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128-513: Areas of influence include diet , writing , industry , education , language/lexicon , law , architectural style , politics , philosophy , religion , science and technology , value systems, and lifestyle . The term sinicization is also often used to refer to processes or policies of acculturation or assimilation of norms from China on neighboring East Asian societies , or on minority ethnic groups within China. Evidence of this process

256-571: A Muslim from Bukhara , Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar , as governor of Yunnan after conquering the Bai -led Dali Kingdom . Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize the Yunnan province; the promotion of Islam , Confucianism , and Buddhism would be part of his ' civilizing mission ' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian." He founded

384-501: A "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern Kunming is today, and ordered that a Buddhist temple , two mosques , and a Confucian temple be built in the city. The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan. By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from

512-506: A Manichaean temple in the kingdom, there was continued respect for Tang dynasty legacies and Buddhism. There were over fifty Buddhist temples, the name inscriptions on their gates all presented by the Tang court. The edicts of Emperor Taizong of Tang were carefully stored in an "Imperial Writings Tower." Indeed, the 10th century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam called Qocho, the capital city, "Chinese town". James A. Millward claimed that

640-798: A Manichaean temple, with Persian monks who keep their own religious law and call the Buddhist scriptures the 'foreign Way' ... In this land there are no poor people; anyone short of food is given public aid. People live to an advanced age, generally over one hundred years. No one dies young. In 996, Bügü Bilgä Tengri ilig succeeded Süngülüg Khagan. In 1007, Alp Arsla Qutlugh Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan succeeded Bügü Bilgä Tengri ilig. In 1008, Manichaean temples were converted to Buddhist temples . In 1024, Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan succeeded Alp Arsla Qutlugh Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan. In 1068, Tengri Bügü il Bilgä Arslan Tengri Uighur Tärkän succeeded Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan. By 1096, Qocho had lost Aksu , Tumshuk , and Kucha to

768-542: A hatred in his Diwan where he wrote the verse cycle on the war against Uyghur Buddhists. Buddhist origin words like toyin (a cleric or priest) and Burxān or Furxan (meaning Buddha, acquiring the generic meaning of "idol" in the Turkic language of Kashgari) had negative connotations to Muslim Turks. The Uyghurs were subjected to attacks by Muslim Turks, according to Kashgari's work. The Kara-Khanid Khanate 's ruler Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan razed Qocho's Buddhist temples in

896-480: A key part of enhancing "ethnic unity". As of 2019, it was estimated that Chinese authorities may have detained one and a half million people in secretive internment camps. The vast majority of those forcibly interned are Muslim Uyghurs but Kazakhs and other minority groups have also been included. In September 2020, sinicization policies targeted Muslim Utsuls in the Hainan province. Restrictions included limiting

1024-530: A porkless cuisine now preserved by Hui restaurants throughout the country. Yunnan cuisine is unique in China for its cheeses like Rubing and Rushan cheese made by the Bai people , and its yogurt, the yogurt may have been due to a combination of Mongolian influence during the Yuan dynasty, the Central Asian settlement in Yunnan, and the proximity and influence of India and Tibet on Yunnan. As part of

1152-596: A strong effect on the locally available ingredients, considering that the climate of China varies from tropical in the south to subarctic in the northeast. Imperial royal and noble preferences also play a role in the change of Chinese cuisine. Because of imperial expansion, immigration, and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures have been integrated into Chinese cuisines over time and Chinese culinary influences have spread worldwide. There are numerous regional, religious, and ethnic styles of Chinese cuisine found within China and abroad. Chinese cuisine

1280-468: A variety with different flavors: clear rice vinegar, Chinkiang black rice vinegar , Shanxi vinegar, Henghe vinegar etc. The most commonly consumed meat in China is pork . As of at least 2024, China is the second largest beef consuming market in the world. Steakhouses and hot pot restaurants serving beef are becoming increasingly popular in urban China . Chinese consumers particularly value freshly slaughtered beef. Generally, seasonal fruits serve as

1408-991: A vassal to the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty , and were allied to the Yuan against the Chagatai Khanate . Eventually the Chagatai khan Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq eliminated Yuan influence over Qocho. When the Mongols placed the Uyghurs in control of the Koreans at court, the Korean king objected. Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean king, saying that the Uyghur king ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn

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1536-584: Is moon cake , used to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival . A wide variety of Chinese desserts are available, mainly including steamed and boiled sweet snacks. Bing is an umbrella term for all breads in Chinese, also including pastries and sweets. These are baked wheat-flour-based confections, with different stuffings including red bean paste , jujube , and a variety of others. Su (酥) is another kind of pastry made with more amount of oil, making

1664-533: Is also unintelligible to us. Only in Hezhou (i.e., Gaochang/Qocho) and Shazhou (i.e., Dunhuang) are the temples and images like those of the Central Lands, and in those temples they recite Buddhist scriptures written in the Chinese (Han) script. The Buddhist Uyghurs frequently came into conflict with their western Muslim neighbors. Muslim Turks described the Uyghurs in a number of derogatory ways. For example,

1792-418: Is an avatar of long life and good health according to Chinese traditions. Noodles can be served hot or cold with different toppings, with broth, and occasionally dry (as is the case with mi-fen). Noodles are commonly made with rice flour or wheat flour, but other flours such as soybean are also used in minor groups. Some noodles names describe their methods of creation, such as the hand-pulled noodle. Tofu

1920-466: Is an issue in, for example, the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwan localization movements . The sinicization of Tibet is the change of Tibetan society to Han Chinese standards by means of state propaganda , police presence, cultural assimilation , religious persecution , immigration , population transfer , land development, land transfer, and political reform . According to the U.S. branch of

2048-540: Is famous for its seafood and soups and the use of spices, Hunan cuisine is famous for its hot and sour taste, Anhui cuisine incorporates wild ingredients for an unusual taste. Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of preservation such as drying , salting , pickling and fermentation . In addition,

