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150-589: During the plantations of Laois and Offaly , Queen Elizabeth I took possession of the Franciscan religious house in Stradbally, which she then gave to Francis Cosby as a reward for his role in the Tudor conquest . The family rebuilt large parts of the estate and landscaped it to their tastes and desires, including the addition of a hermitage . Encountering financial difficulties, the family left Ireland for

300-505: A Jewish merchant by the name of Josce of Gloucester : "Josce, Jew of Gloucester, owes 100 shillings for an amerciament for the moneys which he lent to those who against the king's prohibition went over to Ireland." In May of that year, Raymond FitzGerald landed at Bannow Bay with at least 10 knights and 70 archers. This was the advance guard for Strongbow's army and was to be the springboard for an assault on Waterford. Raymond's force occupied an old promontory fort at Baginbun and plundered

450-584: A considerable area after the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . Prior to its conquest in the Nine Years War of the 1590s, Ulster was the most Irish-Gaelic part of Ireland and the only province that was completely outside English control. The war, of 1594–1603, ended with the surrender of the O'Neill and O'Donnell lords to the English crown, but it was also a hugely costly and humiliating episode for

600-402: A figure of 4,000 settlers were killed directly; and up to 12,000 may have died of causes also related to disease (always a cause of high fatalities during wartime) or privation after being expelled from their homes. Ulster was worst hit by the wars, with massive loss of civilian life and mass displacement of people. The atrocities committed by both sides further poisoned the relationship between

750-576: A fortune off the plantations. Businessman Robert Payne advocated for settlers to come to the Munster colonies. He bought land holdings in Munster for his venture, recruiting 25 business partners and partnering with industrialist Francis Willoughby . Willoughby was a sleeping partner in a project aimed at establishing an ironworks in the Munster colonies. Daniel Gookin, a Munster colonist, sold his lands in Carrigaline and his company in Munster to

900-534: A joint "British", i.e. English and Scottish, venture to pacify and civilise Ulster. It was agreed that at least half of the settlers would be Scots. Six counties made up his official plantation of Ulster: The plan was determined by two factors: first, the Crown wanted to protect the settlement from being destroyed by rebels like the Munster plantation. So rather than settling the planters in isolated pockets of land confiscated from convicted rebels, they confiscated all of

1050-573: A land-owning class of British Protestants was created in Ireland, and they ruled over mostly Irish Catholic tenants. A minority of the "Cromwellian" landowners were Parliamentarian soldiers or creditors. Most were pre-war Protestant settlers, who took the opportunity to obtain confiscated lands. Before the wars, Catholics had owned 60% of the land in Ireland. During the Commonwealth period, Catholic landownership fell to 8–9%. After some restitution in

1200-628: A large Anglo-Norman army from Dublin marched north into what is now County Armagh . This was part of Oriel, a kingdom meant to be free from encroachment under the treaty. However, the Irish of Oriel forced the Anglo-Normans to retreat and killed up to 500 of their soldiers. That summer, the forces of Oriel and the Northern Uí Néill , under Cenél nEógain (Kinel Owen), invaded Meath, led by King Mael Sechlainn Mac Lochlainn. They destroyed

1350-553: A large army to assert control over both the Anglo-Normans and the Irish. This intervention was supported by the Roman Catholic Church , who saw it as a means of ensuring Irish religious reform, and a source of taxes . At the time, Irish marriage laws conflicted with those of the broader Church, and the Gregorian Reform had not been fully implemented. Henry granted Strongbow Leinster as a fiefdom , declared

1500-564: A loyal Diarmait restored to power would allow the fleet of Dublin to be used in Anglo-Norman campaigns against the Welsh and Scots. Several Marcher Lords agreed to help: Richard FitzGilbert de Clare (also known as Strongbow), Robert FitzStephen , Maurice FitzGerald , and Maurice de Prendergast . Diarmait promised Strongbow his daughter Aoífe in marriage and the kingship of Leinster upon Diarmait's death. He promised Robert and Maurice

