Misplaced Pages

#757242

211-592: The Nicaraguan National Guard (Spanish: Guardia Nacional , otherwise known as la Guardia ) was a militia and a gendarmerie created in 1925 during the occupation of Nicaragua by the United States . It became notorious for human rights abuses and corruption under the regime of the Somoza family (1936–1979). The National Guard was disbanded when the Sandinistas came to power in 1979. Prior to

422-538: A 15-page letter for American help. In his December 29, 1940 Fireside Chat radio broadcast, President Roosevelt proclaimed the United States would be the " Arsenal of Democracy " and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider

633-682: A colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted police force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War . Following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force (CMF). A citizens' militia modeled on the British Home Guard called

844-687: A peacekeeping operation in the Dominican Republic alongside U.S., Brazilian, Paraguayan, Honduran and Costa Rican troops as part of the Interamerican Pacification Force (FIP), deployed under the aegis of the Organization of American States (OAS). The guard's domestic power, however, gradually broadened to embrace not only its original internal security and police functions but also control over customs, telecommunications, port facilities, radio broadcasting,

1055-895: A 30. or 50. cal Browning HMG mount instead). In addition, two obsolete L3/33 tankettes acquired from Italy in the mid-1930s were reportedly held in reserve, but only one (nicknamed "La Mascota" by the Nicaraguans) was still kept in running conditions by 1979. Apart from a mere ten M2 half-track cars , the Guardia suffered from a chronic shortage of light armored personnel carriers (APCs) for its infantry units, forcing them to rely on their extensive fleet of soft-skinned transport and liaison vehicles. These ranged from World War II-vintage Willys MB ¼-ton 4×4 jeeps and Dodge WC51 ¾-ton 4×4 utility trucks to more modern Willys M38A1 MD ¼-ton 4×4 jeeps and Willys CJ-5 4×4 jeeps , Spanish VIASA - Ebro trucks MB-CJ6b jeeps (Spanish-produced version of

1266-420: A black ceremonial version of their M1942 service dress with gold embroidered insignia whilst the other ranks' retained the old khaki 'Chino' uniform as barrack dress or for walking-out, usually worn with the khaki sidecap. The 'Sam Browne' belt was discontinued, and brown (black for the other GN branches) leather shoes replaced the earlier breeches and riding boots. Nicaraguan Air Force (FAGN) officers received

1477-649: A black leather rim-band, with both US or Israeli patterns being worn. Black leather combat boots were also provided by the Americans who issued both the early US Army M-1962 'McNamara' model and the M-1967 model with 'ripple' pattern rubbler sole; the US Army Jungle boot of Vietnam War fame was worn by Nicaraguan soldiers and Police officers only while operating in tropical jungle or marshy ground environments. The first combat helmet provided to Guardia units

1688-415: A body of (armed) defenders which would be volgus militum . The term is used by several countries with the meaning of "defense activity" indicating it is taken directly from Latin. Militias have been used throughout the history of Afghanistan. Afghan Militias and irregular forces have contributed significantly to the military history of the country and affected the process of state formation. Andorra has

1899-636: A cease-fire. The last senior commander of the National Guard, Lt. Col. Fulgencio Largaespada Baez finally bowed to the inevitable and ordered his demoralised and exhausted soldiers to lay down their arms. Upon the conclusion of the civil war, 7,500 Guardsmen were taken prisoner – with many former Guards suspected of violating human rights being held in detention by the Sandinistas – while another 4,500 officers and enlisted men fled to neighboring Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Guatemala to form

2110-608: A civilian cargo vessel commandeered from the Memnic Line Company , in order to provide direct fire support off the Pacific coast to Guardia infantry units fighting in the Southern Front. It is also rumored that the anti-aircraft battery received from Israel in 1977–78 an unspecified number of surplus US-made General Dynamics FIM-43 Redeye man-portable surface-to-air missiles (SAM). The Guardia also fielded

2321-473: A commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Sometent, but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service , with a requirement for each family to have access to

SECTION 10

#1732787408758

2532-583: A component of the Primary Reserve that provides a military presence in areas where it would not be economically or practically viable to have conventional Army units – most notably northern Canada . The Canadian Army Reserve continued to use the term militia in reference to itself until the unification of the Canadian Armed Forces in 1968. Since unification, no Canadian military force has formally used militia in its name. However,

2743-594: A congratulatory note from Carter after his disputed victory in the 1978 elections. After the assassination of opposition leader among the business elites Pedro Chamorro in January 1978, the Nicaraguan public reacted with a series of nationwide strikes and increasing political unrest against the regime. The National Guard was re-organized and expanded, growing to a force of more than 10,000 officers and enlisted men, with localized security companies dispersed throughout

2954-477: A corps of feudal retainers (or an occupation force) than to a modern national army, the GN was primarily organized for internal security and Counter-insurgency (COIN) operations rather than national defense, with most infantry units being assigned static garrison duties, and consequently its conventional military value was very low. Out of this total some 10,000–12,500 served in the ground forces proper (including women in

3165-399: A firearm. An area weapon such as a Shotgun per household is unregulated, however ranged weapons such as Pistols and Rifles require a license. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the flag of Andorra at official ceremonial functions. According to Marc Forné Molné , Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and

3376-528: A loss of labour; between 1941 and 1945, 19.5 million working-age men had to leave their farms to work in the military and industry. Agricultural issues were also compounded when the Soviets were on the offensive, as areas liberated from the Axis had been devastated and contained millions of people who needed to be fed. Lend-Lease thus provided a massive quantity of foodstuffs and agricultural products. According to

3587-584: A matter of days. In turn, this would have allowed the German commanders to escape at least some encirclements, while forcing the Red Army to prepare and conduct many more deliberate penetration attacks in order to advance the same distance. Left to their own devices, Stalin and his commanders might have taken twelve to eighteen months longer to finish off the Wehrmacht; the ultimate result would probably have been

3798-548: A new paramilitary gendarmerie force, titled the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua (National Guard of Nicaragua). That same year, U.S. forces left the country, but after a civil war broke out, they returned in 1926 and took over the command (and training) of the National Guard from 1927 to 1933, when it was returned to Nicaraguan control under the government of President Juan Bautista Sacasa . President Sacasa, under political pressure from José María Moncada , who had been

4009-401: A predominately light infantry force composed largely of rifle companies equipped with World War I-vintage U.S. small arms, began to acquire surplus heavy equipment such as armoured cars, light tanks, transport vehicles and artillery. The regime permitted nominal political dissent, and, in 1947, agreed to elections, hoping to mollify both the United States and local opponents, but quickly deposed

4220-555: A rapid expansion of the United States Navy . In the meantime, Great Britain was running out of liquid currency and asked not to be forced to sell off British assets. Hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the lending of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend–lease". As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there

4431-484: A royal blue US Air Force -style M1947 service dress, worn with a light blue shirt and royal blue tie on formal occasions; a short-sleeved shirt and matching royal blue sidecap (a.k.a. ' flight cap ') was worn by officers and other ranks in active service. The Nicaraguan Navy retained both the white dress and khaki uniforms, with officers' adopting a modified version of the M1942 tunic with removable shoulder boards , which

SECTION 20

#1732787408758

4642-698: A small armoured corps, organized since 1978 into a single mechanized company while platoon-sized units where attached to General Somoza Combat Battalion, the Presidential Guard, the engineer battalion, and the EEBI Infantry School. The inventory consisted mostly of World War II-vintage American vehicles acquired in the 1950s – ten ex- Philippine Army M4A3 E8 (76) and M4A3E8 (105) Sherman tanks , three to four M3A1 Stuart light tanks , and eighteen T17E1 M6 Staghound armoured cars of Israeli origin (some had their turrets removed and replaced by

4853-436: A small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the Sometent. Being a landlocked country , Andorra has no navy. Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed militia force of about 600 part-time militiamen under

5064-643: A state of siege and the National Guard launched a violent and repressive reaction in the period 1975–76. Though the FSLN was weakened, so was the regime. Direct U.S. military aid ended in November 1978 although the U.S. still attempted to pursue a policy of "Somocismo sin Somoza," effectively allowing the power structure of the National Guard to prevent a Sandinista victory while removing the increasingly unpopular Somoza from power. The Carter Administration even sent Somoza

5275-663: A type of special forces ) are assigned to local troops. In history, before Finland became independent, two types of local militias existed: the White Guards and Red Guards, which were non-socialists and socialists, respectively. In the Finnish Civil War (1918) the White Guards founded the White Army, which was victorious over the Red Guards. White Guards continued their existence as a volunteer militia until

5486-569: A white disc at the center. For parade in field dress branch-colour neck scarfs were worn, being light blue for infantry and EEBI "Commandos", black for armour, red for artillery, yellow for engineers and signals, and apple green for the GN General Staff. Throughout its existence, the Nicaraguan National Guard received military assistance mainly from the United States, who provided since the late 1920s everything that

5697-612: Is an ethno-nationalist Amhara militia and former protest movement that emerged during the premiership of Abiy Ahmed . Fano intervened armed conflicts in the post-2018 regime , including Benishangul-Gumuz 's Metekel conflict, Tigray War and recently War in Amhara . They have been accused of ethnic massacres against other ethnic groups, such as the Qemant and other minorities. While Finland employs conscription , they do not have separate militia units: all units are organized by and under

