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112-681: In 1908, in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution , Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II . His relationship with the Ottoman government deteriorated after the Committee of Union and Progress took power, particularly because of their policies of Turkification and persecution of ethnic minorities, including Arabs. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, although it

224-565: A Reuters dispatch, instead set the date as March 7, 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz". A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in Amman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924. Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, March 14, 1924, when Hussein

336-722: A Zionist delegation led by rabbi Yaakov Meir and a British colonel. Despite having welcomed them with respect, he would not change his position. As his stance was seen by the United Kingdom as extremist, the British and the Zionist media engaged in press campaigns against Hussein, where his positions were misrepresented. They also engaged heavily against his Caliphate , calling it illegitimate. After him becoming Caliph, he continued on this path, stating: "I consider Zionism unjust towards Muslims, Christians and Orthodox Jews, and as

448-475: A constitution and held elections for a parliament . However, with the unsuccessful war with Russia which ended in 1878, he suspended enforcement of the constitution and prorogued parliament. After further consolidating his rule he governed as an absolutist monarch for the next three decades. This left a very small group of individuals able to partake in politics in the Ottoman Empire. Countering

560-897: A policy of extermination of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire through various genocides . This frightened the Arabs , who were the largest minority in the Empire, and was openly criticized by Hussein bin Ali. These oppositions with the Turks became so violent that they overshadowed those that existed in Arab society and Bedouin society; and many rival tribes to the Hashemites rallied behind their leadership. An independentist and anti-colonial Arab movement developed, mainly in Ottoman Syria , where Arab intellectuals and newspapers called for

672-630: A religious and anti-colonial one. Twenty days after the start of the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire , Hussein bin Ali's son, Faisal , met with the leaders of the revolutionary organization Al-Fatat in Damascus . They assured him of their support in case of revolt and recognized Hussein as the representative of the Arab nation . When Hussein took up the pan-Arab claims in 1916, after his proclamation of independence, he became

784-586: A consolidation of itself in order to define its ideology. Those intellectual Unionists that spent years in exile, such as Ahmed Rıza, would be sidelined in favor of the new professional organizers, Mehmed Talât , Doctor Nazım , and Bahaeddin Şakir . The organization's home being Rumeli, delegations were sent to local chapters in Asia and Tripolitania to more firmly attach them to the organizations new headquarters in Salonica . The CUP would dominate Ottoman politics for

896-684: A designation. He replied: "Verily these are the lands of Allah in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of Allah [...] The constitution of the lands of Allah is the Shariah of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet". His main teacher was Ahmad Zayni Dahlan , with whom he became a hafiz . He had a Shafi'i and Hanafi education, but also allied with the Malikis and opposed the Wahhabis , at

1008-470: A final embrace of love between the simple peoples of Turkey before they should be led to exterminate each other for the political advantage of foreign powers or their own leaders Halide Edip Two European powers took advantage of the chaos by decreasing Ottoman sovereignty in the Balkans. Bulgaria , de jure an Ottoman vassal but de facto all but formally independent, declared its independence on

1120-636: A government, they imposed their ideas on the Ottoman Empire. The CUP had Said Pasha removed from the premiership in less than two weeks for Kâmil Pasha . His quest to revive the Sublime Porte of the Tanzimat proved fruitless when CUP soon censored him with a no-confidence vote in parliament, thus he was replaced by Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha who was more in-line with the committee's ways. Abdul Hamid maintained his throne by conceding its existence as

1232-625: A hill station near Mecca, which after an initial repulse settled down into a siege. With the British-Egyptian artillery support, Abdullah took Ta'if on 22 September 1916. After this, and for most of the war, Hussein's sons directed the fighting ; most notably Faisal , future Faisal I of Iraq, and Abdullah , future Abdullah I of Jordan. Hussein mostly stayed in Mecca to direct the operations, while his sons were fighting. The Arab revolt laid siege to Medina but wasn't able to take it for

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1344-596: A new found faith in Ottomanism was found in the various millets . Violence in Macedonia ceased as rebels turned in their arms and celebrated with citizens. An area from Scutari to Basra was now acquainted with political parties, nationalist clubs, elections, constitutional rights, and civil rights. The revolution and CUP's work greatly impacted Muslims in other countries. The Persian community in Istanbul founded

1456-597: A payment of £30,000 conditional on signature. Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to "affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the Zionists and Syria to foreigners". He refused again to accept the Balfour Declaration in 1923, and stated : "I look at the people of Palestine as I look at my own family, without distinction between Muslim, Christian, Jewish, or nationalist". In January 1924, Hussein received in Amman

1568-766: A protector of justice, I will resist this unjust Zionism". This contributed to aggravate his relationship with the Zionists towards a breaking point. After the Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly , Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on the official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein would have declared himself Caliph at his son Abdullah's winter camp in Shunah, Transjordan . Other accounts, such as

1680-675: A relationship with the Bashkimi Society . The CUP always held a close relationship with the non-Muslim groups of the Vlachs , their Christianity being an important propaganda asset, and the Jews . According to Ismail Enver the CUP set the date for their revolution to be sometime in August 1908, though a spontaneous one happened before August anyway. The event that triggered the revolution