2176-453: Is fermented tofu. Like blue cheese or durian , it has a very distinct, potent and strong smell, and is an acquired taste. Hard stinky tofu is often deep-fried and paired with soy sauce or salty spice. Soft stinky tofu is usually used as a spread on steamed buns. Doufuru is another type of fermented tofu that has a salty taste. Doufuru can be pickled together with soy beans, red yeast rice or chili to create different color and flavor. This

2304-514: Is highly diverse and most frequently categorised into provincial divisions, although these province-level classifications consist of many more styles within themselves. During the Qing dynasty , the most praised Four Great Traditions in Chinese cuisine were Chuan , Lu , Yue , and Huaiyang , representing cuisines of West, North, South, and East China, respectively. In 1980, a modern grouping from Chinese journalist Wang Shaoquan's article published in

2432-466: Is made of soybeans and is another popular food product that supplies protein. The production process of tofu varies from region to region, resulting in different kinds of tofu with a wide range of texture and taste. Other products such as soy milk , soy paste , soy oil , and fermented soy sauce are also important in Chinese cooking. There are many kinds of soybean products, including tofu skin , smoked tofu, dried tofu, and fried tofu. Stinky tofu

2560-422: Is more of a pickled type of tofu and is not as strongly scented as stinky tofu. Doufuru has the consistency of slightly soft blue cheese, and a taste similar to Japanese miso paste , but less salty. Doufuru can be used as a spread on steamed buns, or paired with rice congee . Sufu is one other type of fermented tofu that goes through ageing process. The color (red, white, green) and flavor profile can determine

2688-590: Is now Iraq , the ruler of Qocho sent a letter to Nasr II of the Samanid Empire threatening to retaliate against Muslims in his realm. Manichaean monks accompanied Uyghur embassies from 934–951 while between 965 and 1022, the accompanying monks were Buddhists. Manichaeism in Qocho probably reached its peak in 866 and was gradually replaced by Buddhism afterward. This shift was noticeable by 1008 when Manichaean temples were converted to Buddhist temples. Part of

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2816-469: Is reflected in the histories of Korea , Japan , and Vietnam in the adoption of the Chinese writing system , which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to other Asian countries. In recent times, sinicization has been used in reference to China's policy toward minorities, particularly toward religious minorities within China. Policies include

2944-685: Is still recalled in the forms of the Khotan Imam Asim Sufi shrine celebration and other Sufi holy site celebrations. Bezeklik's Thousand Buddha Caves are an example of the religiously motivated vandalism against portraits of religious and human figures. According to Kashgari's Three Turkic Verse Cycles , the "infidel tribes" suffered three defeats, one at the hands of the Karakhanids in the Irtysh Valley , one by unspecified Muslim Turks, and one inflicted upon "a city between

3072-400: Is the county of Luntai, which also has a Tang-era stele. Five hundred li south of this city (Beshbaliq) is Hezhou (Qocho), known as Gaochang in the Tang. It is also known as Yizhou. Three to four thousand li west of Gaochang is the city of Wuduan (Khotan), which was known as the kingdom of Yutian in the Tang. The two rivers that produce black and white jade are located there. In 869 and 870

3200-647: Is the most commonly eaten form. People in South China also like to use rice to make congee as breakfast. Rice is also used to produce beer and vinegar . Glutinous rice ("sticky rice") is a variety of rice used in special dishes such as lotus leaf rice and glutinous rice balls. In wheat-farming areas in Northern China , people largely rely on flour -based food, such as noodles , bing (bread), jiaozi (a kind of Chinese dumplings ), and mantou (a type of steamed buns). Wheat likely "appeared in

3328-514: The Asud or "Right Alan Guard", which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former kingdom of Qocho. In Beshbalik (now Jimsar County ), the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi. The last Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho and Turpan were converted to Islam by force during a Jihad (holy war) at

3456-580: The Boxer Rebellion and the anti-Christian movement of 1922–1927 as early efforts to sinicize Christianity. The TSPM and China Christian Council arranged a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6, 2014, commemorating the anniversary of the TSPM. This conference included a seminar on the sinicizaton of Christianity, with Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, saying "churches in China will continue to explore

3584-533: The Central Plains , as "nephew" referred to the traditional relationship between the Uyghur Khans and the previous Tang dynasty, who referred to each other as uncle and nephew. Meanwhile, West Prefecture ( 西州 ) referred to Qocho's designation under Tang administration. In 984, Arslan Bilgä Tengri ilig became Süngülüg Khagan. In the same year, a Song Chinese envoy reached Qocho and gave an account of

3712-503: The Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Chinese and were sinicized to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power by local Chinese warlords. During

3840-528: The Hui population and adopted Chinese culture practice Chinese customs, speaking varieties of Chinese as their language. From the late Han dynasty to the early Jin dynasty (266–420) , large numbers of non-Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as

3968-860: The Kara-Khanid Khanate . In 1123, Bilgä rose to power. He was succeeded by Yur Temur at some point. In 1128, the Kingdom of Qocho became a vassal of the Qara Khitai . In 1128, during the reign of Bilge Tekin, the Uighur Kingdom became a vassal state of the Western Liao established by the Khitan. Originally the Western Liao exercised only a loose control over the Uighur state, but soon started to extort excessive taxes and levies in

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4096-547: The North China Plain . The first domesticated crops seem to have been the foxtail and broomcorn varieties of millet , while rice was cultivated in the south. By 2000 BC, wheat had arrived from western Asia. These grains were typically served as warm noodle soups instead of baked into bread as in Europe. Nobles hunted various wild game and consumed mutton , pork and dog as these animals were domesticated. Grain

4224-658: The Offices of Tibet , it has been underway since the Chinese regained control of Tibet in 1951. Sources quoted by Radio Free Asia have stated that in present-day Tibet, traditional Tibetan festivals have "been turned into a platform for propaganda and political theater" where "government workers and retirees are barred from engaging in religious activities, and government workers and students in Tibetan schools are forbidden from visiting local monasteries." In April 2016, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping declared that to "actively guide