5908-480: Is heavily associated with paramilitary and drug-related criminal groups. In Canada the title "Militia" historically referred to the land component of the armed forces, both regular (full-time) and reserve. The earliest Canadian militias date from the beginning of the French colonial period . In New France , King Louis XIV created a compulsory militia of settlers in every parish that supported French authorities in

6119-440: The 40th Regiment of Foot , and the 100th (Prince of Wales's Royal Canadian) Regiment of Foot ) and Fencibles regiments. These regiments were raised through ordinary modes of recruiting, as opposed to being raised by ballot like the militia. Most militia units were only activated in time of war, but remained inactive in between. The battle honours awarded to these colonial militia regiments are perpetuated by modern regiments within

6330-699: The Al Juffair region. Katibat al Haydariyah is its own distinct organization that decries the Bahraini government, but Canada and the United Kingdom listed it as an alias for the larger Al-Ashtar Brigades (or the Saraya al Ashtar). After four years, the militia group reemerged on social media in October 2019, to threaten new attacks on the island. It stated that they “will not retreat from our goals of

6541-658: The Anti-Aircraft battery operated US Maxson M45 Quadmount turrets on towed wheeled trailers and Israeli-supplied Hispano-Suiza HS.404 20 mm autocannons mounted on the TCM-20 turret configuration. Usually installed on the back of cross-country vehicles, such weapon systems proved useful in the direct fire supporting role, particularly against fortified positions and to root out snipers from urban buildings. The AA battery originally fielded six to eight M1 Bofors 40 mm Anti-Aircraft guns , but these were re-fitted in 1979 to

National Guard (Nicaragua) - Misplaced Pages Continue

6752-670: The Australian Military Forces (AMF). The government supported the organization and equipped them with anti-aircraft artillery ; however, they were disbanded by the end of World War II due to the fact that there was no longer a significant threat to national security. During the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire , a National Guard was established in Vienna. A separate but related Academic Legion

6963-540: The Austrian Armed Forces (Bundesheer) were reestablished as a conscript military force. A basic part of it is the militia, which is a regular reservists force of the Bundesheer, comparable to the national guard units of the United States. The conscript soldiers of the militia have to store their military equipment at home, to be mobilized quite fast within a few days in case of emergency. The system

7174-620: The Ballistic Nylon US M-1952 and M-1952/69 'Half-collar' versions or the Israeli-produced Kevlar Rabintex Industries Ltd Type III RAV 200 Protective Vest ( Hebrew : "Shapats"). Web gear was supplied by the Americans, who provided to the early Guardia infantry companies the khaki web M-1910 infantry equipment in all of its versions (M-1917/18 and later World War II/ Korean War M-1945 patterns). With

7385-859: The Batallón de Policía Militar (BPM, Military Police Battalion), and the Artillery Batteries. The Compañías de Seguridad de la Guardia Nacional (CSGN, Security Companies for short) were dispersed throughout the country's 16 provinces (Spanish: Departamentos ), being allocated one per each in the provincial capitals of Boaco (Boaco), Jinotepe ( Carazo ), Chinandega (Chinandega), Juigalpa ( Chontales ), Estelí (Estelí), Granada (Granada), Jinotega (Jinotega), León (León), Madriz ( Somoto ), Masaya (Masaya), Matagalpa (Matagalpa), Ocotal ( Nueva Segovia ), Rivas ( Rivas ), San Carlos ( Río San Juan ) and Bluefields ( Zelaya ). The Fuerza Aérea de La Guardia Nacional (FAGN, Air Force of

7596-548: The Brigadas Especiales contra Actos de Terrorismo (BECAT, Special Counter-insurgency Brigades). This was an urban rapid-reaction, anti-terrorist unit closely modelled on SWAT , whose members received special camouflage uniforms and Israeli helmets and flak vests, being armed with Uzi SMGs, M-16s, pump-action shotguns and sniper rifles . Easily recognizable by their Willys CJ-5 4×4 jeeps equipped with vehicular beacons , sirens and wire cutters installed on

7807-930: The Canadian Army . Defence of the Canadas long relied on a contingent of British soldiers , as well as support from the Royal Navy . However, the Crimean War saw the diversion of a significant number of British soldiers from British North America . Fearing possible incursions from the United States, the Parliament of the Province of Canada passed the Militia Act of 1855 , creating the Active Militia. The Active Militia, later splitting into

8018-894: The Christian Social Party and the Republikanischer Schutzbund (German: Republican Defense League ) became affiliated with the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria . Violence increasingly escalated, breaking out during the July Revolt of 1927 and finally the Austrian Civil War , when the Schutzbund was defeated by the Heimwehr, police , Gendarmerie and Austrian Armed Forces . After World War II

8229-699: The Einwohnerwehr . Many of its members went on to join the Nazi Party . In 1921 the Nazi Party created the Sturmabteilung (SA; Storm Detachment; Brownshirts), which was the first paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party and served as a Nazi militia whose initial assignment was to protect Nazi leaders at rallies and assemblies. The SA also took part in street battles against the forces of rival political parties and violent actions against Jews. From

8440-551: The Gansos Salvajes or "Wild Geese", formed in 1978–79) and infantry trainees led by Major (later, Colonel) Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero , in armed jeeps and gun-trucks plus two small artillery and armoured car platoons. It is estimated that 4,252 Nicaraguan servicemen had been trained by the United States between 1970 and 1976 at the Inter-American Military Academy (a.k.a. " School of

8651-699: The Gauls to invasion by the Romans until they were defeated by Julius Caesar. Centuries later, Joan of Arc organized and led a militia until her capture and execution in 1431. This settled the succession to the French crown and laid the basis for the formation of the modern nation of France. During the French Revolution the National Guard was a political home defense militia. The levée en masse

National Guard (Nicaragua) - Misplaced Pages Continue

8862-618: The IDF 1950's "Old style" tan - khaki cotton canvas equipment (similar in design to the British Army 's 58 pattern webbing ) or the newer olive green Nylon Ephod Combat Vest instead. The Nicaraguan National Guard rank chart was directly inspired by the US Army , with chevrons pointed upwards for NCOs , horizontal linked brass bars for company officers and vertically placed gilded or silvered stars for field officers. The sequence, however,

9073-631: The M-1943 Combat Service Boots and the M-1948 Russet Leather Lace-Up Boots . A four-pocket, open-collar beltless tunic modelled after the US M1926 pattern was adopted by Guardia officers and worn with a khaki shirt and tie, replaced by a white shirt and black tie on formal occasions; in active and formal service, a brown leather Sam Browne belt (US Officer's belt, M1921) was frequently worn with

9284-461: The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s . It was a decisive step away from non-interventionist policy and toward open support for the Allies. Lend-Lease's precise significance to Allied victory in World War II is debated. Khrushchev claimed that Stalin told him that Lend-Lease enabled the Soviet Union to defeat Germany. The 1930s began with one of the world's greatest economic depressions , and the later recession of 1937–1938 (although minor relative to

9495-435: The Permanent Active Militia (PAM), a full-time professional army component (although it continued to use the label militia), and Non-Permanent Active Militia (NPAM), a military reserve force for the Canadian militia. Following 1855, the traditional sedentary militia was reorganized into the Reserve Militia, with its last enrolment taking place in 1873, and was formally abolished in 1950. Prior to Canadian Confederation ,

9706-469: The Springfield US M1903 .30-06 (7.62×63mm). The squad weapon was the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) M1918A2 US .30-06 (7.62×63mm) light machine gun – the GN also appears to have received the American-made version of the famed World War I British-made Lewis gun .303 (7.7mm) , the Savage Model 1917 LMG chambered for the US .30-06 (7.62×63mm) cartridge –, with the company weapons being the Colt-Browning M1895 "potato digger" .30-06 medium machine gun and

9917-412: The Tizard Mission to the United States. The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World War II , but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war-related production. The British shared technology included

10128-417: The US M1917A1 .30-06 Browning water-cooled medium machine gun . Officers and NCOs received the Thompson M1928A1 US .45 caliber (11.4mm) submachine gun , as well as the Colt M1911A1 .45 caliber (11.4mm) semi-automatic pistol as personal sidearm. A small number of ZB vz. 30 light machine guns were acquired from Czechoslovakia in 1937 for evaluation, but they were never adopted as standard weapons by

10339-415: The Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC) was founded by the Returned and Services League of Australia (RSL) in 1940 in response to the possibility of a Japanese invasion of Australia. In the beginning, members didn't have uniforms and often paraded in business attire. They were given instruction on guerrilla warfare , and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of

10550-460: The West Point Academy , the AMN was initially staffed by a cadre of US Army instructors headed by Brigadier-General Charles L. Mullins (1939–1942), himself a West Point graduate. He was succeeded as Director of the AMN by other three US Army senior officers, Brigadier-General Fred T. Cruse (1942–1943), Brigadier-General LeRoy Bartlett jr. (1943–1946) and Brigadier-General John F. Greco (1947) until GN Infantry Colonel Anastasio Somoza Debayle