1792-574: A symbolic position, but in April 1909 attempted to seize power (see 31 March Incident ) by stirring populist sentiment throughout the Empire. The Sultan's bid for a return to power gained traction when he promised to restore the caliphate , eliminate secular policies, and restore the Sharia -based legal system. On 13 April 1909, army units revolted, joined by masses of theological students and turbaned clerics shouting, "We want Sharia", and moving to restore

1904-494: A thorough knowledge of the desert's flora and fauna and composed poems in humayni verse, a type of vernacular poetry ( malhun ) of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting. In 1875, he married Abdullah's daughter, Abdiyah, his cousin. In 1877, Abdullah died, and Hussein, along with his cousin Ali ibn Abdullah, received the rank of Pasha . After a series of political assassinations among his uncles vying for

2016-673: A time when adherence to a madhhab was more fluid. In 1911, Hussein became involved in an Ottoman campaign in 'Asir ; the Young Turks requested his support to fight Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi , who had recently revolted there and proclaimed the Idrisid Emirate . Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir. He gathered an army of about 5,000 men from

2128-574: A year, thus impeding the operations. During this battle, the Ottomans killed and deported the civilian Arabic population of Medina into the Syrian desert , an event hidden by the pretense of doing " Seferberlik ", or mobilization. On 30 October 1916, Emir Abdullah called a meeting of majlis where he read a letter in which "Husayn ibn Ali was recognized as sovereign of the Arab nation. Then all those present arose and proclaimed him Malik al-Arab , King of

2240-640: Is debated as to what extent the British were influential in his choice, he proclaimed the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , accusing the Committee of Union and Progress of violating tenets of Islam and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. While his armies, led by his sons, were engaged in fighting the Ottoman and German troops in the Middle East , Hussein supported the Armenians during

2352-659: Is evidently enthroned as caliph in Baghdad during the Friday prayer. In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . Separately, he made statements in support of the Ottoman dynasty , which had been ruined and exiled from Turkey . In this regard, he declared: The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding

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2464-461: Is said to have saved up to 4,000 people from the genocide, in collaboration with Hussein al-Attrache, a Druze chieftain who then disguised the refugees as Druzes . His son, Faisal, provided free transportation to all Armenian refugees for their trip towards the British refugee camp in Damascus and free use of the Hejaz railway  ; even if that meant impeding on the war effort. In the aftermath of

2576-741: The Armenian genocide and saved up to 4,000 of them. In the aftermath of World War I , Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles , in protest of the Balfour Declaration , a document supporting the Jewish settlers in Palestine , and the establishment of British and French mandates in Syria , Iraq , and Palestine . His sons Faisal and Abdullah were made rulers of Iraq and Transjordan respectively in 1921. He later refused to sign

2688-709: The Battle of Megiddo , in September 1918, Hussein's troops led by his son Faisal, joined the British forces and managed to utterly destroy the 4th, 7th and 8th Ottoman armies, and push into retreat the Yildirim Army Group , comprising the German Asian Corps and led at the time by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , thus leaving the Palestinian and Arabian front without defence, and finally breaking inside

2800-541: The Goudi Coup , bringing Eleftherios Venizelos to power. In the 2010 alternate history novel Behemoth by Scott Westerfeld , the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 fails, igniting a new revolution at the start of World War I. Historian Ronald Grigor Suny states that the revolution had no popular support and was actually "a coup d'état by a small group of military officers and civilian activists in

2912-641: The Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising in 1903, the Ottoman Empire capitulated to international pressure to implement reforms in Macedonia under Great Power supervision, offending Muslims living in Macedonia and especially army officers. In 1905, another intervention by the Great Powers for reform in Macedonia was greeted with dread amongst the Muslim population. Throughout this period, the Ottoman Empire's weak economy and Abdul Hamid's distrust of

3024-576: The Iranian Union and Progress Committee . The leaders of the Young Bukhara movement were deeply influenced by the Young Turk Revolution and saw it as an example to emulate. Indian Muslims imitated the CUP oath administered to recruits of the organization. Discontent in the Greek military saw a secret revolutionary organization explicitly modeled from the CUP which overthrew the government in

3136-759: The Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion) , Al-Fatat , and Armenians organized under the Armenakan , the Hunchaks and the Dashnaks . The 1908 Ottoman general election took place during November and December 1908. Due to its leading role in the revolution, the CUP won almost every seat in the Chamber of Deputies . The large parliamentary group and the then lax laws on party affiliation eventually whittled

3248-433: The Salonica based Third Army to instigate a large revolt. A string of assassinations by Unionist Fedai also contributed to Abdul Hamid's capitulation. Though the constitutional regime established after the revolution eventually succumbed to Unionist dictatorship by 1913, the Ottoman sultanate ceased to be the base of power of the empire after 1908. Immediately after the revolution, Bulgaria declared independence from