4352-487: The Old Uyghur alphabet . The Idiquts (the title of the Qocho rulers) ruled independently until they become a vassal state of the Qara Khitai (Chinese: "Western Liao"). They do not cremate their dead, but bury the dead without coffins. They always bury the dead with the head facing west. Their monks do not shave their heads, and there are no painted or sculpted images in their temples. The language of their scriptures

4480-524: The People's Daily newspaper identified the Eight Cuisines of China as Anhui ( 徽菜 ; Huīcài ), Guangdong ( 粵菜 ; Yuècài ), Fujian ( 閩菜 ; Mǐncài ), Hunan ( 湘菜 ; Xiāngcài ), Jiangsu ( 蘇菜 ; Sūcài ), Shandong ( 魯菜 ; Lǔcài ), Sichuan ( 川菜 ; Chuāncài ), and Zhejiang ( 浙菜 ; Zhècài ). Chinese cuisine is deeply intertwined with traditional Chinese medicine , such as in

4608-604: The Shanjia Qinggong ( Chinese : 山家清供 ; pinyin : Shānjiā qīnggòng ) and the Wushi Zhongkuilu ( Chinese : 吳氏中饋錄 ; pinyin : Wúshì zhōngkuìlù ) showing the respective esoteric foods and common household cuisine of the time. The Yuan and Qing dynasties introduced Mongolian and Manchu cuisine , warm northern dishes that popularized hot pot cooking. During the Yuan dynasty many Muslim communities emerged in China, who practiced

4736-506: The Son of Heaven will the tastiest delicacies be prepared [for him]." The Zhaohun (4-3rd c. BC) gives some examples: turtle ragout, honey cakes and beer (chilled with ice). During Shi Huangdi 's Qin dynasty , the empire expanded into the south. By the time of the Han dynasty , the different regions and cuisines of China's people were linked by major canals and leading to greater complexity in

4864-560: The Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao initiated the policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture. The migration of northern Chinese people to the south further settled China as a multi-ethnic empire. The Northern and Southern dynasties

4992-548: The Xinjiang internment camps is a part of the ongoing sinicization policy by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Since 2015, it has been estimated that over a million Uyghurs have been detained in these camps. The camps were established under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping 's administration with the main goal of ensuring adherence to national ideology. Critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs have accused

5120-619: The "Compendium of the Turkic Dialects" by Mahmud al-Kashgari states that "just as the thorn should be cut at its root, so the Uighur should be struck on the eye". They also used the derogatory word "Tat" to describe the Buddhist Uyghurs, which means "infidels". Uyghurs were also called dogs. While al-Kashgari displayed a different attitude towards the Turk diviners beliefs and "national customs", he expressed towards Buddhism

5248-539: The "Imperial Writings Tower" and Chinese dictionaries like Jingyun, Yupian, Tang yun, and da zang jing (Buddhist scriptures) stored inside the Buddhist temples. Uyghur Buddhists studied the Chinese language and used Chinese books like the Thousand Character Classic and the Qieyun . It was written that "In Qocho city were more than fifty monasteries, all titles of which are granted by the emperors of

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5376-595: The "Kucha Uyghurs" after another city they controlled, or the "Arslan ("Lion") Uyghurs" after their king's title. In 843, a group of Uyghurs migrated southward under the leadership of Pangtele, and occupied Karasahr and Kucha , taking them from the Tibetan Empire . In 856, this group of Uyghurs received royal recognition from the Tang dynasty . At this time, their capital was in Karasahr (Yanqi). The land of

5504-440: The "rice theory" attempts to describe cultural differences between north and south China; in the north, noodles are more consumed due to wheat being widely grown whereas in the south, rice is more preferred as it has historically been more cultivated there. Chinese ancestors successfully planted millet , rice , and other grains about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. Wheat , another staple, took another three or four thousand years. For

5632-676: The 11th century BC, some of the Baiyue peoples in the Yangtze River Delta started to sinicize, marked by their establishment of the Wu State . These Yue peoples, together with their southerner neighbours who formed the Yue State centuries later, are collectively termed as Yuyue peoples. Over time, the mutual contact between Baiyue peoples and Han Chinese, as well as southward spread of Han Chinese, mostly as war refugees , led to

5760-560: The 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used Central Asian models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices. Manchu names consisted of more than the two or one syllable Chinese names , and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all. The meaning of

5888-579: The 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu. Eventually, the Qing royal family (the Aisin Gioro ) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of generation names , although its usage

6016-522: The Buddhist city of Hami was the final blow to Uyghur Buddhism, although some Buddhist influence in the names of Turpan Muslims still remained. Since Islam reached them much after other cities in the Tarim Basin, personal names of pre-Islamic Old Uyghur origin are still used in Hami and Turpan while Uyghurs to the west use mostly Islamic names of Arabic origin. Cherrypicking of history of Xinjiang with

6144-768: The Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy a cultural genocide , or ethnocide , of Uyghurs. After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan from the Empire of Japan in 1945 and relocated its capital to Taipei in 1949, the intention of Chiang Kai-shek was to eventually go back to mainland China and retake control of it. Chiang believed that to retake mainland China, it would be necessary to re-Sinicize Taiwan's inhabitants who had undergone assimilation under Japanese rule . Examples of this policy included

6272-426: The Chinese preference of dessert is mildly sweet and less oily. Kingdom of Qocho Qocho or Kara-Khoja ( Chinese : 高昌回鶻 ; pinyin : Gāochāng Huíhú ; lit. 'Gaochang Uyghurs'), also known as Idiqut , ("holy wealth"; "glory"; "lord of fortune" ) was a Uyghur kingdom created in 843, with strong Chinese Buddhist and Tocharian influences. It was founded by refugees fleeing

