135-673: The Viceroyalty of Peru (Spanish: Virreinato del Perú ), officially known as the Kingdom of Peru (Spanish: Reino del Perú ), was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed from the capital of Lima . Along with the Viceroyalty of New Spain , Peru was one of two Spanish viceroyalties in
270-619: A court of law. However, special legislation was passed by parliament prior to his abdication that states he may only be tried by Spain's Supreme Court and no other. The Person of the King of Spain is inviolable and shall not be held accountable. His acts shall always be countersigned in the manner established in section 64. Without such countersignature they shall not be valid, except as provided under section 65(2). The concept of lèse-majesté ( lesa-majestad ) exists in Spanish jurisprudence , which
405-490: A governor. (See, Adelantado .) Provinces which were under military threat were grouped into captaincies general , such as the Captaincy General of Chile (established in 1541 and established as a Bourbon captaincy general in 1789), and which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. (The viceroy was captain-general of the provinces which remained directly under his command). At
540-791: A king on the throne, he ruled through a coalition of allied organizations from the Spanish Civil War including, but not limited to, the Falange political party, the supporters of the Bourbon royal family, and the Carlists , until his death in 1975. Despite Franco's alliance with the Carlists, Franco appointed Juan Carlos I de Borbón as his successor, who is credited with presiding over Spain's transition from dictatorship to democracy by fully endorsing political reforms. Impatient with
675-516: A low-water season (known popularly as summer), and a wet season (known popularly as winter) during which, the rivers flood the adjacent, low-lying forests. The climate of the basin is generally hot and humid . In some areas, however, the summer months (June–September) can bring cold snaps, fueled by Antarctic winds traveling along the adjacent mountain range. The average annual temperature is around 25-degree and 28 degree Celsius with little to no distinction between summer and winter season. Amazonia
810-531: A period of great colonial expansion and trade. The Hispanic Crown retained control over and profited from all operations in overseas colonies (by and large royal assets under a monopoly on trade), including slave trade , developed under the purview of the regalía late-medieval system. The death in 1700 of Charles II , last of the Spanish Habsburgs, triggered the War of the Spanish succession . With
945-685: A sizable military force, retired to Jauja , and later to Cusco . On July 26, 1822, San Martín and Simón Bolívar met in Guayaquil to define a strategy for the liberation of the rest of Peru. The meeting was secret, and exactly what occurred is not known. However, afterwards San Martín returned to Argentina while Bolívar prepared to launch an offensive against the remaining royalist forces in Peru and Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia ). In September 1823 Bolívar arrived in Lima with Antonio José de Sucre to plan
1080-529: A third expedition to explore the Amazon River , under Cristóbal de Acuña ; this was part of the return leg of the expedition of Pedro Teixeira . Some Pacific islands and archipelagoes were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century, but they made no effort to trade with or colonize them. These included New Guinea (by Ýñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545), the Solomon Islands (in 1568), and
1215-566: Is scarcely populated . There are scattered settlements inland, but most of the population lives in a few larger cities on the banks of the Amazon and other major rivers, such as in Iquitos – Loreto in Peru , Manaus - Amazonas State , and Belém , Pará . In many regions, the forest has been cleared for soya bean plantations and ranching (the most extensive non-forest use of the land); some of
1350-410: Is 1.5 million distributed. There are an estimated 100 uncontacted tribal groups. The largest organization fighting for the indigenous peoples in this area is COICA . It is a supra organization encompassing all indigenous rights organizations working in the Amazon basin area, and covers the people living in several countries. The river is the principal path of transportation for people and produce in
1485-444: Is currently represented by King Felipe VI , Queen Letizia , their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias , and Infanta Sofía , and the king's parents, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía . The Spanish Constitution of 1978 re-established a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain after the end of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco and the restoration of democracy in 1977 . The 1978 constitution affirmed
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#17327757286071620-584: Is incumbent upon the monarch to "confer civil and military positions and award honors and distinctions in conformity of the law". According to the Spanish Ministry of Justice , nobility and grandee titles are created by the "sovereign grace of the king", and may be passed on to the recipient's heirs, who may not sell the title. Titles may revert to the Crown when their vacancy is observed. Succession of titles may follow one of several courses listed on
1755-626: Is land. The splash tetra is famous for laying its eggs on plants above water, keeping them moist by continuously splashing on them, the South American lungfish can survive underground in a mucous cocoon during the dry season, some small rivulid killifish can jump over land between water sources (sometimes moving relatively long distances, even uphill) and may deliberately jump onto land to escape aquatic predators, and an undescribed species of worm-like Phreatobius catfish lives in waterlogged leaf litter near (not in) streams. Some of
1890-598: Is personally immune from prosecution for acts committed by government ministers in the king's name. Although he is nominally chief executive, his acts are not valid unless countersigned by a minister, who then assumes political and legal responsibility for the act in question. This legal convention mirrors the concept of sovereign immunity which evolved in similar constitutional monarchies. The legal concept of sovereign immunity evolved into other aspects of immunity law in similar liberal democracies , such as parliamentary immunity , judicial immunity , and qualified immunity in
2025-513: Is produced for use in urban areas. Exploitation of bushmeat , particularly deer and turtles is common. Extensive deforestation , particularly in Brazil , is leading to the extinction of known and unknown species, reducing biological diversity and adversely impacting soil, water, and air quality. A final part of the deforestation process is the large-scale production of charcoal for industrial processes such as steel manufacturing. Soils within
2160-405: Is quite dense and its variety of animal inhabitants is comparatively high due to the heavy rainfall and the dense and extensive evergreen and coniferous forests . Little sunlight reaches the ground due to the dense roof of canopy by plants. The ground remains dark and damp and only shade-tolerant vegetation will grow here. Orchids and bromeliads exploit trees and other plants to get closer to