1650-542: A minimum of 48 adult males (including at least 20 families), who had to be English-speaking Protestants. However, veterans of the war in Ireland (known as Servitors ) led by Arthur Chichester , successfully lobbied for land grants of their own. Since these former officers did not have enough private capital to fund the colonisation, their involvement was subsidised by the City of London (the financial sector in London). The city

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1800-632: A minority in the Irish Parliament , as a result of the creation of "pocket boroughs" (where Protestants were in the majority) in planted areas. In 1625, they gained a temporary halt to land confiscations by agreeing to pay for England's war with France and Spain. In addition to the plantations, thousands of independent settlers arrived in Ireland in the early 17th century, from the Netherlands and France as well as Britain. Many of them became chief tenants of Irish land-owners; others set up in

1950-410: A peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated and English plantations were established. To this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the "exemplary plantation", in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that

2100-607: A provision. The Anglo-Norman clergy strongly backed the proposal. The plans came to nothing, allegedly due to opposition from his mother, the Empress Matilda . There were contacts between the Irish and Normans well before 1169. The Norman lord of Pembroke, Arnulf de Montgomery (d. 1118–22), was the son-in-law of Murtough O'Brien (d. 1119), king of Munster and High King of Ireland . De Montgomery and his family had rebelled against Henry I in 1100 and sought Irish aid. De Montgomery married O'Brien's daughter and obtained

2250-533: A series of military fortifications. In 1568–1569, Warham St Leger and Richard Grenville tried to establish a small English joint stock colony in the barony of Kerrycurrihy , by Cork Harbour , on land leased from the Earl of Desmon. They then proposed establishing larger corporate colonies in late 1568 creating a consortium of English merchants to fund a colony in Baltimore, west Co. Cork, mainly for exploiting

2400-728: A successful plundering raid into the kingdom of the Déisi , by both land and sea - even though, as their king had submitted to Henry, the kingdom should have been exempt from attack. The Norman raid on the monastic town of Lismore was interrupted by a Norse-Irish fleet from Cork. After a naval engagement, the Normans withdrew to Waterford. FitzGerald then returned to Wales, due to the death of his father. In late 1173, Diarmait Mac Murchada's son, Domhnall Caomhánach (Donal Cavanagh), attacked Strongbow's forces in Leinster, killing 200 men. Around

2550-664: Is suggested that Strongbow's succession was justified in English law by having Aoífe's mother deemed to be his only legitimate wife, leaving Aoífe as his only legitimate heir. Furthermore, Strongbow's succession was not justified in Irish law , as succession to kingship was elective , and could only be passed on through the male line. Diarmait's son Domnall Cáemánach (Donal Cavanagh) backed Strongbow, perhaps because he felt it gave his family their best chance of holding on to power. Strongbow gave Domnall jurisdiction over his Irish subjects in most of Leinster. Shortly after Diarmait's death,

2700-641: Is thought that the Dublin - Leinster army in the 1014 Battle of Clontarf may have included troops from the Duchy of Normandy . After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the Normans became aware of the role Ireland played in providing refuge and assistance to their enemies. They also contemplated the conquest of Ireland. It is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that if William

2850-494: The 1641 Rebellion , and the principal reason why it was joined by Ireland's wealthiest and most powerful Catholic families. In October 1641, after a bad harvest and in a threatening political climate, Phelim O'Neill launched a rebellion, hoping to rectify various grievances of Irish Catholic landowners. However, once the rebellion was underway, the resentment of the native Irish in Ulster boiled over into indiscriminate attacks on

3000-580: The Annals of Tigernach stated that the kings' submissions to Henry II were in two stages; firstly in Waterford by the king of Desmond , and then in Dublin by the kings of Leinster , Meath , Breffny , Oriel and Ulster . The Irish church hierarchy also submitted to Henry, believing his intervention would bring greater political stability. Henry "used the church as a vehicle of conquest". He organised