6400-710: The Jinshan Kingdom's loss to the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in 911. In 954, Ilig Bilgä Tengri rose to power. In 981, Arslan Bilgä Tengri ilig rose to power. From 981, the Idiqut of Qocho sent tribute missions to the Song dynasty under the title "Nephew Lion King Arslan Khan of the West Prefecture." The addition of the title "Nephew" ( 外甥 ) was intended as a show of sincerity to the Han people of

6528-506: The Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled. In 876 the Kingdom of Qocho seized Yizhou from the Guiyi Circuit. In 880, Qocho attacked Shazhou ( Dunhuang ) but was repelled. By 887, they were settled under an agrarian lifestyle in Qocho. In 904, Zhang Chengfeng of the Guiyi Circuit (later renamed Jinshan Kingdom) attacked Qocho and seized Yizhou ( Hami /Kumul) and Xizhou ( Gaochang ). This occupation ended after

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6656-522: The Kingdom of Qocho became a vassal of the Mongol Empire . I must, however, point out that, although Chinggis Khan adopted the ruler of the Uighur state Barchukh Art Tegin as his "fifth son", the Uighur state never became the "fifth khanate", as has been suggested by some scholars. The Uighur state was not independent, but was part of the Mongol empire. During the early Yuan dynasty, at least before

6784-592: The Minglaq province across the Ili region. Buddhist murals at the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves were damaged by local Muslim population whose religion proscribed figurative images of sentient beings, the eyes and mouths in particular were often gouged out. Pieces of murals were also broken off for use as fertilizer by the locals. The Islamic–Buddhist conflict from the 11th to 12th centuries

6912-619: The Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997); and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.) and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989). During the Ming conquest of Yunnan Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married

7040-430: The Princes' rebellions, the Yuan central government exercised a tight control over the Uighur state. Although the Mongol royal family maintained a marriage relationship with the Uighur Idu-qut family for almost a century, the women who were married into Uighurstan were not the daughters of the Yuan emperors, but were mostly descendants of Ogedei Khan who had lost the throne to the descendants of Tolui, his younger brother. At

7168-472: The Sinicisation of Protestantism will never change, and our determination to walk a path that is adapted to a socialist society will never waver." In December 2023, Wang Huning stated that Christian groups must "adhere to the direction of the sinicisation of Christianity." In December 2016, the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Catholic Representatives reaffirmed their plan for the United Front Work Department 's Catholic Patriotic Association to uphold

7296-571: The Sogdians, such as Manichaeism , Buddhism , and Christianity , but also looked to the Sogdians as "mentors" while gradually replacing them in their roles as Silk Road traders and purveyors of culture. During the rule of the Qocho Kingdom, some of their subjects also began adopting Islam, as evident when the Idiqut threatened to retaliate against the Muslims of his lands and "destroy the mosques" if Manichaeans were persecuted in neighbouring Khorasan . He emphasized that Muslims in Qocho were "more numerous" than Manichaeans under Islamic rule, and he

7424-534: The Tang dynasty, which keep many Buddhist texts as the Tripiṭaka , Tangyun , Yupuan , Jingyin etc." The Uyghurs of Qocho continued to produce the Chinese Qieyun rime dictionary and developed their own pronunciations of Chinese characters. They viewed the Chinese script as "very prestigious" so when they developed the Old Uyghur alphabet , based on the Syriac script, they deliberately switched it to vertical like Chinese writing from its original horizontal position in Syriac. While Persian monks still maintained

7552-431: The Tang dynasty. During the Southern and Northern dynasties non-Han people like the Xianbei of Northern Wei introduced their cuisine to northern China, and these influences continued up to the Tang dynasty , popularizing meat like mutton and dairy products like goat milk, yogurts, and Kumis among even Han people. It was during the Song dynasty that Han Chinese developed an aversion to dairy products and abandoned

7680-576: The Tangut and China", Qatun Sini, at the hands of the Tangut Khan. The war against Buddhist, shamanist, and Manichaean Uyghurs was considered a jihad by the Kara-Khanids. Imams and soldiers who died in the battles against the Uyghur Buddhists and Khotan are revered as saints. It is possible the Muslims drove some Uyghur Buddhist monks towards taking asylum in the Tangut Western Xia dynasty. There are many varieties of people in that country. Their hair and beards are thick and curly like wool, and vary widely in shade from black to yellow. One sees only

7808-470: The Uighur lands. In 1209, the Uighur Iduq-qut ("Lord of happiness") Barchuk Art Tegin ordered the death of the Khitan magistrate ( shangjian ) in an attempt to free his people from the rule of the Western Liao. It just so happened that Chinggis Khan's envoys arrived at this juncture, and fearing retaliation from the Liao, he immediately sent envoys to Mongolia to express his willingness to acknowledge allegiance to Chinggis in exchange from protection. In 1209,

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7936-451: The Uighurs is very large, so large that to the west it appears boundless. In the fourth and fifth months, all vegetation dries up as if it were winter. The mountains are snow-covered even in summer. When the sun rises it becomes hot, but as soon as it sets, it grows cold. Even in the sixth lunar month (i.e., the peak of summer), people must use wadded coverlets to sleep. It does not rain in summer. The rain only starts to fall in autumn, and then

8064-448: The Uyghurs called Idiqutshari . Beshbalik became their summer residence. On the southern end of the Altai Mountains is a city of the Uighurs, called Bieshiba (Beshbaliq). There is a Tang-era stele there that identifies it as the former Vast Sea (Hanhai) Military Prefecture. The Vast Sea is several hundred li northwest of this city. In that sea is a small island covered with feathers shed by birds. Over two hundred li west of this city

8192-489: The Uyghurs were generally " Mongoloid " (a term meaning "appearing ethnically Eastern or Inner Asian"), giving as an example the images of Uyghur patrons of Buddhism in Bezeklik, temple 9, until they began to mix with the Tarim Basin's original, Indo-European -speaking " Caucasoid " inhabitants, such as the so-called Tocharians . Buddhist Uyghurs created the Bezeklik murals. The Uyghurs of Qocho were Buddhists whose religious identity were intertwined with their religion. Qocho