3360-596: The Serbian Chetniks , but did reach out to the Greek bands for support. Using more sticks than carrots, the CUP walked away with a tenuous declaration of neutrality from the Greeks. The most resources were invested in attaining Albanian support. Albanian feudal lords and notables enjoyed CUP patronage. While the Unionists were less successful in recruiting bourgeois nationalists to their cause they did cultivate

3472-662: The Syrian territories in which the Armenian genocide took place, he issued a decree to protect Armenians from persecution and allow them to settle in peace, in which he ordered : "What is requested of you is to protect and to take good care of everyone from the Jacobite Armenian community living in your territories and frontiers and among your tribes; to help them in all of their affairs and defend them as you would defend yourselves, your properties and children, and provide everything they might need whether they are settled or moving from place to place, because they are

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3584-588: The Third Army based in Salonika were motivated by the fear of a partition of Ottoman Macedonia. A desire to preserve the state, not destroy it, motivated the revolutionaries. Following the 1902 Congress of Ottoman Opposition, Ahmed Rıza's Unionists abandoned political evolution and formed a coalition with the Activists, which were political revolutionaries. With the fall of Prince Sabahaddin, Rıza's coalition

3696-792: The parliament , and schedule an election . Thus began the Second Constitutional Era . The revolution took place in Ottoman Rumeli in the context of the Macedonian Struggle and the increasing instability of the Hamidian regime. It began with CUP member Ahmed Niyazi 's flight into the Albanian highlands. He was soon joined by İsmail Enver , Eyub Sabri , and other Unionist officers. They networked with local Albanians and utilized their connections within

3808-466: The 5th of October. The day after, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina which used to be de jure Ottoman territory but de facto occupied by Austria-Hungary. The fall of Abdul Hamid II foiled the rapprochement between Serbia and Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire which set the stage for their alliance with Bulgaria and Greece in the Balkan Wars . Following the revolution

3920-638: The Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus was left in a very precarious position, the British decided progressively to stop supporting him after the proclamation of his caliphate and the refusal to sign any treaty with them. Thus, they decided to support Ibn Saud , who promptly launched an invasion of the Kingdom of Hejaz. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son Ali bin Hussein . After Hejaz

4032-422: The Aqil and Bisha tribes, both tribes being from 'Asir, in Mecca and then began to march against al-Idrisi. After an initial defeat due to the heat and a cholera epidemic, he managed to inflict two heavy defeats on the Idrisid forces . Then, he managed to break the siege of Abha , which was being conducted by al-Idrisi forces and where Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city, was entrenched. Overall, he

4144-459: The Arabs". During the whole duration of the war, Hussein's troops stayed underequipped and lacking artillery – which the Allies didn't want to give, seing that front as utopical and not as important as the fight was in the Western front , among others. This lack of artillery and high mobility ; since most of the troops were mounted Bedouins , pushed them to use guerilla tactics in the desert ; for example by severing Ottoman supplies with

4256-538: The Balkans". Hanioğlu states the revolution a watershed moment in the late Ottoman Emire but it was not a popular constitutional movement. Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib Abd al-Mutalib ibn Ghalib ibn Musa‘ad ( Arabic : عبد المطلب بن غالب بن مساعد , romanized :  ‘Abd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Ghālib ibn Musā‘ad ‎; 1790 — 29 January 1886) served three times as Emir and Grand Sharif of Mecca : First in 1827, then 1851 to 1856, and finally 1880 to 1881. His rule after replacing Muhammad ibn Awn in 1851

4368-403: The CUP. In the CUP's December 1907 Congress, Rıza, Sabahaddin, and Khachatur Malumian of the Dashnak Committee pledged to overthrow the regime by all means necessary. In practice, this was a tactile alliance between the CUP and Dashnaks which was unpopular in both camps, and the Dashnaks did not play a significant role in the coming revolution. In the lead up to the revolution the CUP courted

4480-536: The Empire) and Afghanistan . It was rumored that in this latest meeting another reform package would be imposed on the Ottoman Empire which would formally partition Macedonia. With the newspaper reports of the meeting, the CUP's Monastir ( Bitola ) branch decided to act. A memorandum was drawn up by Unionists that was distributed to the European consuls which rejected foreign intervention and nationalist activism. They also called for constitutional government and equality amongst Ottoman citizens. With no action taken by

4592-489: The Empire, with attendants shouting Egalité! Liberté! Justice! Fraternité! Vive la constitution! and Padişahım çok yaşa! (Long live my emperor). Armed bands of Serbian, Bulgarian, and Greek chetas , one time enemies of each other and the government, took part in celebrations before ceremoniously turning in their firearms to the government. Niyazi, Enver, and the other Unionist revolutionaries were celebrated as "heroes of liberty", and Ahmed Rıza, returning from his exile

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4704-456: The Empire. Most of the Young Turks were exiled intelligentsia, however by 1906–1908 many officers and bureaucrats in the Balkans were inducted into the Committee of Union and Progress , the preeminent Young Turk organization. While the Young Turks were in consensus that some reform was necessary for Ottomanism , the idea of national unity among the ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire, they disagreed how far reform should go. The anti-Hamidians in