10761-686: The cavity magnetron (key technology at the time for highly effective radar ; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores"), the design for the VT fuze , details of Frank Whittle 's jet engine and the Frisch–Peierls memorandum describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb. Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for rockets , superchargers , gyroscopic gunsights , submarine detection devices, self-sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives . On December 7, 1940, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed Roosevelt in

SECTION 50

#1732787408758

10972-461: The " Duck Hunter " pattern, soon followed by " Tigerstripe " ( ERDL Thai Tadpole type ) and " Highland " ( ERDL 1948 Leaf pattern , a.k.a. "Woodland pattern"). National Police BECAT teams had their own distinctive "Tan leaf" pattern, which consisted of puzzle leaf-shapes in medium brown, light brown, and sandy-grey on a tan background. Standard headgear for all-ranks in the Guardia was either the US Army M1943 'Walker cap' and M1951 Olive Green Field caps,

11183-514: The "cash and carry" program, as required by the U.S. Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated a large part of its overseas holdings and its gold reserves were becoming depleted in paying for materiel from the United States. During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first-ever peacetime draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $ 2 billion to $ 10 billion). The Two-Ocean Navy Act of July 1940 set in motion

11394-425: The 'Montana Peak' Hat as standard headgear, though the latter also began to be replaced by a light khaki M1954-type Visor Cap; Police officers on traffic control duties were given a white-topped version. It never entirely superseded the earlier headgear however, for photos taken in Managua at the time of the 1972 earthquake show local policemen going on patrol still wearing the old 'Montana' Hat. While on patrol duties,

11605-417: The 1939 amendment to the previous Neutrality Acts marked the beginning of a congressional shift away from isolationism, making a first step toward interventionism. After the Fall of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy , until the Italian invasion of Greece . Britain had been paying for its materiel with gold as part of

11816-475: The 3rd company of the General Somoza Combat Battalion and headquartered at Tiscapa Hill just outside Managua , the EEBI was an indigenous Special Forces training center modelled after Fort Bragg, and was tasked of training the Guardia's own elite anti- guerrilla Commandos, the "Black Berets" and its first parachute unit, the "Wild Geese". Inspired on the U.S. Special Forces (USSF), Chilean Army Commandos' and Brazilian Army Paratroopers' training programs,

12027-483: The Allied side, there was almost total reliance upon American industrial production, weaponry and especially unarmored vehicles purpose-built for military use, vital for the modern army's logistics and support. The USSR was very dependent on rail transport and starting during the latter half of the 1920s but accelerating during the 1930s (the Great Depression), hundreds of foreign industrial giants such as Ford were commissioned to construct modern dual-purpose factories in

12238-459: The Allied victory. Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943–1944, Lend-Lease continued. Most remaining Allies were largely self-sufficient in frontline equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time but Lend-Lease provided a useful supplement in this category and Lend-Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) were of enormous assistance. Much of

12449-435: The Allies during the war, to provide each other with goods, services, and mutual aid in the widest sense, without charging commercial payments. A total of $ 50.1 billion (equivalent to $ 672 billion in 2023) was involved, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S. Most, $ 31.4 billion ($ 421 billion) went to Britain and its empire. Other recipients were led by $ 11.3 billion ($ 152 billion) to

12660-412: The American practice. The ground forces officers' service dress tunic had the triangular national cap badge on the collar and US-style brass lapel insignia: crossed rifles – infantry ; crossed cavalry sabres and tank – armour ; crossed cannons – artillery ; castle – engineers; crossed signal flags and torch – signals ; Caduceus – medical department, whilst pilot-qualified officers of the Air Force had

12871-411: The Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war. David Glantz , an American military historian known for his books on the Eastern front, offers a similar view: Although Soviet accounts have routinely belittled the significance of Lend-Lease in the sustainment of the Soviet war effort, the overall importance of

SECTION 60

#1732787408758

13082-418: The Americas ") at Fort Gulick in the Panama Canal Zone , in the Psychological and Special Warfare Academy at Fort Bragg , and at the Inter-American Defense College in Washington D.C. Created on 9 November 1939, the Academia Militar de Nicaragua (AMN, Nicaraguan Military Academy) was the noncommissioned officers' and Officer Candidate School and Staff College of the Guardia Nacional. Modelled after

13293-419: The Belgian FN FAL (or its Israeli version, the lightened ROMAT) 7.62×51mm NATO or US M16A1 5.56×45mm assault rifles, with elite units receiving the Israeli-made IMI Galil SAR and ARM variants in both 5.56×45mm and 7.62×51mm which was adopted in the mid-1970s. At squad level, the Belgium-made FN MAG 58 and US M60 light machine guns both in 7.62×51mm NATO, replaced the obsolete BAR and Savage models, though

13504-513: The British armies were twice defeated. The militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution , which deposed the Spanish viceroy and began the Argentine War of Independence . A decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos , allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War

13715-412: The British attempted to take control of the New Territories in 1898, they were resisted by the local militias which had been formed for mutual defence against pirate raids. Although ultimately defeated, the militias' dogged resistance convinced the British to make concessions to the indigenous inhabitants allowing them to preserve inheritance, property and marriage rights and customs throughout most of

13926-456: The CIA and Honduras, as the Contra rebels. Following the collapse of the National Guard, many members relocated to Guatemala and went on to form the Fifteenth of September Legion , which was committed to overthrowing the Sandinista rule. Standard uniform for all ranks since the late 1920s was the US Army tropical ' Chino ' khaki cotton shirt and pants, worn with the US M1912 Campaign Hat (a.k.a. 'Montana Peak Hat') in Olive Drab felt with

14137-623: The Canadian Army Reserve is still colloquially referred to as the militia . Members of the Canadian Army Reserve troops typically train one night a week and every other weekend of the month, except in the summer. Summertime training may consist of courses, individual call-outs, or concentrations (unit and formation training of one to two weeks' duration). Most Canadian cities and counties have one or more militia units. Primary Reserve members may volunteer for overseas service, to augment their regular force counterparts—usually during NATO or United Nations missions. China's current militia falls under

14348-608: The GN received in both civilian and military versions. Besides being used as troop carriers these vehicles also doubled as ' gun trucks ' or ' technicals ', being fitted with heavy machine-guns , recoilless rifles and AA autocannons . Moreover, their lack of protection rendered them highly vulnerable to improvised explosive devices (IEDs) or small-arms fire, and many were lost together with their crews in 1979 due to intense street fighting and ambushes in rural areas. Commandeered tracked Caterpillar or wheeled civilian Bulldozers of American and Spanish origin were also employed by

14559-406: The GN. In the 1940s–1950s, the GN received surplus American infantry weapons of World War II/ Korean War -vintage – M1/M2 US .30 carbines (7.62×33mm) and M1 Garand US .30-06 (7.62×63mm) semi-automatic rifles replaced the earlier bolt-action Springfields, with Thompson M1A1 and M3 "Grease Gun" submachine gun models in US .45 caliber (11.4mm) replacing the older Thompson M1928A1 model. Although

14770-420: The German Defence Minister who used them to crush the Spartakist League with enormous violence, including the murders of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg on January   15, 1919. Militia were also used to put down the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919. They were officially "disbanded" in 1920, resulting in the ill-fated Kapp Putsch in March 1920. The Einwohnerwehr , active in Germany from 1919 to 1921

14981-453: The German high command deployed increasing numbers of Volkssturm units to combat duties. These regiments were composed of men, women and children too old, young or otherwise unfit for service in the Wehrmacht (German Regular Army). Their primary role was assisting the army with fortification duties and digging anti-tank ditches. As the shortage of manpower became severe, they were used as front line infantry, most often in urban settings. Due to

15192-714: The Great Depression) was otherwise also one of the worst of the 20th century. In 1934, following the Nye Committee hearings, as well as the publication of influential books such as Merchants of Death , the United States Congress adopted several Neutrality Acts in the 1930s , motivated by non-interventionism —following the aftermath of its costly involvement in World War I (the war debts were still not paid off), and seeking to ensure that

15403-458: The Guardia during the battles for Masaya and Managua to clear paths on rebel-held urban neighbourhoods by demolishing buildings turned into bunkers by the guerrillas. In January 1978 National Guard overall strength peaked at about 25,000 officers and enlisted men under the direct personal command of their Chief Director and President of Nicaragua Major general Anastasio Somoza Debayle (a.k.a. 'Tachito'). Often described as something closer to

15614-763: The Guardia used, from uniforms and boots to rifles, artillery and vehicles, mostly under the US Military Assistance Program (MAP). However, starting in the early 1950s, the Somozas made consistent efforts to diversify their sources of military hardware and supplies in a hope to reduce their dependence from the Americans. The majority of its weaponry until the mid-1970s consisted of U.S.-made surplus 'hand-me-downs' from both world wars, Korea and Vietnam , partially supplemented by more modern equipment either donated or sold by Israel, Spain, Argentina, Morocco, and South Africa, particularly after U.S. aid