3150-584: The Hill of Ward for negotiations. During these negotiations, there was a dispute, and de Lacy's men killed Ua Ruairc. His head was then impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle . Strongbow also invaded and plundered Offaly , but failed to subdue it. In early 1173, many of the Anglo-Norman leaders left Ireland to fight for King Henry in the Revolt of 1173–74 . When Raymond FitzGerald returned later that year, he led

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3300-536: The Kingdom of Breifne , forced the submission Rory O'Connor , king of Connacht , and in 1161 gave MacMurrough eastern Meath . For six months in 1165, the fleet of Dublin, which was under the control of Dermot MacMurrough, was used to aid Henry II's forces in an abortive campaign in north Wales. Some of the initiative for political and military intervention came from Anglo-Norman church leaders – especially Theobald , Archbishop of Canterbury – who wanted to control

3450-701: The Laudabiliter and purported to give Henry dominion over Ireland, to ensure religious reform and ensure the Irish paid their tax to Rome . The synod sought to bring Irish church practices into line with those of England, and new monastic communities and military orders (such as the Templars) were introduced into Ireland. Henry granted Meath to Hugh de Lacy ; as that kingdom had not been conquered this meant that Henry would let de Lacy hold it if he could conquer it. In early 1172, Henry allowed de Lacy to take royal troops into Meath, where they plundered and burned

3600-602: The Lordship of Ireland , part of the Angevin Empire . The Normans' success has been attributed to military superiority and castle-building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish and the support of the church for Henry's intervention. In the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from

3750-721: The MacMurrough-Kavanagh clan . Since most land-owning families in Ireland had taken their estates by force in the previous four hundred years, very few of them, with the exception of the New English planters, had proper legal titles for them. As a result, in order to obtain such titles, they were required to forfeit a quarter of their lands. This policy was used against the Kavanaghs in Wexford and subsequently elsewhere, to break up Catholic Irish estates (especially

3900-678: The New Model Army were awarded land in Ireland in place of their wages due, which the Commonwealth was unable to pay. Many of these soldiers sold their land grants to other Protestants rather than settle in war-ravaged Ireland, but 7,500 soldiers did settle in Ireland. They were required to keep their weapons to act as a reserve militia in case of future rebellions. Taken together with the Merchant Adventurers , probably over 10,000 Parliamentarians settled in Ireland after

4050-607: The Restoration Act of Settlement 1662 , it rose to 20% again. In Ulster, the Cromwellian period eliminated those native landowners who had survived the Ulster plantation. In Munster and Leinster, the mass confiscation of Catholic-owned land after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , meant that English Protestants acquired almost all of the land holdings for the first time in these territories. In addition, under

4200-525: The Russian language , performed the role of interpreter in the Persian Gulf . Mrs Cosby remained at Stradbally Hall to tend to the couple's children for the duration of the war. She opened a girls school in the house during the 1950s, allowing the girls to board and to tend to their ponies on the estate. Three governesses were responsible for their education. The British Prime Minister Edward Heath

4350-667: The Treaty of Abernethy created a limited settlement between the Norman conquerors and Scotland, with lands in Cumbria exchanged for peace. Over the following decades, Norman lords conquered much of south Wales and established their own semi-independent lordships there. According to historian John Gillingham , after the Norman conquest, an imperialist attitude emerged among England's new French-speaking ruling elite, and they came to view their Celtic neighbours as inferior and barbarous. It

4500-584: The Tudor period , however, Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory initially lost to the Anglo-Normans: "even in the Pale, all the common folk ... for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit and of Irish language". At a higher social level, there was intermarriage between the Gaelic Irish aristocracy and Anglo-Norman lords. To varying degrees inside and especially outside of

4650-662: The Wicklow Mountains , forcing Ruaidrí's army to abandon their plans. When they reached Dublin, Diarmait began negotiations with its king, Ascall mac Ragnaill (Ascall MacRannall). On 21 September, while talks were ongoing, a force of Normans—led by Miles de Cogan and Raymond FitzGerald —stormed the town and took it. Ascall and his followers fled in their ships but vowed to re-take the town. Strongbow and Diarmait then launched "a devastating campaign" through Meath and into Breffny, burning Clonard , Kells , and several other monastic towns. In response to these violations of