4816-408: The First World War, siding with fellow anti-Saudis, the Ottomans in 1910. Hussein initiated a series of reforms, including measures to avoid offending Muslims from French or British colonies who undertook the Hajj . He also addressed the issue of stray dogs, attempted to ensure the security of the Hajj routes, and sought to combat the prevalent slave markets in the Hejaz region . He undertook

4928-504: The Grand Sherif could not be found; if they are still unavailable it may be somewhat awkward when King Hussein produces the originals. (...) Failing a satisfactory solution King Hussein will have some grounds for considering that Great Britain has broken her pledged word." In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles . In August 1920, five days after the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres , Curzon asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make

5040-515: The Great Powers or the government, the revolt began in earnest in the first week of July 1908. On July 3 Major Ahmed Niyazi began the revolution by raiding the Resne ( Resen ) garrison cache of money, arms, and ammunition and assembled a force of 160 volunteers to the mountains surrounding the city. From there he visited many villages around the predominantly Muslim Albanian area to recruit for his band and warn of impending European intervention and Christian supremacy in Macedonia. Niyazi would highlight

5152-506: The Hamidian system. The Dashnaks , previously leading a guerilla resistance in the Eastern Anatolian countryside, became the main representatives of the Armenian community in the Ottoman Empire, replacing the urban centered pre-1908 Armenian amira class, which had been composed of merchants, artisans, and clerics. The Armenian National Assembly used the moment to oust Patriarch Malachia Ormanian for Matthew II Izmirlian . This served to elevate younger Armenian nationalists, overthrowing

5264-542: The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary's annexation of nominal Ottoman territory sparked the Bosnian Crisis . After an attempted monarchist counterrevolution known as the 31 March incident in favor of Abdul Hamid the following year, he was deposed and his half-brother Mehmed V ascended the throne. Sultan Abdul Hamid II was brought to the throne in August 1876 after a series of palace coups by constitutionalist ministers overthrew first his uncle Abdul Aziz , and then his half-brother Murad V . Under duress, he promulgated

5376-415: The Ottoman Empire that joined the CUP were conservative liberal, imperialist, technocratists. To what extent they could have achieved praxis was dubious, as Ahmet Rıza , the exiled CUP leader, initially denounced revolution. Some Young Turks wished for a federation of nations under an Ottoman monarch, as exemplified in Prince Sabahaddin 's movement, though after his failed coup attempt in 1903 his faction

5488-425: The Ottoman Empire. The battle happened at the same time as the Vardar offensive in the Balkans , which managed to overrun Bulgarian defences, thus opening the Balkans and ultimately Austria-Hungary . Since the war was seemingly won, and the Ottoman defences were crumbling, Faisal projected himself towards Damascus, which he took the 1st of October 1918. After this, he engaged in the pursuit to Haritan , pursuing

5600-452: The Ottoman military, but the terrible conditions of their service deeply affected morale for the worse. Mektebli officers, graduates of the modern military schools, were bottlenecked for promotion, as senior alaylı officers didn't trust their loyalties. Those stationed in Macedonia were outraged against the sultan, and believed the only way to save Ottoman presence in the region to join revolutionary secret societies. Many Unionist officers of

5712-437: The Protected People of the Muslims ( Ahl Dimmat al-Muslimin ) – about whom the Prophet Muhammad (may Allah grant him His blessings and peace) said: "Whosoever takes from them even a rope, I will be his adversary on the day of Judgment". This is among the most important things we require of you to do and expect you to accomplish, in view of your noble character and determination". The Armenian National Institute considers it to be

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5824-405: The Sultan's absolute power. The CUP once again assembled a force in Macedonia to march on the capital and restored parliamentary rule after crushing the uprising on 24 April 1909. The deposition of Abdul Hamid II in favor of Mehmed V followed, and the palace ceased to be a significant player in Ottoman politics. These developments caused the gradual creation of a new governing elite. No longer

5936-551: The Unionist's organization, intrigues within the military, discontent with Abdul Hamid's autocratic rule, and a desire for the Constitution meant the sultan and his ministers were compelled to capitulate. Under pressure of being deposed, on the night of 23–24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid II issued the İrade-i Hürriyet , reinstating the Constitution and calling an election to great jubilation. Celebrations were held intercommunally, as Muslims and Christians attended celebrations together in both churches and mosques. Parades were held throughout

6048-418: The Young Turks lead to disagreements on what liberty meant. Among these the CUP and the Liberty Party and later on Freedom and Accord Party , were the major ones. There were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party and the Democratic Party . On the other end of the spectrum were the ethnic parties which included the People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Section) , the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs ,

6160-434: The areas affected. The troops of Hussein also committed war crimes, deciding to execute Turkish troops responsible of the Tafas massacre against Arabian civilians, instead of taking them prisoners. After the fall of Aqaba, the Arab forces, supplemented with British auxiliaries and with the design of joining forces with the British main armies, which were trying to break out of Egypt and Palestine, managed to join them. During