2295-445: Is quite simple: frogs must always keep their skin moist since almost half of their respiration is carried out through their skin. The high humidity of the rainforest and frequent rainstorms gives tropical frogs infinitely more freedom to move into the trees and escape the many predators of rainforest waters. The differences between temperate and tropical frogs extend beyond their habitat. About 2500 fish species are known from
2430-706: Is the crime or offense violating the dignity of the head-of-state or the State itself. According to Article 56 of the 1978 Constitution the monarch and the dignity of the Spanish State are one and the same: "The King is Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence". Breaching Spain's lèse-majesté laws may carry fines and up to two years in prison. The concept is within the same legal sphere as legislation prohibiting flag desecration in other democratic countries. Additionally, lèse-majesté extends to any foreign heads-of-state visiting Spain, and other members of
2565-567: The Audiencias of Bogotá , Quito and Panamá . This viceroyalty initially lasted only until 1724, but was reestablished permanently in 1740. With the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata from southern areas that are now Argentina , Bolivia , Paraguay and Uruguay in 1776, the Charcas and Buenos Aires audiencias were similarly lost. The 256-year-old Treaty of Tordesillas
2700-579: The Andes Mountains at the west of the basin with its main tributary the Marañón River and Apurimac River in Peru . The highest point in the watershed of the Amazon is the second biggest peak of Yerupajá at 6,635 metres (21,768 ft). The Amazon River Basin occupies the entire central and eastern area of South America, lying to the east of the Andes mountain range and extending from
2835-712: The Bourbon Reforms , attempted to rationalize administration and produce more revenue from the overseas empire. During the Napoleonic Wars , the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate in 1808, and the Bourbons became a focus of popular resistance against French rule. However, Ferdinand's rejection of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 , as well as his ministerial appointments, particularly
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#17327757286072970-623: The Burgundy Family , was the last to claim the imperial title of Spain , but divided his empire among his sons. The Castilian Civil War (1366 to 1369) ended with the death of King Peter (r. 1334–1369) at the hands of his illegitimate half-brother Henry, 1st Count of Trastámara who ruled as Henry II (r. 1369–1379). Henry II became the first of the House of Trastámara to rule over a Spanish kingdom. King Peter's heiress, his granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster , married Henry III , reuniting
3105-536: The Captaincy General of Chile . Francisco Gil de Taboada reincorporated the region of Puno into the Viceroyalty of Peru. José de Armendáriz stimulated the production of silver and took steps against fraud, corruption and smuggling. Amat y Juniet established the first Regulation of Commerce and Organization of Customs rules, which led to the building of the customshouse in Callao. Teodoro de Croix collaborated in
3240-645: The Jesuits were expelled from the colony. Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa promoted educational reforms, reorganized the army, and stamped out local rebellions. During his administration, the Inquisition of Lima was temporarily abolished as a result of the reforms taken by the Cortes in Spain. When the wars of independence broke out in 1810, Peru was the center of Royalist reaction. Abascal reincorporated
3375-478: The Marquesas Islands (in 1595) by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira . The first Jesuit reduction to Christianize the indigenous population was founded in 1609, but some areas occupied by Brazilians as bandeirantes gradually extended their activities through much of the basin and adjoining Mato Grosso in the 17th and 18th centuries. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from
3510-514: The Ordenanza de Obrajes (Ordenance of Manufactures) in 1664 and Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva introduced the papel sellado (literally, sealed paper). In 1683 Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull reestablished the Lima mint, which had been closed since 1572. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara increased the production of silver in the mines of Potosí , and stimulated production in other mines at San Nicolás , Cajatambo and Huancavelica . He limited
3645-593: The Order of Alfonso X , the Royal and Military Order of Saint Hermenegild , the Order of Saint Raimundo de Penafort , the Order of Military Merit , the Order of Naval Merit , the Order of Aerial Merit , the Order of Civil Merit , the Order of Cultural Merit , the Order of Calatrava , the Order of the Knights of Santiago , the Order of Sant Jordi d'Alfama , and the Order of Alcántara , among others. The Spanish monarch
3780-659: The Portuguese empire after the Treaty of Madrid in 1750. It became a state of the Brazilian Republic in 1889. Several viceroys had scientific, political and economic impact on the Viceroyalty. Manuel de Amat y Juniet organized an expedition to Tahiti . Viceroy Teodoro de Croix also decentralized the government through the creation of eight intendencias in the area of the Audiencia of Lima , and two in
3915-458: The Siege of Callao (1826), but after death of King Ferdinand VII of Spain in 1836, the government of Spain renounced its territorial and sovereignty claims over all of continental America. In 1867, Spain signed a peace treaty with Peru and in 1879 it signed a treaty recognizing Peru's independence . The town of Lima , founded by Pizarro on January 18, 1535, as the "Ciudad de los Reyes" (City of
4050-700: The Speaker of the Congress (who, in this instance, represents the whole of the Cortes Generales). Amazon Basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries . The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,000,000 km (2,700,000 sq mi), or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in
4185-647: The Title of Concession when the title is created. As a general rule, most titles are now inherited by absolute Cognatic Primogeniture (as of 2006), in which the first born inherits all titles regardless of gender. However, a title holder may designate his successor, Succession by Assignment , or disperse his titles among his children – with the eldest getting the highest-ranking title, Succession by Distribution . During his reign between 1975 and 2014, King Juan Carlos awarded peerages to two of his former prime ministers who had retired from active politics: Adolfo Suárez , who
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4320-543: The Treaty of Tordesillas and explorations such as that by Francisco de Orellana , but Portugal fell under Spanish control between 1580 and 1640. During this time, Portuguese territories in Brazil were controlled by the Spanish crown, which did object to the spread of Portuguese settlement into parts of the Amazon Basin that the treaty had awarded to Spain. Still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out