8320-425: The Yindu (Indians) who are dark and ugly and uses fire to brand their faces. In 1209, the Kara-Khoja ruler Baurchuk Art Tekin declared his allegiance to the Mongols under Genghis Khan and the kingdom existed as a vassal state until 1335. After submitting to the Mongols, the Uyghurs served the Mongol rulers as bureaucrats, providing the expertise that the initially illiterate nomads lacked. Qocho continued exist as

8448-411: The [Tang] calendar produced in the seventh year of the Kaiyuan reign (719). They fashion pipes of silver or brass and channel flowing water to shoot at each other; or they sprinkle water on each other as a game, which they call pressing out the sun's heat to chase off sickness. They like to take walks, and the strollers always carry a musical instrument with them. There are over fifty Buddhist temples here,

8576-505: The adaptation of religions to socialist society, an important task is supporting China's religions' persistence in the direction of sinicization." He later reiterated this plan to the 19th Communist Party Congress saying "We will fully implement the Party's basic policy on religious affairs, insist on the sinicization of Chinese religions, and provide active guidance for religion and socialism to coexist." The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) of Protestant churches in China has described

8704-669: The best known and most influential are Cantonese cuisine , Shandong cuisine , Jiangsu cuisine (specifically Huaiyang cuisine ) and Sichuan cuisine . These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as availability of resources, climate, geography , history , cooking techniques and lifestyle. One style may favour the use of garlic and shallots over chili and spices, while another may favour preparing seafood over other meats and fowl . Jiangsu cuisine favours cooking techniques such as braising and stewing , while Sichuan cuisine employs baking . Zhejiang cuisine focuses more on serving fresh food, Fujian cuisine

8832-403: The bringing together of these two terms, which indicate two real visions of the world." In June 2018, the Bishops' Conference of the Catholic Church in China and the Catholic Patriotic Association issued a "Five-Year Plan on Carrying Forward the Catholic Church's Adherence to the Direction of Sinicization in Our Country". This document calls for Catholics to accept Communist party leadership, love

8960-421: The cabinet minister and of the Il Ugasi ministers of the great, fortunate Uyghur government." The document details a dramatized dialogue between Mani and a prince, and testifies to the rich cultural life of the Qocho kingdom. Tang rule over Qocho and Turfan left a lasting Chinese Buddhist influence on the area. Tang names remained on more than 50 Buddhist temples with Emperor Taizong of Tang 's edicts stored in

9088-504: The city: There is no rain or snow here and it is extremely hot. Each year at the hottest time, the inhabitants dig holes in the ground to live in ... The earth here produces all the five grains except buckwheat. The nobility eat horseflesh, while the rest eat mutton, wild ducks and geese. Their music is largely played on the pipa and harp. They produce sables, fine white cotton cloth, and an embroidered cloth made from flower stamens. By custom they enjoy horseback riding and archery ... They use

9216-796: The confection more friable. Chinese candies and sweets, called táng (糖) are usually made with cane sugar , malt sugar, honey, nuts, and fruit. Gao or Guo are rice-based snacks that are typically steamed and may be made from glutinous or normal rice. Another cold dessert is called baobing , which is shaved ice with sweet syrup. Chinese jellies are known collectively in the language as ices . Many jelly desserts are traditionally set with agar and are flavoured with fruits, known as guodong (果冻), though gelatine based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts. Chinese dessert soups are typically sweet and served hot. European pastries are also seen in China, like mille-feuille , crème brûlée , and cheesecake , but they are generally not as popular because

9344-507: The country's citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China. Critics argue that assimilation destroys ethnic diversity , language diversity , and cultural diversity . The historian James A. Millward has claimed that the People's Republic of China has used the concept of sinicization as a means to obscure Han settler colonialism . In China there are 292 non-Mandarin languages spoken by native peoples of

9472-510: The culture that had occurred in the previous 50 years, and to help unite the recent immigrants from mainland China that had come to Taiwan with the KMT and among whom there was a tendency to be more loyal to one's city, county or province than to China as a nation. The process of re-asserting non-Chinese identity, as in the case of ethnic groups in Taiwan, is sometimes known as desinicization . This

9600-647: The dairy foods introduced earlier. The Han Chinese rebel Wang Su who received asylum in the Xianbei Northern Wei after fleeing from Southern Qi, at first could not stand eating dairy products like goat's milk and meat like mutton and had to consume tea and fish instead, but after a few years he was able to eat yogurt and lamb, and the Xianbei Emperor asked him which of the foods of China (Zhongguo) he preferred, fish vs mutton and tea vs yogurt. The great migration of Chinese people south during

9728-683: The definition of fellow Chinese he governed. As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce Confucian education , rituals , and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, funeral rituals , and marriage customs . He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign. Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by Sichuanese scholars. The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well. The governor

9856-616: The descendants of the Uyghurs in Turpan failed to retain memory of their Buddhist legacy and were led to believe that the "infidel Kalmuks" ( Dzungar people ) were the ones who built Buddhist monuments in their area. The Encyclopaedia of Islam wrote "By then the Turks of the Turfan ... forgetting all the other highlights of their past, they attributed the Buddhist and other monuments to the 'infidel Kalmuks'." The Islamic conversion forced on

9984-463: The destruction of religious architecture and costumes, the attempt to blend religious traditions with traditions perceived as Chinese as well as the promotion of "ethnic unity". The assimilation policy is a type of Chinese nationalism aimed at strengthening the Chinese national identity ( Zhonghua minzu ) among the population. Proponents believe it will help to develop shared values, pride in being

10112-659: The destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate after being driven out by the Yenisei Kirghiz . They made their winter capital in Qocho (also called Gaochang or Qara-Khoja , near modern Turpan ) and summer capital in Beshbalik (modern Jimsar County , also known as Tingzhou). Its population is referred to as the "Xizhou Uyghurs" after the old Tang Chinese name for Gaochang, the "Qocho Uyghurs" after their capital,

