In Egypt conversion to Islam was initially considerably slower than in other areas such as Mesopotamia or Khurasan, with Muslims not thought to have become

20562-413: Was better considered to be a federation of independent states. A number of modern scholars have suggested that Champa did form a unified kingdom in some periods but was disunified in others. The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that

20711-510: Was brought by Indians to Central Vietnam. Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived by Louis Finot , a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient . In his 2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation of peśvara , Campādeśa , Campānagara ). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in Central Vietnam such as

20860-403: Was consisted by several known districts (viṣaya, zhou 洲): Amaravati ( Quảng Ngãi ), Ulik ( Thừa Thiên–Huế ), Vvyar ( Quảng Trị ), Jriy (southern Quảng Bình ), and Traik (northern Quảng Bình ). Other junctions like Panduranga remained quietly autonomous. The classical narrative of 'the Champa Kingdom' brought by earlier generations of scholarship, Georges Maspero and George Coedes , created

21009-533: Was diluted; moreover, the number of non-Muslims who wished to join the ummah was already becoming too large for this process to work effectively. The Siege of Jerusalem (636–637) by the forces of the Rashid Caliph Umar against the Byzantines began in November 636. For four months, the siege continued. Ultimately, the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem , Sophronius , an ethnic Arab, agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Umar in person. The caliph, then in Medina , agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign

21158-410: Was initially "spread by the sword" or forced conversions. There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as responsible for setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from the dhimmis to benefit the Arab Muslim community financially and to discourage conversion. Islam was initially associated with the Arabs' ethnic identity and required formal association with an Arab tribe and

21307-429: Was marked by the Mongol invasion (particularly the Siege of Baghdad in 1258) and, after an initial period of persecution, the conversion of those conquerors to Islam. The Ottoman Empire defended its frontiers initially against threats from several sides: the Safavids in the east, the Byzantine Empire in the north until it vanished with the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and the great Catholic powers from

21456-521: Was more precisely defined, and in some ways it was inferior. They were regarded as the 'People of the Book', those who possessed a revealed scripture, or 'People of the Covenant', with whom compacts of protection had been made. In general, they were not forced to convert , but they suffered from restrictions. They paid a special tax ; they were not supposed to wear certain colors; they could not marry Muslim women ;." Most of those laws were elaborations of basic laws concerning non-Muslims ( dhimmis ) in

21605-399: Was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River , Northeast India . His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles. George Coedès notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and scholars travelled along

21754-414: Was quickly stalled, and Suryavarman died en route. Champa then plummeted into an eleven-year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions, which resulted in Champa reunifying under Jaya Harivarman by 1161. After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity, in June 1177 Jaya Indravarman IV (r. 1167–1192) launched a surprise naval assault on Angkor , capital of Cambodia, plundering it, slaying

21903-423: Was substituted for a Byzantine or Sassanian political identity and for a Christian, Jewish or Zoroastrian religious affiliation." Conversion initially was neither required nor necessarily wished for: "(The Arab conquerors) did not require the conversion as much as the subordination of non-Muslim peoples. At the outset, they were hostile to conversions because new Muslims diluted the economic and status advantages of

22052-548: Was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman (r. 572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-bhadreshvara. In 605, the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap , overrunning Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu . He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son, Kandarpadharma , who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son, Prabhasadharma , who died in 645. Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son , Tra Kieu , Hue , Khanh Hoa dated 653–687 report

22201-581: Was the capital of Champa. Other scholars have disputed this contention, holding that Champa was never a united country, and arguing that the presence of a particularly rich historical record for a given region in a given period is no basis for claiming that the region functioned as the capital of a united Champa during that period. Through the centuries, Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from Cambodia , China, Java and India amongst others. An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in modern central Vietnam, and Lâm Ấp ,

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