4455-511: The Viceroyalty of Peru , in order to properly control and govern Spanish South America. In 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (King Charles I of Spain) named Blasco Núñez Vela Peru's first viceroy. From September 2, 1564, to November 26, 1569, Lope García de Castro , a Spanish colonial administrator who constituted the first Audiencia in Spanish South America, served as the interim viceroy of Peru. Although established,
4590-756: The Visigothic Kingdom and its Christian successor states of Navarre , Asturias (later Leon and Castille ) and Aragon , which fought the Reconquista or Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century. One of the earliest influential dynasties was the House of Jiménez which united much of Christian Iberia under its leadership in the 11th century. From Sancho III of Navarre (r. 1000–1035) until Urraca of León and Castile (r. 1106–1125), members of
4725-535: The largest strict freshwater fish in the world. The bull shark and common sawfish , which have been recorded far up the Amazon, may reach even greater sizes, but they are euryhaline and often seen in marine waters. In contrast to the giants, there are Amazonian fish from several families that are less than 2 cm (0.8 in) long. The smallest are likely the Leptophilypnion sleeper gobies, which do not surpass 1 cm (0.4 in) and are among
4860-479: The regency of the monarchy and guardianship of the person of the monarch in the event of his minority or incapacitation. The office of Regent(s) and the Guardianship of the monarch (whether the monarch is in his minority or incapacitated) may not necessarily be the same person. In the event of the minority of the monarch, the surviving mother or father, or oldest relative of legal age who is nearest in line to
4995-463: The smallest fish in the world. The Amazon supports very large fisheries, including well-known species of large catfish (such as Brachyplatystoma , which perform long breeding migrations up the Amazon), arapaima and tambaqui , and is also home to many species that are important in the aquarium trade , such as the oscar , discus , angelfish , Corydoras catfish and neon tetra . Although
5130-413: The Amazon are Portuguese and Spanish . There are hundreds of native languages still spoken in the Amazon, most of which are critically endangered . Many tribal groups live in the Amazon Basin, often in relative isolation. It is estimated 400 or more tribal groups have lived in the Amazon Basin for hundreds of years with their own culture, language, and lifestyle. Today total population of Amazon basin
5265-406: The Amazon basin and it is estimated that more than 1,000 additional undescribed species exist. This is more than any other river basin on Earth, and Amazonia is the center of diversity for Neotropical fishes . About 45% (more than 1,000 species) of the known Amazonian fish species are endemic to the basin. The remarkable species richness can in part be explained by the large differences between
5400-644: The Amazon basin, has several other cavefish species. The deeper part of the major Amazonian rivers are always dark and a few species have adaptions similar to cavefish (reduced pigment and eyes). Among these are the knifefish Compsaraia and Orthosternarchus , some Cetopsis whale catfish (especially C. oliveirai ), some Xyliphius and Micromyzon banjo catfish, and the loricariid catfish Loricaria spinulifera , L. pumila , Peckoltia pankimpuju , Panaque bathyphilus and Panaqolus nix (these five also occur in "normal" forms of shallower waters). The perhaps most unusual habitat used by Amazonian fish
5535-460: The Amazon basin. The biodiversity of the Amazon and the sheer number of diverse bird species is given by the number of different bird families that reside in these humid forests. An example of such would be the cotinga family, to which the Guianan cock-of-the-rock belong. Birds such as toucans , and hummingbirds are also found here. Macaws are famous for duck gathering by the hundreds along
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5670-544: The Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas . The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal . The creation during the 18th century of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Río de la Plata (at the expense of Peru's territory) reduced
5805-587: The Constitution and the Laws are sustained, and to respect the rights of the citizens and of the autonomous communities. The 1978 Constitution, Title II The Crown , Article 62, delineates the powers of the king, while Title IV Government and Administration , Article 99, defines the king's role in the appointment of the prime minister and the formation of the council of ministers/government. Title VI Judicial Power , Article 117, Articles 122 through 124, outlines
5940-566: The European balance of power . Philip V was the first member of the House of Bourbon (Spanish: Borbón ) to rule Spain. That dynasty still rules today under Felipe (Philip) VI. In the mid-eighteenth century, particularly under Charles III of Spain , the Spanish Crown embarked on an ambitious and far-reaching project to implement major reforms in the administration of Spain and the Spanish empire. These changes, collectively known as
6075-697: The Guyana Plateau in the north to the Brazilian Plateau in the south. With a length of about 6,400 km (4,000 mi) before it drains into the Atlantic Ocean , it is one of the two longest rivers in the world . A team of scientists has claimed that the Amazon is longer than the Nile , but debate about its exact length continues. The Amazon system transports the largest volume of water of any river system, accounting for about 20% of
6210-512: The Indian population's tribute labor, even the most remote settlements, and therefore, many encomenderos developed reciprocal, if still hierarchical, relationships with the curacas . By the end of the 16th century the quasi-private encomienda had been replaced by the repartimiento system (known in Peru by the Quechua term, mita ), which was controlled by local crown officials. Politically
6345-461: The Jiménez family claimed the historic Visigothic title Imperator totius Hispaniae or Emperor of All Spain . The Jiménez rulers sought to bring their kingdoms into the European mainstream and often engaged in cross- Pyrenees alliances and marriages, and became patrons to Cluniac Reforms (c. 950–c. 1130). Urraca's son and heir Alfonso VII of León and Castile , the first of the Spanish branch of
6480-554: The Kings/ Magi ), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. As the seat of a viceroy, who had oversight over all of Spanish South America except for Portuguese-dominated Brazil, Lima grew into a powerful city. During the 16th, 17th and most of the 18th centuries, all of the colonial wealth of South America created by the silver mines passed through Lima on its way to the Isthmus of Panama and from there to Seville , Spain. The rest of
6615-660: The Nationalists. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany aided Franco in the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union backed the Republican Government as did Mexico under the government of Lázaro Cárdenas . After sixteen years without monarchy or kingdom, in 1947, Spain was made a Kingdom again by General Franco, who claimed to rule Spain as Head of state of the Kingdom of Spain through the Law of Succession . However, without