10240-563: The different regional cuisines. Not only is food seen as giving " qi ", energy, but the food is also about maintaining yin and yang. The philosophy behind it was rooted in the I Ching and Chinese traditional medicine : food was judged for color, aroma, taste, and texture and a good meal was expected to balance the Four Natures (' hot ', warm, cool, and ' cold ') and the Five Tastes (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty). Salt

10368-529: The dishes, many Chinese cuisines also contain dried Chinese mushrooms, dried baby shrimp, dried tangerine peel, and dried Sichuan chillies. When it comes to sauces , China is home to soy sauce, which is made from fermented soybeans and wheat. A number of sauces are also based on fermented soybeans, including hoisin sauce , ground bean sauce and yellow bean sauce. There are also different sauces preferred by regional cuisines, oyster sauce , fish sauce and furu (fermented tofu) are also widely used. Vinegar also has

10496-506: The eighth and ninth centuries in the Tang dynasty , Chinese male soldiers moved into Guizhou ( formerly romanized as Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as Lao-han-jen (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929. Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women. The Mongol -led Yuan dynasty appointed

10624-642: The eyes and noses on their faces [because of all the facial hair]. Their tastes and habits are also different from ours. There are Mosuluman (Muslim) Uighurs who are cruel by nature and eat only meat from animals that they have just killed with their own hands. Even when fasting, they drink wine and eat without any sense of unease. There are Yilizhu (Christian) Uighurs who are quite weak and cowardly and dislike killing; when fasting, they do not eat meat. There are Yindu (Indian) Uighurs who have black skin and are simple and honest. There are too many other kinds for me to list them all. Their king selects his eunuchs from those of

10752-531: The first time, grains provided people with a steady supply of food. Because of the lack of various foods, Chinese people had to adapt to new eating habits. Meat was scarce, and so people cooked with small amounts of meat and rice or noodles. Rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in southern China approximately 9,000 years ago and is a primary staple food for people from rice farming areas in southern China. Steamed rice , usually white rice ,

10880-518: The hands of the Chagatai Khanate ruler Khizr Khoja (r. 1389–1399). Mirza Haidar Dughlat 's Tarikh-i-Rashidi (c. 1540, in Persian ) wrote, "( Khizr Khoja ) undertook a campaign against Karakhodja [Qocho] and Turfan, two very important towns in China, and forced their inhabitants to become Muslims". The Chagatai Khanate also conquered Hami, where the Buddhist religion was also purged and replaced with Islam. Ironically after being converted to Islam,

11008-470: The historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has profoundly influenced many other cuisines in Asia and beyond, with modifications made to cater to local palates. Chinese food staples such as rice , soy sauce , noodles , tea , chili oil , and tofu , and utensils such as chopsticks and the wok , can now be found worldwide. The world's earliest eating establishments recognizable as restaurants in

11136-628: The integration of Muslims into Chinese society. Ma Fuxiang was a hardcore assimilationist and said that Hui should assimilate into Han. The Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) governed the southern region of Xinjiang in 1934–1937. The administration that was set up was colonial in nature, importing Han cooks and baths, changing the Uyghur-language -only street names and signs to Chinese, as well as switching carpet patterns in state-owned carpet factories from Uyghur to Han. Strict surveillance and mass detentions of Uyghurs in

11264-553: The intention of projecting an image of either irreligiosity or piousness of Islam in Uyghur culture has been done for various reasons. After the conversion to Islam by Uyghurs, the term "Uyghur" fell out of use until it was revived in 1921. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) The Kingdom of Qocho's rulers trace their lineage to Qutlugh of the Ediz dynasty of the Uyghur Khaganate. There are numerous gaps in our knowledge of

11392-477: The invasions preceding and during the Song dynasty increased the relative importance of southern Chinese staples such as rice and congee . Su Dongpo has improved the red braised pork as Dongpo pork . The dietary and culinary habits also changed greatly during this period, with many ingredients such as soy sauce and Central Asian influenced foods becoming widespread and the creation of important cookbooks such as

11520-593: The last leg of the Columbian Exchange , Spanish and Portuguese traders began introducing foods from the New World to China through the port cities of Canton and Macau . Mexican chili peppers became essential ingredients in Sichuan cuisine and calorically dense potatoes and corn became staple foods across the northern plains. During the Qing dynasty, Chinese gastronomes such as Yuan Mei focused upon

11648-486: The lower Yellow River around 2600 Before Common Era (BCE), followed by Gansu and Xinjiang around 1900 BCE and finally occurred in the middle Yellow River and Tibet regions by 1600 BCE". Noodles were invented in China over 4,000 years ago and have since spread across the world. Chinese noodles come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often served in soups or fried as toppings. Some varieties, such as Shou Mian (寿面, literally noodles of longevity),

11776-577: The modern sense first emerged in Song dynasty China during the 11th and 12th centuries. Street food became an integral aspect of Chinese food culture during the Tang dynasty , and the street food culture of much of Southeast Asia was established by workers imported from China during the late 19th century. The preferences for seasoning and cooking techniques in Chinese provinces depend on differences in social class , religion , historical background , and ethnic groups . Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests, and deserts also have

11904-547: The most common form of dessert consumed after dinner. Dim sum (点心), originally means a small portion of food, can refer to dessert, or pastries. Later to avoid disambiguation, tian dian (甜点) and gao dian (糕点) are used to describe desserts and pastries. Traditionally, Chinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, usually during the meal, or at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine. Besides being served as dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals. The most famous one

12032-711: The motherland and obey the state, as well as to embrace the state's directive to implement Chinese cultural integration within Catholicism. Churches in Hebei province and the Yibin Diocese of Sichuan province began holding training seminars immediately. Cardinal Parolin , the Vatican secretary of state, in a 2019 interview with the CCP-owned Global Times newspaper, claimed that sinicization