6272-552: The areas in question had already been claimed by the new British ally, France. Having received a British subsidy totalling £6.5m between 1916 and April 1919, in May 1919, the subsidy was reduced to £100K monthly (from £200K), dropped to £75K from October, £50K in November, £25K in December until February 1920 after which no more payments were made. The British were not disposed to fulfill their promises to Hussein, as Colonel Wilson stated in secret correspondence : "At one time, our Arabic copies of Sir H. MacMahon's letters to

6384-447: The bombings of specific sections of the Hejaz railway . After the fall of Medina, the Arab troops were able to secure Aqaba quickly and this allowed them to project themselves farther; they still ambushed Ottoman troops, such as during the battle of Wadi Musa , helping themselves with their superior knowledge of the Arabian and Syrian deserts. This conflict was marked by widespread ethnic cleansing directed at non-Turkish populations in

6496-441: The burgeoning world of party politics. Political clubs, committees, and parties were now the main actors in politics. Though these non-Turkish nationalists cooperated with the Young Turks against the sultan, they would turn on each other during the Second Constitutional Era over the question of Ottomanism, and ultimately autonomy and separatism. The memory is so intense that to this day, I cannot think of it unmoved. I think of it as

6608-424: The citizens. That day Grand Vizier Mehmed Ferid Pasha was sacked for Said Pasha . Elsewhere, Hayri Pasha, field marshal of the Third Army , was threatened by the committee into a passive cooperation. At this point, the mutiny which originated in the Third Army in Salonica took hold of the Second Army based in Adrianople ( Edirne ) as well as Anatolian troops sent from Smyrna ( Izmir ). The rapid momentum of

6720-465: The city to grow up among Bedouin nomads. Apparently a diligent young man, he mastered the principles of the Arabic language and was also educated in Islamic law and doctrine . Among his teachers was Sheikh Muhammad Mahmud at-Turkizi ash-Shinqiti, with whom he studied the seven Mu'allaqat . With Sheikh Ahmad Zayni Dahlan , he studied the Quran , completing its memorization before the age of 20. During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with

6832-537: The conflict on the side of the Triple Entente . Starting in 1915, as indicated by an exchange of letters with Lieutenant Colonel Sir Henry McMahon , the British High Commissioner in the Sultanate of Egypt , Hussein seized the opportunity and demanded recognition of an Arab nation that included the Hejaz and other adjacent territories as well as approval for the proclamation of an Arab Caliphate of Islam. High Commissioner McMahon accepted and assured him that his assistance would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing

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6944-527: The conservative politics of Abdul Hamid II 's reign was the amount of social reform that occurred during this time period. The development of educational institutions in the Ottoman Empire also established the background for political opposition. Abdul Hamid's political circle was close-knit and ever-changing. The origins of the revolution lie within the Young Turk movement , an opposition movement which wished to see Abdul Hamid II's authoritarianism regime dismantled. Being imperialists, they believed Abdul Hamid

7056-447: The constitution would bring about equality between Christians and Muslims, and was able to recruit Bulgarians into his force. Other Unionists, following Niyazi's example, took to the mountains of Macedonia: Ismail Enver Bey in Tikveş , Eyub Sabri in Ohri ( Ohrid ), Bekir Fikri in Grebene ( Grevena ), and Salahaddin Bey and Hasan Bey in Kırçova ( Kičevo ). In each post office the rebels came across, they transmitted their demands to

7168-496: The delegation into a smaller and more cohesive group of 60 MPs. The Senate of the Ottoman Empire reconvened for the first time in over 30 years on 17 December 1908 with the living members like Hasan Fehmi Pasha from the First Constitutional Era . While the Young Turk Revolution had promised organizational improvement, once instituted, the government at first proved itself rather disorganized and ineffectual. Although these working-class citizens had little knowledge of how to control

7280-419: The empire. In 1908, the Hejaz Railway was completed, allowing the Turks to strengthen their control over the Hejaz and provide a rapid response capability to reinforce their garrisons in Mecca and Medina . It was built under constant threat of Arab raids, such as those from the Harb tribe , which demonstrated their hostility towards the project. Furthermore, in April 1915, the Ottoman government began

7392-430: The entire span between Egypt and Persia , with the exception of British possessions and interests in Kuwait , Aden , and the Syrian coast. However, at that time, the British scarcely thought about the promises made; their primary concern was winning the war and dismantling the Ottoman Empire. The fate of the Arab populations and the division of territory were left for a future date. According to Ekrem Buğra Ekinci ,

7504-399: The family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca. In the same perspective, he financially supported

7616-413: The government in Constantinople ( Istanbul ): reinstate the constitution and reconvene the parliament otherwise the rebels would march on the capital. On 7 July, Şemsi Pasha arrived at Monastir. Abdul Hamid II dispatched him from Mitroviçe ( Mitrovica ) with two battalions to suppress the revolt in Macedonia. An ethnic Albanian, he also recruited a pro-government band of Albanians on the way. He informed

7728-408: The government's (not the sultan) weakness and corruption as the reason for this crisis, and that a constitutional framework would deliver the systematic reform necessary to negate Western intervention. Niyazi's Muslim Albanian heritage worked to his advantage in this propaganda campaign which also involved settling clan rivalries. When touring Christian Bulgarian and Serbian villages, he highlighted that