6750-488: The Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates and privateers. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia , Valparaíso , Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima (1686) and Trujillo (1685–1687). Nevertheless, the famous Welsh privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled
6885-560: The Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low-level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, viceroy Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata in two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He established the Tribunal del Consulado , a court and administrative body for commercial affairs in the viceroyalty. Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar , reformed
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#17327757286077020-639: The Pragmatic Sanction argued that it was never officially promulgated, claiming Ferdinand VII's younger brother, Prince Carlos , the rightful heir to the crown according to the Salic Law. In September 1873, the First Spanish Republic was founded. A coup d'état restored the Bourbon dynasty to the throne in 1874. In 1931 Spanish local elections produced victories (particularly in urban areas) for candidates favoring an end to
7155-601: The Spanish State domestically and internationally, all the while aiming to maintain a professionally non-partisan yet independent monarchy. The Crown of Spain ( la Corona de España ), with its roots in the Visigothic kingdom from the 5th century and subsequent successor states, is recognized in Title II The Crown , Articles 56 through 65 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 . Constitutionally
7290-418: The Spanish explorations and settlement in the Caribbean, the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire , the crown established high courts ("Audiencias") and viceroyalties in important regions ( Mexico , 1535; Panama , 1538, which was later replaced by Lima , 1542). The viceroy (vice-king) and the Audiencias were the effective administrators of royal policy. In 1505,
7425-439: The Spanish monarchs have never used the title. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Kingdom of Granada in southern Spain, the last Muslim territory in the Iberian peninsula. The unification of Spain is marked from this date, though the Spanish kingdoms continued past that date. The territories of the Spanish empire overseas were dependencies of the Crown of Castile, and Castile had an outsized influence there. Following
7560-441: The Spanish monarchy passed to the House of Habsburg in the person of King Charles I (also Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V), son of Queen Joanna and King Philip I of Castile (usually Philip the Handsome in English). With the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1516 the Aragonese lands were added to Charles and Joanna's territories. With his mother and co-monarch Joanna confined in Tordesillas , claimed to be mad, Charles I
7695-435: The Spanish under Field Marshal José de Canterac . The two armies met on the plains of Junín on August 6, 1824, and the Peruvians were victorious in a battle fought entirely without firearms. The Spanish troops subsequently evacuated Lima for a second time. As a result of a decree of the Congress of Gran Colombia , Bolívar turned over command of the rebel troops to Sucre on October 7, 1824. At this point, royalist control
7830-514: The United States. As the reigning monarch the king of Spain has absolute sovereign immunity, he cannot be charged in any court of law in the Spanish state. This immunity applies to both civil and criminal cases. Sovereign immunity is reserved exclusively for the current holder of the Office of King. It does not apply to any other member of the royal family. When Juan Carlos I abdicated the throne to his successor Felipe VI he automatically forfeited his constitutional sovereign immunity and can be charged in
7965-410: The Viceroyalty of Peru was established, gold and silver from the Andes enriched the conquerors, and the viceroyalty became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. Viceroy Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau sent back an enormous sum of money (1,600,000 pesos) to the king to cover some of
8100-450: The attacks by Edward David (1684 and 1686), Charles Wager and Thomas Colb (1708). The Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello . In this period, revolts were common. Around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca (emperor) of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against
8235-466: The census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Indians. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at genocide , the results were similar, largely resulting from smallpox and other Eurasian diseases to which the natives had no immunity. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns, each centered around a plaza with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for
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#17327757286078370-489: The city of Pisco , with the land army under the command of José de San Martín and the navy under the command of Thomas Cochrane . After Cochrane's navy defeated the Spanish navy on the Peruvian coasts, the expedition secured the surrender of Callao. After fruitless negotiations with the viceroy, the expedition occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima on July 21, 1821. The independence of Peru was proclaimed on July 28, 1821. Viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa , still in command of
8505-419: The clay cliffs of the Amazon River. In the western Amazon hundreds of macaws and other parrots descend to exposed river banks to consume clay on an almost daily basis, the exception being rainy days. The green anaconda inhabits the shallow waters of the Amazon and the emerald tree boa and boa constrictor live in the Amazonian tree tops. Many reptile species are illegally collected and exported for
8640-420: The colonial government. The clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima. There were terrible earthquakes (1655, 1687 ) and epidemics, too. During Baltasar de la Cueva Enríquez 's administration, the laws of the Indies were compiled. Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva issued
8775-447: The constitution is obeyed. Lastly, the king swears to respect the rights of Spanish citizens and of the self-governing communities. The Prince of Asturias, upon reaching the age of majority, in addition to any regent(s) upon assuming the office, swears the same oath as that of the king along with a further oath of loyalty to the monarch. The oath reads as follows: I swear faithfully to discharge my functions, to sustain and see to it that
8910-408: The costs of the War of the Spanish Succession . This was possible in part because of the discovery of the mines in Caraboya . Silver from mines at Potosí, Bolivia, circulated around the world. Peruvian and other New World silver was so plentiful that it caused inflation in Spain and a collapse in its price. Even today, Peru and Bolivia produce much of the world's silver. While most of the silver from
9045-414: The countries of Bolivia , Brazil , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Peru , Suriname , and Venezuela , as well as the territory of French Guiana . Most of the basin is covered by the Amazon rainforest , also known as Amazonia . With a 5.5 million km (2.1 million sq mi) area of dense tropical forest , it is the largest rainforest in the world. The Amazon River begins in