12160-406: The names inscribed over their gates all presented by the Tang court. The temples house copies of the Buddhist scriptures ( da zang jing ) and the dictionaries Tang yun , Yupian and Jingyun . On spring nights the locals pass the time milling about between the temples. There's an "Imperial Writings Tower' which houses edicts written by the Tang emperor Taizong kept carefully secured. There's also

12288-470: The names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names. The Manchus also gave numbers as personal names. Historical records report that as early as 1776, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked to see a high Manchu official, Guo'ermin , not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now Shenyang ). By

12416-543: The native women. The rulers of the Qing dynasty were ethnic Manchus who adopted the norms of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the New Qing History school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least

12544-481: The practise of Chinese food therapy . Color, scent and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food, as well as the meaning, appearance, and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised with respect to the ingredients used, knife work, cooking time, and seasoning. Chinese society greatly valued gastronomy , and developed an extensive study of the subject based on its traditional medical beliefs . Chinese culture initially centered around

12672-786: The primary goal of extracting the maximum flavour of each ingredient. As noted in his culinary work the Suiyuan shidan , however, the fashions of cuisine at the time were quite varied and in some cases were flamboyantly ostentatious, especially when the display served also a formal ceremonial purpose, as in the case of the Manchu Han Imperial Feast . As the pace of life increases in modern China, fast food like fried noodles , fried rice and gaifan (dish over rice) become more and more popular. Chinese cuisine exhibits and immense amount of regional diversity. A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine but perhaps

12800-542: The principle of independence and self-governance, along with the promotion of sinicization. In March 2018, Archbishop Paul Gallagher , Secretary for Relations with States within the Holy See 's Secretariat of State , said that "two expressions or, more precisely, two principles stand out, which should interact with each other, namely "sinicization" and " inculturation ." I am convinced that an important intellectual and pastoral challenge arises in an almost natural way from

12928-542: The reason for Manichaeism's decline may have been the lifestyle of the Manichaean clergy. A decree discovered in Turpan reports that Manichaean clerics lived in great comfort, possessed estates with serfs and slaves, ate fine food, and wore expensive garments. One of the most important medieval Uyghur documents is a 9th century decree to a Manichaean monastery affixed with eleven seals in Chinese characters saying: "Seal of

13056-542: The region. There are also a number of immigrant languages, such as Khmer , Portuguese , and English. Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of southern China , collectively termed by the Chinese as Baiyue ( Chinese : 百越 ; lit. 'Hundreds of Yue Peoples' ), inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the Yangtze River to as far south as the Gulf of Tonkin . As early as

13184-519: The religious and cultural level." In 2015, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping first raised the issue of "sinicization of Islam". In 2018, a confidential directive was issued ordering local officials to "prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions". Yang Faming, leader of the Islamic Association of China , said in a 2018 speech that "We must allow traditional Chinese culture to permeate Islam and jointly guard

13312-481: The renaming of Japanese-named streets with mainland geographical names, the use of Mandarin Chinese in schools and punishments for using other regional Chinese languages, or " dialects " (such as Hakka and Hokkien ), and teaching students to revere traditional ethics, develop pan-Chinese nationalism, and view Taiwan from the perspective of China. Other reasons for the policy were to combat the Japanese influences on

13440-765: The roasted, flat bread shaobing was brought back from the Xiyu (the Western Regions, a name for Central Asia ) by the Han dynasty General Ban Chao , and that it was originally known as hubing ( 胡餅 , lit. "barbarian bread"). The shaobing is believed to be descended from the hubing. Shaobing is believed to be related to the Persian nan and Central Asian nan , as well as the Middle Eastern pita . Foreign westerners made and sold sesame cakes in China during

13568-617: The same time, although the Mongol royal family continued to marry their Princesses to the Uighur Iduqut, not a single one of the Mongol Khans or Yuan Emperors married a Uighur Princess. In 1229, Barčuq Art iduq-qut succeeded Yur Temur. In, 1242 Kesmez iduq-qut succeeded Barčuq Art iduq-qut. In 1246, Salïndï Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Kesmez iduq-qut. In 1253, Ögrünch Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Salïndï Tigin iduq-qut. In, 1257 Mamuraq Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Ögrünch Tigin iduq-qut, who

13696-591: The sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." In 2019, TSPM chairman Xu Xiaohong made a pledge to eliminate any Western "imprint" from Chinese faith saying "[We] must recognise that Chinese churches are surnamed 'China', not 'the West'" and "No matter how much effort or time it takes, our resolution in upholding

13824-841: The sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in southern China, be they in the Yangtze Valley or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin. The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the ethnic minorities of the People's Republic of China . Tuoba Wei of northern China was a sinicized empire of Mongolic-Xianbei origin. Historical Shatuo Turks founded three sinicized dynasties in northern China. Descendants of Buddhist Uyghurs (see also Yugurs , Kingdom of Qocho and Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom ) who migrated to Taoyuan County, Hunan , have assimilated into

13952-412: The size of mosques, requiring a Communist Party member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as " halal "), and banning the hijab in schools and government offices. Chinese cuisine Chinese cuisine comprises cuisines originating from China , as well as from Chinese people from other parts of the world. Because of the Chinese diaspora and

14080-502: The spiritual homeland of the Chinese people." He encouraged Chinese characteristics to be present in religious ceremony, culture, and architecture. In 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur Muslim families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices. These government workers were trained to call themselves "relatives" and have been described in Chinese state media as being

14208-548: The term Han ( 漢人 ) to refer to the Vietnamese people, and the name Trung Quốc (中國, the same Chinese characters as for 'China') to refer to Vietnam. Likewise, the lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu had referred to Vietnamese as Han people in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams. Chinese clothing was also adopted by the Vietnamese people. Variations of them are still being used today. Hui Muslim General Ma Fuxiang created an assimilationist group and encouraged