7840-418: The last major restoration of the Masjid al-Haram in 1920 and a restoration of the mosques of Palestine and more specifically of al-Aqsa mosque , for which he funded 26,672 liras. Starting from 1917, Hussein made decisions to protect the Armenian refugees and those residing in his lands from the Armenian genocide . First, he condemned the genocide publicly as early as 1916, stating "We specifically bring to

7952-722: The leading figure behind whom the pan-Arabs rallied, and is therefore frequently regarded as the father of pan-Arabism . During World War I , Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the British on the advice of his son, Abdullah , who had served in the Ottoman parliament up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration. Following deliberations at Ta'if between Hussein and his sons in June 1915, during which Faisal counselled caution, Ali argued against rebellion and Abdullah advocated action and encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with Sir Henry McMahon ; over

8064-516: The links between Hussein and the British should not be overestimated. The deep-rooted reason for the Arab revolt, according to him, remains the persecutions and abuse carried out by the Young Turks against the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, and is not necessarily linked to British support. This support would therefore be contingent and the revolt would have still occurred without their help. This point

8176-590: The many ethnic committee of the volatile melting pot that was Macedonia. With the conclusion of the IMRO 's left-wing congress in May–June 1908, the CUP reached a deal for the left's support and neutrality from their right, but the Macedonian-Bulgarian committee's disunity and their late decision also meant no joint operations between the two groups during the revolution. The Unionists did not seriously court

8288-555: The members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras. The claim to the title was recognized by a large part of the Hejazi, Levantine and more generally Arabic Muslim population. He also received the support of Mehmed VI , on March 18, 1924, one of the last Ottoman Caliphs and the last Ottoman Sultan , according to The Times and Vatan , that reported that he supported him as

8400-463: The military meant the army was in constant pay arrears. The Sultan was weary of having the army train with live ammunition anyway, lest an uprising against the order occurred. This sentiment especially applied to the Ottoman navy ; once the third largest fleet in 19th century Europe, it was rotting away locked inside the Golden Horn . The defense of their empire was a matter of great honor within

8512-587: The new Caliph. Young Turk Revolution Young Turks victory The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; Turkish : Jön Türk Devrimi ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire . Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress , an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the Constitution , recall

8624-423: The next ten years, save for brief interruption from 1912 to 1913. 5 of these years would be a dictatorship established in the aftermath of the 1913 coup and Mahmud Shevket Pasha 's assassination, during which they drove the empire to fight alongside Germany during World War I and commit genocide against Ottoman Christians . The revolution also served as a downfall for the non-Muslim elites which benefited from

8736-624: The next year . In 1908, workers began to strike in the capital, which kept the authorities on edge. There were also rumors that the Sultan was in poor health on the eve of the revolution. Starting in the 1890s, chronic intercommunal violence took hold of Ottoman Macedonia in what came known as the Macedonian struggle , as well as in Eastern Anatolia. Terrorist attacks by national liberation groups were regular occurrences. In response to

8848-540: The oldest declaration by a head of state to recognize the Armenian genocide. Alongside this, he gave citizenship to his Armenian subjects. According to survivors of the Armenian genocide, such as Levon Yotnakhparian, Hussein personally received him and was shocked by the news of what was happening. He also supported Armenian survivors and provided men and protection for expeditions in the Syrian desert aimed at rescuing Armenian deportees. According to testimonies, this method

8960-410: The palace of his arrival in the city at the local telegraph station, and as he walked out of the building he was assassinated by a Unionist fedai , Âtıf Kamçıl . His Albanian bodyguards and the pasha's aide de camp , who was his son, were also CUP members. Tatar Osman Pasha, Şemsi's replacement, was captured soon after. On July 22, Monastir fell to the rebels, and Niyazi proclaimed the constitution to

9072-421: The period 14 July 1915 to 10 March 1916, a total of ten letters, five from each side, were exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon and Sherif Hussein. McMahon was in contact with British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey throughout, and Grey was to authorise and be ultimately responsible for the correspondence. The British Secretary of State for War , Field Marshal Lord Kitchener , appealed to him for assistance in

9184-619: The politics and intrigue surrounding the Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the Najd and the eastern regions of Hejaz to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the Sharifate of Mecca then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the Bedouins , including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained

9296-539: The position of Sharif, he gained attention for his independence of thought and was sent back to Constantinople by the reigning uncle at that time in 1892–1893. He remained there for 15 years, until 1908, mainly focusing on raising his children, learning the politics of the Sublime Porte —where he aligned with the conservative faction—and hoping to return home. Following the removal of his predecessor in October and

9408-513: The previous communal domination by pro-imperialist Armenians. The elite Bulgarian community of Istanbul were similarly displaced by a youthful nationalist-intellectual class involved with IMRO , as was the Albanian Hamidian elite. Arab and Albanian elites, which were favored under the Hamidian regime, found many privileges lost under the CUP. The revolution continued to destabilize the subservient Sharifate of Mecca as several claimed