9180-420: The country's on-going late-2000s economic crisis . According to the Spanish Constitution voted in referendum , the sovereign power emanates from the people, so it is the very same people who give the king the power to reign: National sovereignty belongs to the Spanish people, from whom all State powers emanate. The monarch " arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions " and assumes
9315-430: The country. The current King is Felipe VI since 19 June 2014, after the abdication of his father, King Juan Carlos I . The Spanish monarchy is constitutionally referred to as The Crown ( Spanish : La Corona ), and it comprises the reigning monarch , his or her royal family, and the Royal Household , which supports and facilitates the sovereign in the exercise of his duties and prerogatives. The Royal Family
9450-462: The creation of the Junta Superior de Comercio and the Tribunal de Minería (1786). An earthquake demolished Lima and Callao , in 1746. Viceroy Amat y Juniet constructed various public works in Lima, including the first bull ring. Manuel de Guirior also improved the medical care at ten hospitals in Lima and established a foundling home. War between Spain and Britain again broke out (the War of Jenkins' Ear , 1739–1748). Amat y Juniet constructed
9585-473: The crown , compensation , and a regency -guardianship contingency in cases of the monarch's minority or incapacitation . According to the Constitution, the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the "nations of its historical community". The monarch serves as honorary president of the Organization of Ibero-American States , representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide. The monarchy in Spain has its roots in
9720-490: The death of the childless Charles II, the succession to the throne was disputed. Charles II had designated his sister Maria Theresa 's grandson, Philip of France , Duke of Anjou , as his heir. The possible unification of Spain with France, the two big European powers at the time, sparked the Spanish War of Succession in the 18th century, culminating in the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714) , which preserved
9855-691: The defensibility of the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, and la Armada del Mar del Sur (the Southern Fleet) against pirates. He ended the indigenous Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba , executing the Inca Túpac Amaru , and promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from silver mines in Potosí . The Amazon Basin and some large adjoining regions had been considered Spanish territory since
9990-802: The dynasties in the person of their son, King John II . In the 15th century, the marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , both members of the House of Trastámara , known as the Catholic Monarchs , united two important kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula . Each kingdom retained its basic structure. The last pretender of the crown of the Byzantine Empire , Andreas Palaiologos , who styled himself as "Emperor of Constantinople", bestowed his imperial title to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in his last testament, dated 7 April 1502, although
10125-460: The establishment of the Viceroyalty of Peru, several major governorates formed from these grants, including the Governorate of New Castile (1529), Governorate of New Toledo (1534), Governorate of New Andalusia (1534), and Province of Tierra Firme (1539). In 1542, the Spanish organized the existing governorates into the Viceroyalty of New Castile, which shortly afterward would be called
10260-518: The exclusion of liberals, gradually eroded popular support for the Spanish monarchy. With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830 , Ferdinand set aside the Salic law , introduced by Philip V, that prohibited women from becoming sovereigns of Spain. Thereby, as had been customary before the arrival of the Bourbons, Ferdinand VII's eldest daughter Isabella became his heiress presumptive . Opponents of
10395-637: The finances of the viceroyalty was the maintenance of the Valdivian Fort System built in response to the Dutch expedition to Valdivia in 1643. Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera prohibited direct trade between Peru and New Spain (Mexico) and the persecution of Portuguese Jews, the principal traders in Lima . A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo,
10530-482: The first of the Spanish Bourbons, women were barred from succession until Ferdinand VII reintroduced the right and designated his elder daughter Isabella as his heir presumptive by 1833. The debate on amending the Crown's succession law came to the forefront on 31 October 2005, when Infanta Leonor was born to the current King and Queen of Spain. Amending the law to absolute primogeniture would allow
10665-412: The first-born to inherit the throne, whether the heir be male or female. The Zapatero administration of the day proclaimed its intention to amend the succession law; however, with the birth of the king's second daughter the issue was postponed. Paving the way, in 2006 King Juan Carlos issued a decree reforming the succession to noble titles from male preference primogeniture to absolute primogeniture. Since
10800-467: The fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Other viceroys, such as Fernando Torres , Fernández de Cabrera, and Fernández Córdoba expanded the royal navy and fortified the ports to resist foreign incursions, such as those led by privateer Thomas Cavendish . Fernández de Cabrera also suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians. Viceroys had to protect
10935-542: The fortress of Real Felipe in Callao in 1774. Nevertheless, throughout this period, rebellions by Native Peruvians were not entirely suppressed. In the eighteenth century alone, there were fourteen large uprisings, the most important of which were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and the Sierra Uprising of Túpac Amaru II in 1780. The Comunero Revolt broke out in Paraguay from 1721 to 1732). In 1767,
11070-463: The foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like Huanuco Viejo , were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish. Monarchy of Spain The monarchy of Spain or Spanish monarchy ( Spanish : Monarquía Española ) is the constitutional form of government of Spain . It consists of a hereditary monarch who reigns as the head of state , being the highest office of
11205-418: The highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations. The monarch exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the constitution and the laws. The King is Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with
11340-448: The historic dynasty" be included in the text to underscore that the monarchy was a historic institution predating the constitution or the prior regime. The Crown of Spain shall be inherited by the successors of HM Juan Carlos I de Borbón, the legitimate heir of the historic dynasty. Succession to the throne shall follow the regular order of primogeniture and representation, the first line having preference over subsequent lines; and within