15825-535: The Guardia's arsenal, replacing the ageing M1895 and M1917A1 water-cooled medium machine guns. Assault rifles began to be adopted towards the end of the 1960s, though they never displaced entirely the earlier weaponry, such as the Garand rifle which remained the weapon of choice for soldiers serving in the Guardia's infamous firing squads and the security companies, who employed it to disperse demonstrations. Nevertheless, by 1978–79 most GN infantry formations had either

16036-599: The Israeli-designed Soltam M-65 120 mm heavy mortar . They were also issued US M18 57 mm , M20 75 mm , M67 90 mm and M40A1 106 mm recoilless rifles . The field artillery battery was provided with six to nine World War II-vintage M3 37 mm towed anti-tank guns , four US M101A1 105 mm towed Howitzers and an unspecified number of EDESA Yarará 70 mm 42-tube multiple rocket launchers of Argentinian origin mounted on Chevrolet C-10 Cheyenne 4×4 light pickups whereas

16247-605: The Lend-Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad". When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 8, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 236 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against. The vote in

16458-639: The M1912 black leather Sam Browne belt with pistol holster and assorted magazine pouches, handcuff pouch and M1944 baton in its respective carrier was worn. Around the late 1960s Guardia units began to receive surplus American Olive Green tropical uniforms, the US Army OG-107 cotton sateen utilities and the M1967 Jungle Utility Uniform . Elite formations within the GN received camouflage versions of these same uniforms, first in

16669-590: The Napoleonic occupation, organizations such as the Lutzow Free Corps fought against the occupiers and later joined the allied forces as regular soldiers. However, after 1918, the term was used for nationalist paramilitary organizations that sprang up around Germany as soldiers returned in defeat from World War I . They were one of the many Weimar paramilitary groups active during that time. They received considerable support from Gustav Noske ,

16880-704: The National Assembly Palace in Managua , took 2,000 hostages, and escaped to Panama with 50 released political prisoners. The seizure of the National Palace was the second major action launched by the Sandinistas. By March 1979, the Somoza regime faced an open civil war as well as being cut off from all aid by the United States, including blocking of an emergency shipment of weapons and ammunition coming from Israel. With ammunition, spare parts, fuel, and medical supplies running dangerously low,

17091-577: The National Guard and had the constitution amended to allow him to run for yet another term in 1955. In January of that same year, Somoza Garcia, in collusion with the dictator of the Dominican Republic Rafael Trujillo , supported an unsuccessful invasion of Costa Rica from Nicaragua by exiled supporters of former President Rafael Calderón Guardia , with the Nicaraguan National guard providing air cover to

17302-432: The National Guard was involved in the only external military action of its existence, a brief border skirmish with Honduras. In 1961, the National Guard cooperated with the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency in the preparation for the abortive Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, permitting its bases to be used for training and staging areas. From May 1965 to September 1966, one infantry company of the National Guard participated in

17513-451: The National Guard, promoting allies and purging enemies. The National Guard was the backbone of a growing network of control, eventually including telecommunications, railroads, and key civilian agencies from customs to hospitals to tax collection. In 1938, Somoza Garcia appointed a civilian assembly that rubber-stamped constitutional changes allowing him to stay in office; his personal fortune expanded as he and his family took over key areas of

17724-566: The Nicaraguan National Guard) in 1978 comprised some 1,500 officers and enlisted men, including pilots and ground personnel, under the command of Colonel Donaldo Humberto Frixote , an experienced pilot and staunch Somoza loyalist. FAGN main air elements at the time consisted of four squadrons – one attack, one helio, one transport and one advanced training – provided with a mixed inventory of aircraft of various types, mostly of U.S., Israeli, British, Canadian and Spanish origin,

17935-688: The Nicaraguans; in 1978, one M37B was converted by the GN engineers into an armored car prototype dubbed "La Trigra", but the whole project was discontinued due to the lack of funds), and Israeli AIL M325 Command Cars ("Nun-Nun") and Mercedes-Benz Unimog 404 light trucks . Heavy transport vehicles were also employed, ranging from older World War II GMC CCKW 2½-ton 6×6 and Chevrolet G506 1½-ton 4×4 trucks to newer US Dodge W500/W600 Power Wagon 4×4 medium-duty trucks , US M35 series 2½-ton 6×6 cargo trucks and US M39 5-ton 6x6 cargo trucks , and Spanish Pegaso 3046 4×4 and 3050 6×6 heavy-duty trucks , which

18146-680: The Pacific Coast Militia Rangers. Intended to function similarly to the United Kingdom 's Home Guard , the Rangers were a secondary defence force, defending the coast of British Columbia and Yukon from potential Japanese attack. The Rangers were disbanded in September 1945, shortly after the conclusion of World War II. The legacy of the Pacific Coast Militia Rangers is perpetuated by the Canadian Rangers ,

18357-599: The President deems vital to the defense of the United States] any defense article." In April, this policy was extended to China, and in October to the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Germany on 22 June 1941. Roosevelt approved $ 1 billion in Lend-Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941. This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement , whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to

18568-403: The President's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69% of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend-Lease, whereas only 38% of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that "approximately twice as many Republicans" gave "qualified answers as ... Democrats." Opposition to

18779-489: The Red Army, eight percent of war-time production. A particular critical aspect of Lend-Lease was the supply of food. The invasion had cost the USSR a huge amount of its agricultural base; during the initial Axis offensive of 1941–42, the total sown area of the USSR fell by 41.9% and the number of collective and state farms by 40%. The Soviets lost a substantial number of draft and farm animals as they were not able to relocate all

18990-489: The Red Army. The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on November 20, 1941. Lend-Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941. Significant numbers of British Churchill , Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR. Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to

19201-585: The Roman historian Tacitus as the centeni. They were similar in nature to the Anglo-Saxon fyrd . Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps") was originally applied to voluntary armies. The first Freikorps were recruited by Frederick II of Prussia during the Seven Years' War . These troops were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so they were mainly used as sentries and for minor duties. During

19412-747: The Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free; this act allowed their British garrison to be redeployed to more crucial theatres. In 1944, Britain transferred several of the US-made destroyers to the USSR. After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States entering

19623-813: The Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov , Lend-Lease had a crucial role in winning the war: On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend-Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend-Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins [FDR's emissary to Moscow in July 1941] that

19834-564: The Río de la Plata , was attacked during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . As regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the criollo peoples , who ranked low down in the social hierarchy, as well as some slaves. With these reinforcements,

20045-744: The SA sprung the Schutzstaffel (SS; Protective Squadron) which grew to become one of the largest and most powerful groups in Nazi Germany , which Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler (the leader of the SS from 1929) envisioned as an elite group of guards. The Waffen-SS , the military branch of the SS, became a de facto fourth branch of the Wehrmacht . In 1944–1945, as World War II came to a close in Europe,

20256-507: The School's own special curriculum placed emphasis on counter-insurgency . Advanced courses ranged from basic light infantry skills, jungle combat and survival to sniper , light and heavy weapons ( mortars and artillery ), demolitions, 'Commando' operations and intelligence, reconnaissance (Ranger), communications, medical, airborne and even light armor tactics. Ex-USSF and exiled South Vietnamese LLDB instructors conducted most of

20467-592: The Second World War. In some cases their activity found overt political expression as in the Mäntsälä rebellion . However, in 1934 separate wartime White Guard units were dissolved and in the Second World War they served at the front, dispersed in regular units. They were dissolved as a condition of peace after the Continuation War. The first notable militia in French history was the resistance of

20678-623: The Senate, which occurred on March 8, revealed a similar partisan difference: 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye" with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay". In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay" while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill. President Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease bill into law on March 11, 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government [whose defense

20889-407: The Soviet Union, $ 3.2 billion ($ 42.9 billion) to France, $ 1.6 billion ($ 21.5 billion) to China, and the remaining $ 2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse lend-lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $ 7.8 billion; of this, $ 6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth , mostly Australia and India. The terms of

21100-491: The U.S. occupation, the long period of civil strife had encouraged the development of a variety of private armies. The freshly elected government of President Carlos José Solórzano requested that the U.S. Marines (equally interested in central control) remain in Nicaragua until an indigenous internal security force could be trained; for that effect, the Nicaraguan government hired in 1925 a retired U.S. General to help set up

21311-684: The U.S., and training under the U.S. Marines (apparently, as an officer in the National Guard). After the departure of U.S. troops in 1933 (at the height of the Great Depression ), the Sacasa government opened negotiations with the National Sovereignty Defense Army (EDSN) rebel guerrilla faction led by Augusto César Sandino , which had fought both the National Guard and the U.S. occupation forces. During

21522-444: The U.S.S.R. could not match Germany's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources. Nikita Khrushchev , having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend-lease aid in his memoirs: I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived

21733-527: The US M1942 light khaki service dress, comprising tunic, slacks and a matching peaked cap with brown-japanned chinstrap and peak, or black dress cap with gold chinstrap, black peak with gold leaf embroidery for field and general ranks (the GN Chief Director had additional French-style embroidery on the cap band), and silver triangular national cap badge. For formal occasions, senior officers adopted