9520-653: The remnants of the Yildirim Army Group and ultimately taking Aleppo on the 25 of October 1918 , thus ending the war on that front. The US State Department quotes an aide-mémoire dated 24 October 1917 given by the Arab Bureau to the American Diplomatic Agency in Cairo confirming that "...Britain, France and Russia agreed to recognize the Sherif as lawful independent ruler of the Hejaz and to use

9632-525: The restoration of the caliphate in the hands of a Quraysh , and especially for the acquisition of Arab independence from the Ottoman Empire . The relationship between Hussein and the Committee of Union and Progress worsened even more after the discovery and foiling of a plot by Enver Pasha to assassinate Hussein. All of these points led to a violent rupture between Arab elites and the Ottoman political class, and are reflected in Hussein's later proclamation of independence, where he presented his struggle as

9744-509: The revolution and the 31 March Incident , the CUP's emerged victorious in a power struggle between the palace (Abdul Hamid II) and the liberated Sublime Porte . Until the December election , the CUP dominated the empire in what Şükrü Hanioğlu deemed a Comité de salut public . Following the revolution, many organizations, some of them previously underground, established political parties . The several political currents expressed amongst

9856-469: The subject of Palestine. In January and February 1918, Hussein received the Hogarth Message and Bassett Letter in response to his requests for an explanation of the Balfour Declaration and Sykes-Picot Agreement respectively. Despite their explanations, he stated that Palestine should be included within the borders of the newly founded Arab Kingdom and should refuse Zionist settlers, even if he

9968-561: The sudden death of his successor shortly thereafter, Hussein was appointed grand sharif by official decree of the sultan Abdul Hamid II in November 1908. However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in Mecca in the midst of the Young Turk Revolution , which brought the Young Turks (CUP) to power. Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such

10080-418: The title of "King of the Hejaz" when addressing him, and a note to this effect was handed to him on December 10, 1916". When Hussein declared himself King of the Hejaz , he also declared himself King of the Arab lands ( malik bilad-al-Arab ). This only aggravated his conflict with Abdulaziz ibn Saud , which was already present because of their differences in religious beliefs and with whom he had fought before

10192-578: The title until November 1908, when the CUP recognized Hussein bin Ali Pasha as Emir. In some communities, such as the Jews (cf. Jews in Islamic Europe and North Africa and Jews in Turkey ), reformist groups emulating the Young Turks ousted the conservative ruling elite and replaced them with a new reformist one. Social institutions like notable families and houses of worship lost influence to

10304-464: The two commanders, and Hussein decided to withdraw from 'Asir after having pursued the defeated Idrisid forces for some time. It seems that this campaign had a very negative impact on how Hussein viewed the Ottoman presence and actions in the Levant, and it is possible that from this moment on, he was already on the verge of rebellion. Although there is no formal evidence suggesting that Hussein bin Ali

10416-572: The veil covering the Kaaba and turned out to be a potent propaganda weapon for the Hashemites, who portrayed the Ottomans as desecrating Islam's most holy site. Hashemite forces in Mecca were joined by Egyptian troops sent by the British, who provided much needed artillery support, and took Mecca on 9 July 1916. Also on 10 June, another of Hussein's sons, the Emir Abdullah , attacked Ta'if ,

10528-523: The war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of Ottoman rule. Hussein's son Faisal was made King of Syria , but this kingdom proved short-lived, as the Middle East came under mandate rule of France and the United Kingdom. The British Government subsequently made Faisal and his brother Abdullah kings of Iraq and Transjordan , respectively. Starting at the end of the war, Hussein found himself in severe conflict with Britain's views on

10640-639: The wife of Ali, would have been a Circassian . He belonged to the Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the Banu Qatadah tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the Sharifate of Mecca since the accession of their ancestor Qatadah ibn Idris in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed Mecca since the 11th century . In 1827, Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in

10752-551: The world's condemnation the atrocities committed against the Greeks and Armenians, atrocities that our holy law can only disapprove of". In this regard, he promulgated in 1917, in a decree: "In the name of Most Merciful Allah and our prophet Muhammad, we are addressing our Arab brothers (...) to take Armenian refugees in their families, to share with them their belongings – camels, food, shelter, blankets – and share everything that you have in excess, and everything that you can give to people." In April 1918, as part of his conquest of

10864-618: Was a meeting in the Baltic port of Reval between Edward VII of the United Kingdom and Nicholas II of Russia on 9–12 June 1908. While " the Great Game ", had created a rivalry between the two powers, a resolution to their relationship was sought after. The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 brought shaky British-Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified their respective control in Persia (eastern border of

10976-399: Was able to defeat the opposing forces. However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted and had a heated dispute with the Ottoman governor of Abha, Suleiman Pasha, after he began wanting to administer the territories he managed to reconquer according to Bedouin and Sharifian norms, as previously. This led to a rupture between

11088-482: Was an illegitimate sultan for giving away territories in the Berlin Treaty and for not being confrontational enough to the Great Powers. In addition to a return to rule of law instead of royal arbitrary rule, they believed that a constitution would negate any motivation for non-Muslim subjects to join nationalist separatist organizations, and therefore negate any justification by the Great Powers to intervene in