11475-475: The importance of Lima and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires , while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish Empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of
11610-534: The independence of Peru and South America. During this battle, the losing Spanish army sustained 2,000 dead and wounded and lost 3,000 prisoners, with the remainder of the army entirely dispersed. During the battle, Viceroy Serna was wounded and taken prisoner, where he signed the final capitulation whereby the Spaniards agreed to leave Peru. Serna was released soon afterwards and sailed for Europe. Spain made futile attempts to retain its former territories, such as at
11745-443: The inhabitants harvest wild rubber latex , and Brazilian nuts . This is a form of extractive farms, where the trees are not cut down. These are relatively sustainable operations in contrast to lumbering or agriculture dependent on clearing the rainforest. The people live in thatched houses shaped liked beehives. They also build apartment-like houses called " Maloca ", with a steeply slanting roof. The most widely spoken languages in
11880-442: The international pet trade. Live animals are the fourth largest commodity in the smuggling industry after drugs, diamonds and weapons. More than 1,500 species of amphibians swim and are found in the Amazon. Unlike temperate frogs which are mostly limited to habitats near the water, tropical frogs are most abundant in the trees and relatively few are found near bodies of water on the forest floor . The reason for this occurrence
12015-470: The king and queen in Madrid, and in 2009 two Galician separatists were fined for burning effigies of the king. According to Article 57 the Crown of Spain is inherited by the successors of King Juan Carlos I de Borbón through male preference primogeniture . While drafting the new constitution, lawyer and liberal congressman Joaquín Satrústegui (1909–1992) insisted that the phrase "the legitimate heir of
12150-566: The king in his minority shall fall under the guardianship of the person designated in the will of the deceased monarch, provided that he or she be of age and of Spanish nationality. If no guardian has been appointed in the will, then the father or mother will then assume the guardianship, as long as they remain widowed. Otherwise, the Cortes Generales shall appoint both the Regent(s) and the guardian, who in this case may not be held by
12285-513: The king of Spain can bestow. The second in order the king may award is the Order of Charles III to "citizens who, with their effort, initiative and work, have brought a distinguished and extraordinary service to the Nation". The Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand is Spain's highest military award for gallantry. Other orders, decorations, and medals include the Order of Isabella the Catholic ,
12420-662: The king used a specially designed command communications center in the Zarzuela Palace to denounce the coup and command the military's eleven captains general to stand down. Following the events of 1981, Juan Carlos led a less eventful life, according to author John Hooper. Juan Carlos did not preside over ceremonies such as the opening of hospitals and bridges as often as monarchs in other nations. Instead, he worked towards establishing reliable political customs when transitioning one government administration to another, emphasizing constitutional law and protocol, and representing
12555-452: The king's role in the country's independent judiciary . However, by constitutional convention established by Juan Carlos I, the king exercises his prerogatives having solicited government advice while maintaining a politically non-partisan and independent monarchy. Receiving government advice does not necessarily bind the monarch into executing the advice, except where prescribed by the constitution. His acts shall always be countersigned in
12690-413: The local level there were hundreds of districts, in both Indian and Spanish areas, which were headed by either a corregidor (also known as an alcalde mayor ) or a cabildo (town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the Bourbon dynasty began phasing out the corregidores and introduced intendants , whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of
12825-547: The major fish groups of the Amazon basin include: More than 90% of the animal species in the Amazon are insects , of which about 40% are beetles (Coleoptera constituting almost 25% of all known types of animal life-forms.) Whereas all of Europe has some 321 butterfly species, the Manú National Park in Peru (4000 hectare-survey) has 2300 species, while Tambopata National Reserve (5500 hectare-survey) has at least 1231 species. The Amazon River basin has
12960-524: The manner established in section 64. Without such countersignature they shall not be valid, except as provided under section 65(2). It is incumbent upon the King: The 1978 constitution confirms the title of the monarch is the King of Spain , but that he may also use other titles historically associated with the Crown. According to Royal Decree 1368/1987, regulating the titles, treatments and honours of
13095-404: The manufacture of aguardiente from sugar cane to authorized factories, which he taxed heavily. The Churches of Los Desamparados (1672), La Buena Muerte and the convent of Mínimos de San Francisco de Paula were finished and opened. The Hospital of Espiritu Santo in Lima and San Bartolomé hospital were built. In 1717, the Viceroyalty of New Granada was created from the northern territories,
13230-470: The minority or incapacitation of a monarch. No further constitutional language prescribes titles or forms of address to the fourth generation, or great grandchildren, of a reigning monarch. Following his abdication in 2014, Juan Carlos I and his wife Sofía retain courtesy titles of King and Queen of Spain. The monarch's position as the fount of honour within Spain is codified in Article 62 (f); It
13365-469: The modern-day country of Peru , as well as Chile , Colombia , Panama , Ecuador , Bolivia , Paraguay , Uruguay , and Argentina , the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. After the Spanish conquest of Peru , Charles V granted the conquistadors with adelantados , gave them the right to become governors and justices of the region they conquered. Prior to
13500-469: The monarch embodies and personifies the "indissoluble" unity and permanence of the Spanish State , and represents the legal personality of the State and by extension fulfills the role of " Father of the Nation ". As a unifying figure for the nation, in 2010 King Juan Carlos worked towards "bridging the gap" between Spain's rival polarized political parties to develop a unified strategy in response to
13635-676: The monarch exercises in the formation of Spanish governments is in the nomination and appointment process of the President of the Government ( Presidente del Gobierno de España ). Following the General Election of the Cortes Generales ( Cortes ), and other circumstances provided for in the constitution, the king meets with and interviews the political party leaders represented in the Cortes, and then consults with
13770-418: The monarch, and the children of the heir apparent, shall have the title and rank of Infante or Infanta (prince or princess), and styled His or Her Royal Highness ( Su Alteza Real ). Children of an Infante or Infanta of Spain "shall have the consideration of Spanish Grandees ", and the address of "Your Excellency". The royal decree further limits the ability of any regent to use or create titles during