21944-797: The US and Canada, and to prevent the US monopolizing British orders, the Hyde Park Declaration of 20 April 1941 made weapons and components manufactured in Canada for Britain eligible for Lend-Lease financing as if they had been manufactured in the US. Canada operated a program similar to Lend-Lease called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of Can$ 1 billion (equivalent to Can$ 17.1 billion in 2023) and Can$ 3.4 billion (Can$ 58.1 billion) in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies. Roosevelt made sure that Lend-Lease policies were supportive of his foreign policy goals by putting his top aide Harry Hopkins in effective control of

22155-448: The USSR lost a huge number of military aircraft. Some of them were lost at airfields in the first days of the fighting, some were abandoned for various reasons, and some were lost in air battles. The losses of Soviet aviation in 1941 is one of the most controversial topics for military historians and publicists. The situation was aggravated by the loss of many aircraft factories that produced aircraft and components for them, which remained in

22366-462: The USSR, 16 alone within a week of May 31, 1929. With the outbreak of war these plants switched from civilian to military production and locomotive production ended virtually overnight. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war, with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945. In total, 92.7% of the wartime production of railroad equipment by the USSR was supplied by Lend-Lease. including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars. Much of

22577-460: The United States needed to help the Soviets fight against the Germans. Because of its utmost importance, Roosevelt directed his subordinates to heavily prioritise shipments of aid to the Soviet Union above most other uses of available shipping. Soviet Ambassador Maxim Litvinov significantly contributed to the Lend-Lease agreement of 1941. American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into

22788-609: The Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line. In the first weeks and months of the German–Soviet war,

22999-600: The Willys CJ-3B jeep), Santana Series III (Spanish-produced variant of the Land Rover Series III model ) and Toyota Land Cruiser (J40) light pickups, VIASA - Ebro trucks "Campeador" one-ton pickups (Spanish-produced variant of the Jeepster Commando ), M151A1 ¼-ton 4×4 utility trucks (nicknamed "Pumas" by the Nicaraguans), Dodge M37B ¾-ton 4×4 1953 utility trucks (nicknamed "Chatas" by

23210-495: The act to allow warring nations to purchase military goods, arms and munitions if they paid cash and bore the risks of transporting the goods on non-American ships, a policy that would favor Britain and France. Initially, this proposal failed, but after Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland in September, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 ending the munitions embargo on a "cash and carry" basis. The passage of

23421-510: The act was supplied at no cost, to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice, most equipment was destroyed, although some hardware (such as ships) was returned after the war. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to the United Kingdom at a large discount for £1.075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States, which were finally repaid in 2006. Similarly, the Soviet Union repaid $ 722 million in 1971, with

23632-477: The advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves. Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz , as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after Germany conquered France . After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, given

23843-423: The agreement provided that the U.S. materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice, very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £1.075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States. Canada was not a direct recipient of Lend-Lease aid. To address balance of payment issues between

24054-412: The animals in an area before it was captured and of those areas in which the Axis forces would occupy, the Soviets had lost 7 million of out of 11.6 million horses, 17 million out of 31 million cows, 20 million of 23.6 million pigs and 27 million out of 43 million sheep and goats. Tens of thousands of agricultural machines, such as tractors and threshers, were destroyed or captured. Agriculture also suffered

24265-454: The assistance cannot be understated. Lend-Lease aid did not arrive in sufficient quantities to make the difference between defeat and victory in 1941–1942; that achievement must be attributed solely to the Soviet people and to the iron nerve of Stalin , Zhukov, Shaposhnikov , Vasilevsky , and their subordinates. As the war continued, however, the United States and Great Britain provided many of

24476-653: The availability of full-time volunteers. In more recent times there has only been a general emergency call to the popular army of Sometent during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees, where 12 citizens perished in Andorra, to help the population and establish a public order along with the Local Police units. In the early 1800s Buenos Aires , which was by then the capital of the Viceroyalty of

24687-432: The aviation fuel including nearly 90 percent of high-octane fuel used, 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) provided amounted to 53 percent of total domestic consumption. One item typical of many

24898-520: The branches of service: Ground Forces ' NCOs had yellow on dark-green chevrons, the Air Force personnel wore white on royal blue ground forces' rank insignia whilst the Navy's seamen and petty officers' ranks were identical to the other branches of the Guardia, but line officers had US Navy -style rank insignia on removable navy blue shoulder boards instead. Skills and trades badges followed more closely

25109-429: The capital of Managua , brought further evidence of corruption, as members of the National Guard openly looted damaged businesses and misappropriated international aid, and Somoza Debayle's personal wealth soared during the reconstruction period. In 1974, the growing Sandinista movement FSLN (named after the assassinated Sandino) succeeded in forcing the government to accept an amnesty, after which Somoza Debayle declared

25320-573: The cease-fire. Faced with the rejection by the Sandinistas of his list of demands – which included retention of all property belonging to individual officers – in exchange for a surrender, on the dawn of 19 July 1979, General Mejía and most of the high-ranking officers of the General Staff left Nicaragua by plane, leaving their men leaderless. Early in the morning of that same day as 5,000 Sandinista guerrillas and 10,000 assorted "people's militia" took control of Managua's city center and called for

25531-749: The colonies that made up the Maritimes , and Newfoundland maintained their own militias independent of the Canadian Militia. Bermuda , part of British North America and militarily subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief of the Maritimes, allowed its militia to lapse following the American War of 1812 . United States Independence, however, elevated Bermuda to the status of an Imperial fortress and it would be strongly defended by

25742-553: The command of the Finnish Defence Forces . All men belong to the reserve until age 50 or 60 depending on rank, and may be called up in case of mobilization. Each reservist is assigned a position in a unit to be activated. However, since 2004, the FDF does have territorial forces , organized along the lines of regular infantry formations, which are composed of volunteers. Furthermore, long-range patrol units ( sissi troops ,

25953-458: The country and modern specialized units such as mechanized and engineer battalions, a Presidential Guard, and a reinforced tactical battalion. The strengthened National Guard continued to tighten its grip but opposition only grew broader and fiercer. A humiliating hostage crisis ensued on 22 August 1978 when 25 Sandinista rebels disguised as National Guard soldiers led by "Comandante Cero" (Commander Zero), future Contra leader Edén Pastora , occupied

26164-491: The country would not become entangled in foreign conflicts again. The Neutrality Acts of 1935 , 1936 , and 1937 intended to keep the United States out of war by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms or other war materials to warring nations, be they aggressors or defenders. In 1939, however—as Germany, Japan, and Italy pursued aggressive, militaristic policies— President Roosevelt wanted more flexibility to help contain Axis aggression. He suggested amending

26375-468: The country. The legislation establishes " a system of firearms training, the purpose of which is to improve the knowledge, abilities and skills of persons authorised to handle firearms for the purpose of ensuring internal order or the security of the Czech Republic ". Gun owners can join government endorsed advanced shooting training courses with their privately owned firearms and become members of

26586-521: The creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world." That is the U.S. would be "repaid" when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations. If Germany defeated the Soviet Union, the most significant front in Europe would be closed. Roosevelt believed that if the Soviets were defeated the Allies would be far more likely to lose. Roosevelt concluded that

26797-540: The defence and expansion of the colony. Following the British conquest of New France in 1760, local militia units supported British Army regiments stationed in British America , and, after the secession of thirteen continental colonies in the American War of Independence , British North America . In addition to the Canadian militia, British regiments were also supported by locally raised regulars (including

27008-584: The downfall of the Al Khalifa entity,” and that “soon, guns will open their mouths and they will hear the whiz of bullets”. The Garde Civique or Burgerwacht (French and Dutch; "Civic Guard") was a Belgian paramilitary militia which existed between 1830 and 1920. Created in October 1830 shortly after the Belgian Revolution, the Guard amalgamated the various militia groups which had been created by

27219-464: The fire is over." To which Senator Robert Taft (R-Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum—you certainly don't want the same gum back." In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend-Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards

27430-417: The following phases: Delivery was via the Arctic Convoys , the Persian Corridor , and the Pacific Route . The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend-lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German-occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7% was lost, while 93% arrived safely. The Persian Corridor

27641-440: The front bumper, and painted in blue-and-white National Police markings, BECAT teams were frequently employed in raids at Nicaraguan urban slums in search for hidden guerrillas, and quickly earned an unenviable reputation for brutality. By July 1979, the GN also fielded some 2,000–2,500 elite counter-insurgency EEBI troops, comprising Commandos (a.k.a. the Boinas Negras or "Black Berets", first formed in 1968), Paratroopers (a.k.a.