11200-538: Was appointed as the Sharif, becoming the first Sharif of the Dhawu Awn branch and ending the centuries-long dominance of the Dhawu Zayd. He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib of the Dhawu Zayd. After being deposed, he sent his family and sons to reside in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople . It was there that Hussein was born to Muhammad's son, Ali, in 1853–1854. Muhammad

11312-736: Was buried as a Caliph in the Al-Aqsa mosque compound. Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn was born in Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in , the former Sharif of Mecca . As a member of the Hashemite dynasty , he was a descendant of Muhammad in the 37th generation through his grandson Hasan bin Ali . His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar,

11424-476: Was characterized by pro-slavery and anti-Ottoman riots. He was pro-slavery and led riots, in this contest he struggled with Vali Kâmil Pasha 's enforcement of anti-slavery law and Awn's supporters. On 15 or 17 November 1855, Awn's reappointment was announced in Jeddah ; al-Muttalib rejected this, raising his supporters and allegedly requesting Beduin chiefs assist him. Awn was reinstalled on 17 April 1856, but

11536-436: Was declared "father of liberty". 24 July 1908 started the Ottoman Empire's Second Constitution Era . There after, a number of decrees are issued, which defined freedom of speech, press and organizations, the dismantlement of intelligence agencies, and a general amnesty to political prisoners. Importantly, the CUP did not overthrow the government and nominally committed itself to democratic ideals and constitutionalism. Between

11648-484: Was deposed in favour of Ali Haidar. The revolt proper began on 10 June 1916, when Hussein proclaimed the independence of the Kingdom of Hejaz and ordered his supporters to attack the Ottoman garrison in Mecca. In the Battle of Mecca , there ensued over a month of bloody street fighting between the out-numbered, but far better armed Ottoman troops and Hussein's tribesmen. Indiscriminate Ottoman artillery fire, set fire to

11760-629: Was discredited. By the 20th century, the Hamidian system seemed bankrupt. Crop failures caused a famine in 1905, and wage hikes could not keep up with inflation. This led to civil unrest in Eastern Anatolia, which the CUP and the Dashnak Committee took advantage of. In December 1907 the government put down the Erzurum Revolt . Constitutionalist revolutions occurred in neighbors of the Ottoman Empire, in Russia in 1905 , and in Persia

11872-553: Was inclined towards Arab nationalism before 1916, the rise of Turkish nationalism towards the end of the Ottoman Empire , culminating in the Young Turks Revolution of 1908 , strongly displeased the Hashemites and Bedouins . Additionally, the increasing centralization of the Ottoman Empire , the progressive prohibition of Arabic in teaching, Turkification policies , and the settlement of Turkish colonists in Arab areas worried and frightened Arabs throughout

11984-706: Was once again the leading Young Turk current. In 1907 a new anti-Hamidian secret society was founded in Salonica known as the Ottoman Freedom Committee , founded by figures which achieved prominence post-revolution: Mehmed Talaat , Bahaeddin Şakir , and Doctor Nazım . Following its merger with the CUP, the former became the Internal Headquarters of the CUP, while Rıza's Paris branch became the External Headquarters of

12096-434: Was power exercised by a small governing elite surrounding the Sultan, the Sublime Porte's independence was restored and a new young clique of bureaucrats and officers gradually took control of politics for the CUP. The parliament confirmed through popular sovereignty both old elites as well as new ones. In 1909 a purge in the army demoted many "Old Turks" while elevating "Young Turk" officers. The post-revolution CUP undertook

12208-459: Was ready to accept Jewish people in Palestine , notably those who already lived there and were not coming from foreign countries. However, even after an assurance by McMahon, Hussein did not receive the lands promised by their British allies. McMahon claimed that the proposed lands to be taken in by the new Arab State were not purely Arab. In actuality, McMahon refused to hand over the new lands as

12320-467: Was reinstated to power in 1856, and Hussein, then two or three years old, accompanied his father and grandfather to Mecca . Muhammad quickly died in 1858 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sharif Abdullah Pasha, Hussein's uncle. He returned to Mecca after his father's death, at a young age, when his uncle Sharif Abdullah called them back, with his mother in 1861–1862. Hussein was raised at home, unlike other Hashemite youth who were typically sent outside

12432-524: Was shared at the time by Abbas II of Egypt , the last Khedive of Egypt , even though he was a sympathizer of the Young Turks. Hussein decided to join the Allied camp immediately, because of information that he would soon be deposed as Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman government in favor of Sharif Ali Haidar , leader of the rival Zaʻid family. The much-publicized executions of the Arab nationalist leaders in Damascus led Hussein to fear for his life if he

12544-760: Was subsequently completely invaded by the Ibn Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the Sharifate of Mecca and the Sharifian Caliphate to an end. Hussein was then sent into exile to Cyprus , where the British kept him prisoner until his health deteriorated so much that they allowed him to go back to Amman , next to his son Abdullah I of Jordan . He died in Amman in 1931 and

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