13905-415: The monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Faced with unrest in the cities, Alfonso XIII went into exile, but did not abdicate. The ensuing provisional government evolved into the relatively short-lived Second Spanish Republic . The Spanish Civil War began in 1936 and ended on 1 April 1939 with the victory of General Francisco Franco and his coalition of allied organizations commonly referred to as
14040-482: The most diverse orders in the Amazon are Characiformes (43% of total fish species in the Amazon) and Siluriformes (39%), but other groups with many species include Cichlidae (6%) and Gymnotiformes (3%). In addition to major differences in behavior and ecology, Amazonian fish vary extensively in form and size. The largest, the arapaima and piraiba can reach 3 m (9.8 ft) or more in length and up to 200 kg (440 lb) in weight, making them some of
14175-404: The mouth of the Amazon, which was in Portuguese territory. Meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from enslaving indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. A famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people. In fact, as time passed, they were used as a self-funding occupation force by
14310-426: The nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws. Upon accession to the crown and being proclaimed before the Cortes Generales, the king swears an oath to faithfully carry out his constitutional duties and to abide by the constitution and laws of the state. Additionally, the constitution gives the king the added responsibility to ensure that
14445-622: The offensive. In February 1824 the royalists briefly regained control of Lima. Olañeta's Rebellion started by surprise and the entire royalist army of Upper Peru (today's Bolivia) revolted, led by the royalist commander Pedro Antonio Olañeta against José de la Serna , the liberal viceroy of Peru . This broke the royal army and started a civil war in Upper Peru. Having regrouped in Trujillo , Bolívar in June led his rebel forces South to confront
14580-427: The order of succession to the Crown is codified in the Constitution, its reform mandates a complicated process that involves a dissolution of parliament, a constitutional election, and a referendum. If all lines designated by law become extinct, the constitution reserves the right for the Cortes Generales to provide for the succession "in the manner most suitable for Spain". The 1978 constitution disinherits members of
14715-426: The pace of democratic reforms, the new king, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as President of the Government in 1977. The next year the king signed into law the new liberal democratic Constitution of Spain , which was approved by 88% of voters. Juan Carlos' "quick wit and steady nerve" cut short the attempted military coup in 1981 when
14850-470: The provinces of Córdoba , Potosí , La Paz , Charcas , Rancagua and Quito into the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Royal Army of Peru during 14 years defeated the patriots armies of Argentinians and Chileans, turning Peru into the last royal bastion in South America. A large fire in Guayaquil destroyed approximately half of the city in 1812. Lord Cochrane unsuccessfully attacked Guayaquil and Callao , but on 4 February he captured Valdivia , called at
14985-592: The region are generally shallow and cannot be used for more than a few seasons without the addition of imported fertilizers and chemicals. "Over past 20 years (2021), the Brazilian Amazon emitted 13% more CO 2 than it absorbed". "Amazon biodiversity also plays a critical role as part of global systems, influencing the global carbon cycle and thus climate change , as well as hemispheric hydrological systems, serving as an important anchor for South American climate and rainfall. It also produces 20% oxygen of
15120-615: The regions, with transport ranging from balsa rafts and dugout canoes to hand built wooden river craft and modern steel hulled craft. Seasonal floods excavate and redistribute nutrient-rich silt onto beaches and islands, enabling dry-season riverside agriculture of rice, beans, and corn on the river's shoreline without the addition of fertilizer, with additional slash and burn agriculture on higher floodplains. Fishing provides additional food year-round, and free-range chickens need little or no food beyond what they can forage locally. Charcoal made largely from forest and shoreline deadfall
15255-534: The role of the King of Spain as the living personification and embodiment of the Spanish nation and a symbol of Spain's enduring unity and permanence and is also invested as the "arbitrator and the moderator" of Spanish institutions. Constitutionally, the sovereign is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces . The constitution codifies the use of royal styles and titulary, royal prerogatives , hereditary succession to
15390-445: The royal family (as well as their descendants) from succession if they marry against the expressed prohibition of the monarch and the Cortes Generales. Lastly, Article 57 further provides that "Abdications and renunciations and any doubt in fact or in law that may arise in connection with the succession to the Crown shall be settled by an organic act". Constitutionally, the current heirs of Felipe VI are: The constitution outlines
15525-517: The royal family and the regents, the king and his wife, the queen consort , will formally be addressed as "His Majesty and Her Majesty" ( Their Majesties , Spanish: Su Majestad , Su represents His or Her ) rather than the traditional " Catholic Majesty " ( Su Católica Majestad ). A prince consort , the husband of a queen regnant , will have the style "His Royal Highness" ( Su Alteza Real ). The widows and widowers of monarchs are to retain these styles until they remarry. The heir from birth shall hold
15660-520: The royal family, and to the Spanish President of the Government as the king's appointed officer. The Spanish satirical magazine El Jueves was fined for violation of Spain's lèse-majesté laws after publishing an issue with a caricature of the Prince and Princess of Asturias engaging in sexual intercourse on their cover in 2007. In 2008, 400 Catalonia separatists burned images of
15795-491: The same line the closer grade over the more remote; and within the same grade the male over female, and in the same sex, the elder over the younger. Male-preference cognatic primogeniture has been practiced in Spain since the 11th century in the various Visigothic successor states and codified in the Siete Partidas , with women able to inherit in certain circumstances. However, with the succession of Philip V in 1700,
15930-495: The same person, except by the father or mother of direct relation of the king. The constitution defines the government's responsibilities. The government consists of the President of the Government and ministers of state . The government conducts domestic and foreign policy , civil and military administration, and the defense of the nation all in the name of the king. Additionally, the government exercises executive authority and statutory regulations. The most direct prerogative