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4800-424: The colonisation of this land with settlers from Great Britain . The Crown saw the plantations as a means of controlling, anglicising and 'civilising' Gaelic Ireland . The main plantations took place from the 1550s to the 1620s, the biggest of which was the plantation of Ulster . The plantations led to the founding of many towns, massive demographic, cultural and economic changes, changes in land ownership and

4950-474: The deposed King of Leinster , who sought their help in regaining his kingship. They achieved this within weeks and raided neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention was sanctioned by King Henry II of England . In return, Diarmait had sworn loyalty to Henry and promised land to the Normans. In 1170, there were further Norman landings, led by the Earl of Pembroke , Richard "Strongbow" de Clare . They seized

5100-584: The king of Leinster , Dermot MacMurrough , had been on good terms with the future Henry II . After becoming king of England in December 1154, Henry II had allied with Somerled , Lord of Argyll , and Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , king of the Cenél nEógain , to put pressure on the new king of Scotland, Malcolm IV . The fruits of this alliance saw Malcolm cede parts of Scotland to England in 1157 and make peace with Somerled in 1160. In Ireland, Mac Lochlainn invaded

5250-504: The synod of Cashel , at which Irish church leaders acknowledged him as their "temporal overlord". This may have been due to their realisation that the Gregorian Reforms were not compatible with Gaelic society. Pope Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III , sent letters to the Irish bishops, telling them to accept Henry as their overlord in accordance with the oaths sworn by its kings, or face ecclesiastical censure. He ratified

5400-424: The Anglo-Norman army at Thurles and began making incursions into the Pale itself forcing Henry II to come to talks, the treaty of Windsor was drafted which was agreed upon that the Anglo-Normans would have mostly the Pale but couldn't make incursions into Irish held lands. Henry II would later disavow the treaty he agreed to and made incursions into Irish kingdoms forfeiting his title as lord of Ireland and his right to

5550-467: The Anglo-Norman garrison in Dublin. The remaining garrison in Wexford was then attacked and forced out of the town. The Normans fled to a military encampment at nearby Carrick, where they were besieged. The siege of Dublin went on for two months. There were several skirmishes, but the Irish army apparently sought to starve the city into surrender. With Dublin and Carrick under siege, Strongbow and his council agreed to negotiate. Strongbow proposed that if

5700-452: The Anglo-Normans came under attack, both from within Leinster and from outside. Diarmait was succeeded as ruler of Uí Ceinnselaig (his home territory) by his brother Murchad, who opposed Strongbow along with other Leinster rulers. The Irish of Desmond launched a devastating attack on Norman-held Waterford. At about the same time, a Norse-Gaelic army, in a fleet of at least 60 ships, landed outside Dublin. Led by Ascall, they tried to re-take

5850-477: The Anglo-Normans thus became known as the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of the Angevin Empire . Henry also encouraged the Anglo-Norman lords to conquer more territory. He granted the kingdom of Thomond to Philip de Braose and granted Desmond to Robert FitzStephen and Miles de Cogan. Over the following months, the Anglo-Normans invaded the kingdoms of Desmond, Thomond, and Connacht, while John de Courcy continued his conquest of east Ulster. The arrival of

6000-470: The Anglo-Normans were allowed to keep what they had conquered, they would acknowledge Ruaidrí as their overlord. Ruaidrí responded that he would only allow the Normans to keep Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford. This was unacceptable to Strongbow. A Norman sortie slipped out of Dublin and made a surprise attack on Ruaidrí's camp at Castleknock . The Normans killed hundreds of soldiers, many of whom were resting or bathing, and seized supplies. Following this defeat,

6150-525: The Ards with 100 men. They were opposed by the Lord of Clannaboy, Brian McPhelim O'Neill , who complained the grant was illegal. As the English often commandeered Irish church buildings for garrisons, McPhelim burned all church buildings in the Ards to prevent this. The colonists hastily built a fort near Comber , but the plantation fell apart after Smith's son was killed by Irishmen in 1573. The plantation scheme