14336-1172: The type of sufu it is. This kind of tofu is usually eaten alongside breakfast rice. Soybean milk is soybean-based milk. It is a morning beverage, and it has many benefits to human health. Apart from vegetables that can be commonly seen, some unique vegetables used in Chinese cuisine include baby corn , bok choy , snow peas , Chinese eggplant , Chinese broccoli , and straw mushrooms . Other vegetables, including bean sprouts , pea vine tips, watercress , lotus roots , chestnuts, water chestnuts, and bamboo shoots , are also used in different cuisines of China. Because of different climate and soil conditions, cultivars of green beans, peas, and mushrooms can be found in rich variety. A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season. Seasonings such as fresh ginger root, garlic , scallion , cilantro and sesame are widely used in many regional cuisines. Sichuan peppercorns , star anise , cinnamon , fennel , cloves and white peppers and smart weed are also used in different regions. To add extra flavor to

14464-454: The unification of all of China proper by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty . During this period, the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Han arrivals in the north and among the indigenous people in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism ( introduced into China in the first century ) and Daoism in both northern and southern China . During

14592-461: The vegetation begins to sprout. Come winter, the rivers and plains are like our spring, with flowers in full bloom. In 866, Pugu Jun declared himself khan and adopted the title of idiqut . The Kingdom of Qocho captured Xizhou ( Gaochang ), Tingzhou ( Beshbalik , or Beiting), Changbaliq (near Ürümqi ) and Luntai ( Bugur ) from the Guiyi Circuit . The Uyghur capital was moved to Xizhou, which

14720-550: Was a Buddhist state with both state-sponsored Mahayana Buddhism and Manichaeism . The Uyghurs sponsored the construction of many of the temple-caves in what is now called the Bezeklik Caves . Although they retained some of their culture, they were heavily influenced by the indigenous peoples of western China and abandoned the Old Turkic alphabet in favor of a modified Sogdian alphabet , which later came to be known as

14848-501: Was a form of 'inculturation', which is a Catholic missionary term that refers to adopting local culture to proclaim the gospel. He cited Matteo Ricci as an example and pointed out that the Chinese leadership had promised not to undermine the doctrine and nature of each religion. He stated in the interview: "These two terms, "inculturation" and "sinicization," refer to each other without confusion and without opposition: in some ways, they can be complementary and can open avenues for dialogue on

14976-553: Was a period in the history of China that lasted from 386 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism . The period saw large-scale migration of Han Chinese to the lands south of the Yangtze . The period came to an end with

15104-643: Was executed for supporting the Ogodeid branch of the Genghisid family. In 1266, Qosqar Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Mamuraq Tigin iduq-qut. In 1280, Negüril Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Qosqar Tigin iduq-qut. In 1318, Negüril Tigin iduq-qut died. Later, the Kingdom of Qocho became part of the Chagatai Khanate . In 1322, Tämir Buqa iduq-qut rose to power. In 1330, Senggi iduq-qut succeeded Tämir Buqa iduq-qut. In 1332, Taipindu iduq-qut succeeded Senggi iduq-qut. In 1352, Ching Timür iduq-qut succeeded Taipindu iduq-qut and

15232-540: Was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi." It has been suggested that Yachi was Dali City ( Ta-li ), which had many Hui people. Sayyid Ajall's son Nasir al-Din became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death. Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving

15360-745: Was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names. The Niohuru family of the Manchu changed their family name to Lang , which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation. Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the Manchu bannermen followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style. Usage of surnames

15488-407: Was not cooked right, man would not eat. When it was cooked bad, man would not eat. When the meat was not cut properly, man would not eat. When the food was not prepared with the right sauce, man would not eat. Although there are plenty of meats, they should not be cooked more than staple food. There is no limit for alcohol, before a man gets drunk. The Lüshi chunqiu notes: "Only if one is chosen as

15616-571: Was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese. The Vietnamese Nguyễn emperor Minh Mạng sinicized ethnic minorities such as Khmers , Chams and Montagnards , claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam. Directing his policies at the Khmers and hill tribes , Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs." Moreover, he would use

15744-564: Was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by He Hongzuo , the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies. Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work. Both Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din Vatvat recorded that Yunnan

15872-540: Was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uyghurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uyghurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uyghurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting. A hybrid court was used when Han Chinese and Uyghurs were in involved in legal issues. Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called

16000-445: Was stored against famine and flood and meat was preserved with salt, vinegar, curing, and fermenting. The flavor of the meat was enhanced by cooking it in animal fats though this practice was mostly restricted to the wealthy. By the time of Confucius in the late Zhou , gastronomy had become a high art. Confucius discussed the principles of dining: The rice would never be too white, the meat would never be too finely cut... When it

16128-522: Was the last known ruler governor of the kingdom. By the 1370s, the Kingdom of Qocho ceased to exist. Mainly Turkic and Tocharian , but also Chinese and Iranian peoples such as the Sogdians were assimilated into the Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho. Chinese were among the population of Qocho. Peter B. Golden writes that the Uyghurs not only adopted the writing system and religious faiths of

16256-641: Was ultimately successful in staying the persecutions in Khorasan. This episode was recorded by Arab bibliographer Ibn Al-Nadim , although he referred to the Qocho Idiqut as the "King of China". The Uyghur ruling family of Qocho were mainly practitioners of Manichaeism until the early 11th century, although by the 960s, they also supported Buddhism . When Al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932) of the Abbasid Caliphate began persecuting Manichaeans in what

16384-560: Was used as a preservative from early times, but in cooking was added in the form of soy sauce, and not at the table. By the Later Han period (2nd century), writers frequently complained of lazy aristocrats who did nothing but sit around all day eating smoked meats and roasts. During the Han dynasty , the Chinese developed methods of food preservation for military rations during campaigns such as drying meat into jerky and cooking, roasting, and drying grain. Chinese legends claim that

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