16065-483: The sunlight. They grow hanging onto the branches or tree trunks with aerial roots , not as parasites but as epiphytes . Species of tropical trees native to the Amazon include Brazil nut , rubber tree and Assai palm . More than 1,400 species of mammals are found in the Amazon, the majority of which are species of bats and rodents . Its larger mammals include the jaguar , ocelot , capybara , puma and South American tapir . About 1,500 bird species inhabit
16200-510: The throne, would immediately assume the office of Regent, who in any case must be Spanish. If a monarch becomes incapacitated, and that incapacitation is recognized by the Cortes Generales, then the Prince of Asturias (the heir apparent), shall immediately become Regent, if he is of age. If the Prince of Asturias is himself a minor, then the Cortes Generales shall appoint a Regency which may be composed of one, three, or five persons. The person of
16335-672: The time The Key of the South Seas and the Gibraltar of the Pacific , due to its huge fortifications . However, the viceroyalty managed to defend Chiloé Island until 1826. On September 8, 1820, the Expedición Libertadora of Peru, organized mainly by the Chilean government with the objective of executing previous plans laid out by Argentine libertador José de San Martín , landed on the beach at Paracas Bay near
16470-453: The title of Prince of Asturias and the other titles historically associated with the heir apparent. These additional titles include Prince of Viana , historically associated with the heir apparent to the Kingdom of Navarre ; with the titles Prince of Girona and Duke of Montblanc historically associated with the heir apparent for the Crown of Aragon , among others. Other children of
16605-718: The total water carried to the oceans by rivers. Some of the Amazon rainforests are deforested because of an increase in cattle ranches and soybean fields. The Amazon basin formerly flowed west to the Pacific Ocean until the Andes formed, causing the basin to flow eastward towards the Atlantic Ocean. Politically the basin is divided into Peruvian Amazonia , Amazônia Legal of Brazil, the Amazon natural region of Colombia , Amazonas (Venezuelan state) , and parts of Bolivia and Ecuador . (km ) (km ) Plant growth
16740-454: The true danger they represent often is greatly exaggerated, the Amazon basin is home to several feared fish species such as piranhas (including the famous red-bellied ), electric eel , river stingrays and candiru . Several cavefish species in the genus Phreatobius are found in the Amazon, as is the cave-dwelling Astroblepus pholeter in the far western part of the basin (Andean region). The Tocantins basin, arguably not part of
16875-442: The various parts of the Amazon basin, resulting in many fish species that are endemic to small regions. For example, fauna in clearwater rivers differs from fauna in white and blackwater rivers , fauna in slow moving sections show distinct differences compared to that in rapids , fauna in small streams differ from that in major rivers, and fauna in shallow sections show distinct differences compared to that in deep parts. By far
17010-462: The viceroyalty dependent upon Lima in administrative matters, in a pattern that persists until today in Peru. By the start of the 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of the 250-year-old Royal and Pontifical University of San Marcos and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas. At ground level during the first century, Spanish encomenderos depended on local chieftains ( curacas ) to gain access to
17145-573: The viceroyalty ended up in Europe some circulated within South America. Indeed, the Real Situado was an annual payment of silver from the viceroyalty to finance the permanent Spanish army in Chile that which fought a prolonged conflict known as Arauco War . The Spanish in turn traded part of this silver with Mapuches giving origin to a tradition of Mapuche silverwork . Another issue that burdened
17280-443: The viceroyalty of Peru largely depended on the export of silver . The huge amounts of silver exported from the viceroyalty of Peru and Mexico deeply affected Europe, where some scholars believe it caused the so-called price revolution . Silver mining was carried out using contract and free wage labourers, as well as the mita system of unfree labour, a system inherited from pre-Hispanic times. Silver production peaked in 1610. Once
17415-458: The viceroyalty was further divided into audiencias , which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of Peru in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones). Audiencias further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as "governorships" ( gobernaciones , roughly provinces ) headed by
17550-534: The viceroyalty was not properly organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo , who made an extensive tour of inspection of the region. Francisco de Toledo, "one of the great administrators of human times," established the Inquisition in the viceroyalty and promulgated laws that applied to Indians and Spanish alike, breaking the power of the encomenderos and reducing the old system of mita (the Incan system of mandatory labor tribute). He improved
17685-480: The viceroys, governors and cabildos . ( See Bourbon Reforms . ) With dates of creation: Later Audiencias *Later part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada †Later part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 1. Chile (1789) Listed under year of creation: 1783 1. Lima , 2. Puno 1784 3. Trujillo , 4. Tarma , 5. Huancavelica , 6. Cuzco , 7. Arequipa , (10. Chiloé , abolished in 1789) 1786 8. Santiago , 9. Concepción The economy of
17820-476: Was created 1st Duke of Suárez ; and Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo who was created 1st Marquess of la Ría de Ribadeo . All successive politicians remain active within politics. The king grants not only military and civil orders, but also grants awards of distinction, customarily on the advice of government. The Order of the Golden Fleece , one of the oldest surviving orders of chivalry, is the highest honor
17955-489: Was reduced to Cuzco in the south-central highlands. The viceroy launched a counter-offensive over Ayacucho , and on 9 December 1824. The Battle of Ayacucho (also known as the Battle of La Quinua), took place between royalist Spanish and nationalist ( republican ) troops at Pampa de La Quinua, a few kilometers away from Ayacucho, near the town of Quinua . This battle, led by Bolívar's lieutenant Antonio José de Sucre , sealed
18090-562: Was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it had occupied in South America in the intervening centuries. This Portuguese occupation led to the Guaraní War of 1756. Amazonas is named after the Amazon River , and was formerly part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, a region called Spanish Guyana . It was settled by the Portuguese in the early 18th century and incorporated into
18225-499: Was the sole ruler, but the legal situation remained slightly ambiguous until her death in 1555 left Charles the undoubted sole monarch, though as Holy Roman Emperor it was not his principal title. Only in the reign of his son Philip II of Spain from 1556 did "King of Spain" become the usual way to refer to the monarch, in Spain and the rest of Europe. Philip's reign marked the peak of the Spanish Golden Age (1492–1659),
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