27852-588: The full introduction of semi-automatic and automatic small-arms, however, the GN and Police adopted both the US Army M-1956 load-carrying equipment (LCE) in khaki cotton canvas and the M-1967 modernized load-carrying equipment (MLCE) in OG Nylon; some photos do show that the all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE), an upgrade of the latter, was also given to some Guardia troops in 1978–79. Usually, personnel armed with M-1s, FALs and M16s tended to be issued with American web gear whereas those soldiers or policemen issued Galils or Uzi SMGs received

28063-409: The government quarter of Tiscapa hill at Managua and Managua International Airport , and at the remaining holdouts throughout the country were exhorted to continue the fight. After negotiations with the Sandinistas broke down due to his refusal to resign on 18 July, President Urcuyo fled to Guatemala, leaving in charge GN Chief Director General Mejía who tried unsuccessfully to pursue conversations for

28274-752: The heavier Brownings were retained as platoon and company machine guns. The Israeli Uzi 9mm submachine gun was also given to armoured crews, Police BECAT teams and EEBI " Commando " troops, who were also issued the US Remington Model 700 Sniper rifle 7.62×51mm, and the Ithaca Model 37 12-gauge and Remington Model 870 12-gauge pump-action shotguns . Hand grenades were supplied by the Americans, who provided M59 "Baseball" hand grenades , Mark 2 "Pineapple" Fragmentation Hand/Rifle Grenades , M61 Fragmentation Hand Grenades , M67 grenades , M26A1 Fragmentation Hand Grenades , M34 White Phosphorus Smoke Grenades and M18 Smoke Hand Grenades ; M18A1 Claymore Antipersonnel Mines were also employed. The Nicaraguan infantryman

28485-414: The implements of war and strategic raw materials necessary for Soviet victory. Without Lend-Lease food, clothing, and raw materials (especially metals), the Soviet economy would have been even more heavily burdened by the war effort. Perhaps most directly, without Lend-Lease trucks, rail engines, and railroad cars, every Soviet offensive would have stalled at an earlier stage, outrunning its logistical tail in

28696-406: The increasingly hard-pressed National Guard could no longer sustain a prolonged fight against the rebels. Already plagued by shaky morale, and weakened by casualties and desertions after seven weeks of battle, GN units were gradually forced to fall back to Managua. At this point, on 17 July 1979 Somoza Debayle resigned from office and fled the country by plane to Miami, FL., followed by almost all of

28907-422: The influence of the National Guard to support Sacasa's re-election in 1936, Somoza Garcia flouted civilian power, installing military cronies in key civilian posts and then deposed Sacasa in a coup d'état held in June that same year. With an ally appointed interim president, Somoza Garcia then resigned from the position of Chief Director of the National Guard in order to meet the constitutional requirements to run for

29118-496: The instance. Some of the contexts in which the term "militia" can apply include: Militia derives from Latin roots: The word militia dates back to ancient Rome, and more recently to at least 1590 when it was recorded in a book by Sir John Smythe, Certain Discourses Military with the meanings: a military force; a body of soldiers and military affairs; a body of military discipline The word Militia comes from ancient Latin, in which it meant defense service, as distinguished from

29329-475: The late 20th century, some militias (in particular officially recognized and sanctioned militias of a government) act as professional forces, while still being "part-time" or "on-call" organizations. For instance, the members of United States National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to the same standards that their "full-time" (active duty) counterparts are. Militias thus can be either military or paramilitary , depending on

29540-462: The law-enforcement branch of the Guardia, the Policia Nacional – Guardia Nacional (PNGN, National Police of the National Guard) was a municipal constabulary numbering some 9,000–10,000 male and female uniformed constables , although other sources estimate that their actual number was no fewer than 3,000–8,000. Most of its lightly armed personnel were concentrated in the main cities (Managua, Leon, Matagalpa, and Masaya) on police duties, or assigned to

29751-430: The leader of a rebel faction which later joined the government after U.S. mediation efforts, appointed Anastasio Somoza García as Chief Director of the National Guard in 1925. Besides being a nephew of Sacasa, Somoza Garcia was a trusted friend of Moncada and a supporter of the liberal revolt. He was trusted by the Americans due to his service as a translator to Henry Stimson during the 1927 peace conference, schooling in

29962-513: The leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and forms part of the Chinese armed forces. Under the command of the military organs, it undertakes such jobs as war preparation services, security and defense operational tasks and assistance in maintaining social order and public security. Historically, militias of varying levels of ability have existed in China, organized on a village and clan level, especially during periods of instability and in areas subject to pirate and bandit attack. When

30173-812: The logistical assistance of the Soviet military was provided by hundreds of thousands of U.S.-made trucks and by 1945, nearly a third of the truck strength of the Red Army was U.S.-built. Trucks such as the Dodge 3 ⁄ 4 -ton and Studebaker 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ton were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front . American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations and clothing were also critical. Lend-Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 30 percent of Soviet wartime fighter and bomber production (mid 1941–45). Most tank units were Soviet-built models but about 7,000 Lend-Lease tanks (plus more than 5,000 British tanks) were used by

30384-478: The main cities, including the national capital of Managua . The Headquarters of the GN's General Staff was placed at the heart of the government quarter of Tiscapa Hill near downtown Managua, allocated in an underground bunker -style complex built after the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake ; the quarter's adjacent facilities also housed the main offices' of the Guardia's own administration, signals, engineering, medical, logistics and military justice support services, and

30595-440: The main military schools. Managua was also home to most of the GN's main tactical units such as the Batallón de Guardia Presidencial (BGP, Presidential Guard Battalion), the Patrulla Presidencial (PP, Presidential VIP protection unit), the Primero Batallón Blindado (PBB, 1st Armoured Battalion), the Batallón de Combate General Somoza (BCGS, General Somoza Combat Battalion ), the Batallón de Ingeniería (Engineer Battalion),

30806-576: The majority being propeller -driven. All FAGN aircraft and personnel were concentrated at the military airbase adjacent to the then Mercedes International Airport at Managua , which also housed the Air Force HQ and the Aviation School. The Marina de Guerra de la Guardia Nacional (MG-GN, Nicaraguan National Guard Navy) in 1978 stood at about 1,000 sailors and ratings who manned a surface flotilla of some eight to ten Israeli Dabur-1 class patrol boats , one GC2 patrol boat, one GC6 patrol boat, and one Swiftships 85 ft-type patrol boat. The MG-GN flotilla

31017-416: The majority of British forces in Canada made the Canadian militia the only major land forces available in Canada. In 1940, both components of the militia, PAM and NPAM were reorganized, the former into Canadian Army (Active) , the latter into the Canadian Army (Reserve) In addition to the various colonial militia units, and the regiments of the Canadian militia, in 1942, the Army's Pacific Command created

31228-670: The meaning of Lend-Lease aid can be better understood when considering the innovative nature of World War II , as well as the economic distortions caused by the war. One of the greatest differences with prior wars was the enormous increase in the mobility of armies. This was the first big war in which whole formations were routinely motorized; soldiers were supported with large numbers of all kinds of vehicles. Most belligerent powers severely decreased production of non-essentials, concentrating on producing weapons. This inevitably produced shortages of related products that are required for industrial or logistical uses, particularly unarmored vehicles. On

31439-453: The merchant marine, and civil aviation. Even as trusted friends of the family succeeded Luis in the presidency, his brother remained firmly in control of the National Guard. Eventually, in 1967, Anastasio himself was elected president; Luis soon died of a heart attack, leaving Anastasio in sole control. Without his brother's technocratic influence, Anastasio's corrupt ways were unrestrained. The 1972 Nicaragua earthquake , which severely damaged

31650-420: The mid-1930s, Guardia officers began being issued with the M1937 or M1942 American peaked caps, in either light tropical khaki and Olive Drab wool cloth, which slowly began to replace the campaign hat in service dress. The khaki US M1934 sidecap (a.k.a. ' garrison cap ') was also supplied to GN personnel during the 1930-1940s. Guardia uniforms underwent some changes in the 1950s and 1960s, with officers adopting

31861-398: The middle classes to protect property during the political uncertainty. Its role was as a quasi-military "gendarmerie", with the primary role of maintaining social order within Belgium. Increasingly anachronistic, it was demobilised in 1914 and officially disbanded in 1920, following a disappointing performance during the German invasion of Belgium in World War I. In Brazil, the word milícia

32072-499: The military and PNGN), but only about 7,500 were combat troops, organized into one Presidential Guard battalion, one armoured battalion, one mechanized infantry battalion, one mechanized company, one engineer battalion, one Military Police battalion, one field artillery battery and one anti-aircraft battery, plus sixteen security companies. All the aforementioned units were deployed in traditional Spanish colonial fashion in fortress -like cuarteles (Quarters; barracks-cum-garrisons) in

32283-489: The militia-style Designated Reserves. The Danish Home Guard ( Danish : Hjemmeværnet ) (HJV) is the fourth service of the Danish military . It was formerly concerned only with the defence of Danish territory but, since 2008, it has also supported Danish international military efforts in Afghanistan, Iraq and Kosovo. There are five branches: Army Home Guard, Naval Home Guard, Air Force Home Guard, Police Home Guard, and Infrastructure Home Guard. The Omakaitse (Home Guard)

32494-422: The needs of the Soviet Navy , 2,141 aircraft were delivered to the USSR. Not all of the delivered aircraft could be fully called modern models. But even those that could be called obsolete (the English Hurricane and the American Tomahawk) were more advanced and superior in most characteristics than the I-153 and I-16 aircraft that made up the basis of Soviet fighter aviation in the most difficult first months of

32705-452: The negotiations, Sandino insisted on the disbandment of the National Guard as a pre-condition for any peace agreement, leading Somoza Garcia to react ruthlessly by arresting and executing Sandino, in violation of a safe passage agreement Sacasa had given to the rebel leader. The National Guard then swiftly crushed Sandino's EDSN, further weakening the Sacasa government. By this time, the National Guard had grown to some 3,000 troops. After using

32916-446: The new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento , Avellaneda and Roca . Armenian militia, or fedayi played a major role in the independence of various Armenian states, including Western Armenia , the First Republic of Armenia , and the Republic of Artsakh . Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993. In the Colony of New South Wales , Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed

33127-410: The nucleus of an armed opposition force to the new Nicaraguan government, which would later become known as the Contras . The Sandinista junta replaced the disbanded Guardia Nacional with two new forces, the Ejército Popular Sandinista (EPS, Sandinista Popular Army ) and the Policía Sandinista (Sandinista Police). Eventually, alumni of the National Guard would be reconstituted, with the support of

33338-441: The operation. In September 1956, Somoza Garcia was fatally shot by a young dissident poet, Rigoberto López Pérez , and was succeeded in the presidency by his elder son, Luis Somoza Debayle , while his youngest son Anastasio Somoza Debayle , a graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point became the Chief Director of the National Guard. Brutal repression of the internal political opposition followed suit. In 1957,

33549-456: The past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so. In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov , the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov is quoted as saying: Today [1963] some say the Allies didn't really help us ... But listen, one cannot deny that

33760-408: The period of the British rule. Cuba has three militia organizations: The Territorial Troops Militia ( Milicias de Tropas Territoriales ) of about one million people (half women), the Youth Labor Army ( Ejército Juvenil del Trabajo ) devoted to agricultural production, and a naval militia. Formerly, there existed the National Revolutionary Militias ( Milicias Nacionales Revolucionarias ), which

33971-416: The physical state of members, almost non-existent training and shortage of weapons, there was not much the Volkssturm could do except act like shields for regular army units. Lend-Lease Lend-Lease , formally the Lend-Lease Act and introduced as An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States ( Pub. L.   77–11 , H.R. 1776, 55  Stat.   31 , enacted March 11, 1941 ),

34182-410: The popular Colt pistol was retained, Colt Cobra .38 Special snub-nose revolvers , Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolvers and Smith & Wesson Model 15 revolvers in .38 Special were also adopted. Medium and heavy machine guns , in the form of the M1919A4 US .30-06 Browning (7.62×63mm) – or its M1919A6 light machine gun version – and the larger M2HB .50 Browning (12.7×99mm) were added to

34393-421: The port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk in what became known as the Arctic convoys , the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US. By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda , Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5% of total Soviet tank production but over 25% of medium and heavy tanks produced for

34604-537: The presidency himself. Breaking with the Liberal party, he established the Partido Liberal Nacionalista (PLN, National Liberal Party) and Somoza was elected president in December with a reported margin of 64,000 of the 80,663 votes cast. On 1 January 1937, President Somoza Garcia reappointed himself again chief director of the National Guard, installing a corrupt military dictatorship linked to U.S. business interests that would last four decades. Somoza Garcia rapidly took complete control of Nicaraguan institutions including

34815-450: The private economy. An increasingly pervasive corruption comparable to a gangland mob, with bribery, kickbacks, and sometimes violent enforcement, protected the power of the Somoza family at all levels. The U.S. supported the National Guard through the World War II Lend-Lease act and under the terms of the Rio Treaty , but did not publicly approve of Somoza Garcia's extraconstitutional governance. The National Guard, which had been until then

35026-461: The program. In terms of administration, the president established the Office of Lend-Lease Administration during 1941, headed by steel executive Edward R. Stettinius . In September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and Leo Crowley became director of the Foreign Economic Administration , which was given responsibility for Lend-Lease. Lend-Lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt's Soviet Protocol Committee

35237-511: The regular army, and left out of the confederation of Canada. From 1853 to 1871, the Colony of Vancouver Island (and the succeeding Colony of British Columbia ) periodically raised and disbanded militia units. These units were raised for specific purposes, or in response to a specific threat, real or perceived. After the Treaty of Washington was signed between the Americans and British, nearly all remaining British soldiers were withdrawn from Canada in November 1871. The departure of

35448-442: The remainder of the debt written off. Reverse Lend-Lease to the United States totalled $ 7.8 billion. Of this, $ 6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth . Canada also aided the United Kingdom and other Allies with the Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid totalling $ 3.4 billion in supplies and services (equivalent to $ 61 billion in 2020). Lend-Lease weakened the United States' neutrality which had been enshrined in

35659-433: The right collar, branch insignia on the left, and NCOs' yellow chevrons on an olive green background. A subdued nametape was worn over the right breast pocket, the 'Guardia' national title on the left, and full-colour or subdued unit patches and shoulder titles on both sleeves. Members of the 1st Armored Battalion wore at the sides of their OR-201 helmets a blue triangular-shaped decal bearing the unit's black crest inserted on

35870-504: The same, except that Soviet soldiers could have waded at France's Atlantic beaches. Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to lending a garden hose to a neighbor whose house is on fire. "What do I do in such a crisis?" the president asked at a press conference. "I don't say ... 'Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $ 15; you have to pay me $ 15 for it' ... I don't want $ 15—I want my garden hose back after

36081-490: The senior military officers of the GN General Staff. Somoza's successor as head of state, interim President Francisco Urcuyo Maliaños opened negotiations for a cease-fire but at the same time tried to strengthen his political position by filling with younger colonels and lieutenant-colonels the depleted National Guard's General Staff, now headed by the new Chief Director Lt. Col. (later General) Federico Mejía González . The 12,000 Guardsmen still under his command, now besieged in

36292-526: The supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell. In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties . Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities. The army's role in internal security

36503-471: The support for isolationism in the country. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54% of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of Lend-Lease. A further 15% were in favor of qualifications such as: "If it doesn't get us into war," or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them." Only 22% were unequivocally against

36714-414: The territory occupied by the Germans. Some of the factories were hastily evacuated to the east of the country, but it took time to resume production and reach its maximum capacity. In December 1941, all aircraft factories of the Soviet Union produced only 600 aircraft of all types. This was the reason that the supply of aircraft, primarily fighters and bombers, became the main topic in the negotiations between

36925-509: The top leadership of the USSR, Great Britain and the United States. The vast majority of the total number of aircraft received by the USSR under the Lend-Lease program was made up of British Spitfire and Hurricane fighters , American P-39 Airacobra, P-40 fighters , known in Russia under the names "Tomahawk" and "Kittyhawk", P-63 Kingcobra, American bombers A-20 Havoc, B-25 Mitchell . A significant amount of C-47 Skytrain transport aircraft and PBY Catalina flying boats were also delivered. For

37136-589: The total. In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $ 11 billion in materials (equivalent to $ 148 billion in 2023): over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans ); 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were Bell P-39 Airacobras , 3,414 were Douglas A-20 Havocs and 2,397 were Bell P-63 Kingcobras ) and 1.75 million tons of food. Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from

37347-419: The training, though the School's teaching staff is said to have included anti-Castro Cuban exiles (former members of the Brigade 2506 , which had participated in the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961), Guatemalans, Salvadorans and Chileans, as well as Israeli and German mercenaries . The Escuela de Transmissiones (Signals School) was established on 15 January 1933. A Escuela del Aire (Air School)

37558-569: The triangular Nicaraguan national cap badge. Military Academy cadets were issued a special version of the 'Chino' uniform, with the shirt modified by the addition of black shoulder straps and breast pockets' flaps dyed black. Officers and sometimes NCOs wore in the field breeches and riding boots or the US M1931 cavalry laced boots whereas the other ranks' had their trousers trucked into US-type canvas (or leather) gaiters and ankle boots. The latter consisted of brown leather Field Shoes M-1918 (Pershing boot) and Type II/III Service Shoes, later replaced by

37769-553: The tropical OG-106 Baseball cap or the IDF "Old style" Olive Drab fatigue cap, partially replaced on the field by US Army Boonie hats or US Marines ' utility caps in both olive green and ERDL camouflage versions. Specialized units authorized berets wore them pulled to the right, American-fashion, with the colour sequence for the ground forces as follows: Armoured Cavalry and Counter-insurgency "Commandos" – Black ; Paratroopers – Cherry-red ( Maroon ); Presidential Guard – Green ; GN berets were made of one-piece artificial wool attached

37980-497: The tunic. A tropical white linen dress uniform very similar to the US Navy 's Service Dress White or "chokers", was adopted by the Guardia and naval service officers and Military Academy cadets. Comprising a high-collar tunic, slacks and white shoes plus a matching peaked cap, the tunic was worn with removable exaggerated twisted cord epaulettes and a red silk sash tied around the waist on formal occasions whilst enlisted ranks wore exaggerated black buff chevrons instead. Starting in

38191-399: The vehicle they manned, received either the old World War II US M1938 'Gruyére' composite fiber-and-leather crash helmet or the Vietnam-era fibreglass 'bone dome' Combat Vehicle Crew (CVC) T-56-6 helmet though neither models offered any satisfactory protection against shrapnel or small arms rounds. Guardia's military and National Police personnel were also issued with flak jackets , either

38402-419: The war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend-Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend-Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1. In February 1942, the U.S. and Britain signed the Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement as part of a greater multilateral system, developed by

38613-411: The war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely" among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany's pressure, and we would have lost

38824-412: The war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I don't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of

39035-560: The war. The superiority in high-altitude characteristics of American and British aircraft, powerful armament and the provision of communications ensured their use in the air defense forces – out of 10 thousand aircraft received by the USSR during the war, 7 thousand were from received via Lend-Lease. From October 1, 1941, to May 31, 1945, the United States delivered to the Soviet Union 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of

39246-419: The way for the D-Day Allied Invasion of France. The Resistance militia were opposed by the collaborationist French Militia —the paramilitary police force of the German puppet state of Vichy . Although defunct from 1871 until 2016, the French National Guard has now been reestablished for homeland security purposes. The earliest reports of Germanic militias was the system of hundreds described in AD 98 by

39457-407: The winged propeller badge on the lapels. When the Guardia was formed in the mid-1920s, its personnel wore on the left sleeve of their light khaki shirts a simple diamond-shaped blue patch with the white letters "GN", later replaced by a more elaborate system of service and unit insignia. On the olive green or camouflage combat uniforms, officers' wore cloth subdued or black metal pin-on rank insignia on

39668-402: The winning candidate in a coup d'état that brought strong disapproval from the U.S. Government. Under a new constitution, an assembly-appointed president, and a strong anti-communist stance relations improved. Nevertheless, Somoza Garcia was the true power behind the curtain and an increasing target of attempted coups and assassination; he even raised a personal bodyguard separated from the rest of

39879-422: Was a conscription army used during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . At the time of the Franco-Prussian War , the Parisian National Guard engaged the Prussian Army and later rebelled against the Versailles Army under Marshal McMahon. Under German occupation during World War II, a militia usually called the French Resistance emerged to conduct a guerrilla war of attrition against German forces and prepare

40090-409: Was a paramilitary citizens' militia consisting of hundreds of thousands of mostly former servicemen. Formed by the Prussian Ministry of the Interior on April   15, 1919, to allow citizens to protect themselves from looters, armed gangs, and revolutionaries, the Einwohnerwehr was under the command of the local Reichswehr regiments, which supplied its guns. In 1921, the Berlin government dissolved

40301-565: Was a policy under which the United States supplied the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , France , the Republic of China , and other Allied nations of the Second World War with food , oil , and materiel between 1941 and 1945. The aid was given free of charge on the basis that such help was essential for the defense of the United States. The Lend-Lease Act was signed into law on March 11, 1941, and ended on September 20, 1945. A total of $ 50.1 billion (equivalent to $ 672 billion in 2023 when accounting for inflation) worth of supplies

40512-560: Was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about $ 11.3 billion. On 12 July 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the Anglo-Soviet Agreement was signed and the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous Arctic Sea route to Murmansk , arriving in September. It carried 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and pilots of No. 151 Wing in Operation Benedict , to provide air defence of

40723-465: Was also provided with two types of portable rocket weapons, the shoulder-fired US M79 "Blooper" 40mm single-shot grenade launcher and the expendable anti-tank, one-shot US M72 LAW 66 mm . Guardia infantry and artillery formations were equipped with a variety of crew-served weapons. Light mortars ranged from the M2 60 mm and M1 81 mm models of World War II-vintage, to the more recent M29 81 mm ; some selected elite troops received

40934-429: Was an organisation formed by the local population of Estonia on the basis of the Estonian Defence League and the forest brothers resistance movement active on the Eastern Front between 3   July 1941 and 17   September 1944. This arrangement was unique in the context of the war as in Latvia , which otherwise shared a common fate with Estonia, there was no organisation of this kind. The People's Militia

41145-463: Was appointed its first Nicaraguan-born Director in 1948. The Escuela de Entrenamiento Basico de Infanteria (EEBI, Infantry Basic Training School) was founded in 1976–77 by then Capitan Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero upon his return from the United States after attending both the U.S. Army Infantry School at Fort Benning and the U.S. Army school for psychological and special warfare at Fort Bragg . Initially attached for administrative purposes to

41356-611: Was composed mainly of students in the capital city. After World War I , multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages , only to find many of them occupied by Slovene and Yugoslav forces. Especially in the southern province of Carinthia the Volkswehr (Peoples Defense Force) was formed, to fight the occupant forces. During the First Republic , similar to the development in Germany , increasing radicalization of politics led to certain paramilitary militias associating with certain political parties . The Heimwehr (German: Home Defense ) became affiliated with

41567-431: Was cut in 1978. Other countries such as Italy, West Germany, Portugal, El Salvador, Paraguay, Sweden, South Korea, and the Philippines were also involved in providing some form of covert aid or acted as brokers in secret arms deals. The first standard issue weapon of the Guardia Nacional (GN) infantry companies at the mid-1920s was the Krag–Jørgensen US M1896/98 .30-40 (7.62 mm) bolt-action rifle , soon superseded by

41778-457: Was divided into a Pacific coast patrol squadron, the Guardia Marina del Pacífico , and an Atlantic coast patrol squadron, the Guardia Marina del Atlântico . Main naval bases were situated at the coastal towns of Corinto ( Chinandega ) on the Pacific coast and Puerto Cabezas ( Zelaya ) on the Caribbean coast, with secondary naval stations set up at San Juan del Sur ( Rivas ) and El Bluff near Bluefields ( Zelaya ). Created in 1970 out of

41989-413: Was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid". Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943. The program was gradually terminated after V-E Day . In April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and in August 1945, after Japan surrendered , the program was ended. Lend-Lease contributed to

42200-410: Was established during the Cold War and still exists, but the members of the militia now are volunteers only. In Bahrain , emergence of a small militia group Katibat al Haydariyah was first seen in 2015. During the year, total four attacks were claimed by the group, including on August 22 and 24, 2015, in Muharraq , on September 10, 2015, in Al Khamis , and on October 9, 2015, on Bahraini forces in

42411-418: Was established in 1975 under the Derg regime's Proclamation No 71, used to assist police forces and protect farms and property. The militia did operations in Eritrea during the Ogaden War , while Mengistu Haile Mariam reconstituted as the "Red Army". The Derg government conscripted about 30,000 to 40,000 civilians into the militia from Shewa , Wollo , and Gojam provinces in May 1976. The Fano militia

42622-400: Was first formed in 1932 to train Nicaraguan pilots for the recently created National Guard Air Wing, though it was only in August 1940 that was formally established at Managua airfield as the Escuela Militar de Aviación (EMA, Military Aviation School). The Escuela Nacional de Policia (ENP, National Police School) was the Police Academy of the National Guard. Militia Beginning in

42833-440: Was formed after the Cuban Revolution and initially consisted of 200,000 men who helped the 25,000 strong standing army defeat counter-revolutionary guerillas. In 2021, the Czech Parliament passed an Act No. 14/2021 Coll., on the handling of weapons in certain cases affecting the internal order or security of the Czech Republic. The Act's number 14/21 symbolically refers to the 600th anniversary of civilian firearms possession in

43044-617: Was largely taken over by the formation of the Police Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French National Gendarmerie , with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six Corporals , one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and

43255-423: Was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them." As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs." In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent

43466-435: Was shipped, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S. In all, $ 31.4 billion went to the United Kingdom, $ 11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $ 3.2 billion to France, $ 1.6 billion to China, and the remaining $ 2.6 billion to other Allies. Roosevelt's top foreign policy advisor Harry Hopkins had effective control over Lend-Lease, making sure it was in alignment with Roosevelt's foreign policy goals. Materiel delivered under

43677-423: Was slightly different, with sergeants' ranks being limited to two only; captains were identified by three bars instead of two as per in the US Armed Services , whilst majors had a five-point gilded star in lieu of a leaf. National Guard rank insignia from Subteniente to Coronel resembled a US antecedent—but that of the Confederate States Army . There were also some differences in colour and nomenclature according to

43888-516: Was the US steel M1917 A1 "Kelly" helmet during World War II, replaced in 1954 by the M-1 , issued with a Mitchell 'Clouds' pattern camouflage cover and the Israeli-made Orlite Industries Ltd composite fibreglass OR-201 Model 76 ballistic helmet , which began to replace the earlier M-1 in 1977. Period photos however, do show GN soldiers and National Police constables within the same units wearing side-by-side both US and Israeli types, often worn plain without camo covers. Armoured crews, depending on

44099-510: Was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27% of the total. The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the U.S.; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported. Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50% of

44310-469: Was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts. These irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army , drafted for the Paraguayan War by President Bartolomé Mitre . Provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by

44521-466: Was worn with a light khaki shirt and black tie on service dress. Nicaraguan National Police (PNGN) officers' continued to wear as service dress the 'Chino' khaki shirt (in long or short sleeve versions) and trousers with shoes or Olive Green (OG) fatigues with combat boots, whereas female constables were given a khaki short-sleeved blouse and assorted knee-length skirt worn with a flat-top, short snapped-brimmed khaki hat. Their male counterparts retained

#757242