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6300-666: The Commonwealth regime, some 12,000 Irish people were sold into indentured servitude to the Caribbean and North American colonies. Another 34,000 Irish Catholics went into exile on the Continent, mostly in the Catholic countries of France or Spain. Recent research has shown that although the native Irish land-owning class was subordinated in this period, it never totally disappeared. Many of its members found niches in trade or as chief tenants on their families' ancestral lands. For

6450-572: The Conqueror had lived for two more years (until 1089) "he would have conquered Ireland by his prudence and without any weapons". William's son, William II , is stated as having said "For the conquest of this land, I will gather all the ships of my kingdom, and will make of them a bridge to cross over". In September 1155, King Henry II of England held a council at Winchester . According to Robert of Torigni , Henry discussed plans to invade Ireland and grant it to his brother William FitzEmpress as

6600-727: The Crown's revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Many of the Frenchmen were former soldiers, who had fought on the Williamite side in the Williamite war in Ireland . This community settled mainly in Dublin , as some had already been established as merchants in London. Their communal graveyard can still be seen off St Stephen's Green . The total population of this community may have reached 10,000. The English banned and discouraged

6750-482: The English Earldom of Ulster . It was known as the "Enterprise of Ulster". During the conflict between the English and Shane O'Neill , there were proposals to colonize parts of east Ulster, but Crown support was not forthcoming. Following Shane O'Neill's death, an act of attainder was passed on him for rebellion against the Crown. As O'Neill had claimed lordship over most of Ulster, the act declared most of

6900-414: The English and Scottish planters to arrive in this region. Plantations stayed off the political agenda until the appointment of Thomas Wentworth , a Privy Councilor of Charles I , to the position of Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1632. Wentworth's job was to raise revenue for Charles and to cement Royal control over Ireland – which meant, among other things, more plantations, both to raise money and to break

7050-490: The English finally subdued the displaced O'Moore clan by massacring most of their fine (or ruling families) at Mullaghmast in Laois, having invited them there for peace talks. Rory Oge O'More , the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year. The ongoing violence meant that the authorities had difficulty in attracting people to settle in their new plantation. Settlement ended up clustered around

7200-620: The English government in Ireland. In the short term the war failed, and generous surrender terms given to the rebels re-granted them much of their former land, but under English law. But when Hugh O'Neill and the other rebel earls left Ireland in the so-called 1607 Flight of the Earls to seek help from the Spanish Crown for a new rebellion, the Lord Deputy Arthur Chichester seized the opportunity to colonise

7350-563: The Ferns agreement, Ruaidrí executed three hostages, including Diarmait's son. Diarmait returned to Ferns and died there suddenly in May 1171. Strongbow then claimed Leinster, as Diarmait had promised Strongbow he would inherit the kingdom upon his death, as his son-in-law through Aoífe. However, Strongbow would not have been deemed Diarmait's heir under either Irish or English law, with Diarmait having two wives, as well as sons and other daughters. It

7500-676: The Gaelic ones) around the country. Following the precedent set in Wexford, small plantations were established in Laois and Offaly , Longford , Leitrim and north Tipperary . In Laois and Offally, the Tudor plantation had consisted of a chain of military garrisons. In the new, more peaceful climate of the 17th century, it attracted large numbers of landowners, tenants and labourers. Prominent planters in Leinster in this period include Charles Coote, Adam Loftus, and William Parsons. In Munster, during

7650-589: The Glens , who asserted they were opposing Essex rather than the Crown. In September 1574, Essex led a military expedition deep into Tyrone, burning crops. That November, Essex's men massacred 200 of McPhelim's company during a parley at Belfast Castle, and Essex then had McPhelim executed for treason. The MacDonnells called in reinforcements from their kinsmen in the Scottish Highlands . In July 1575, Essex sent Francis Drake and John Norris to attack

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7800-632: The Irish Catholics were defeated in the Cromwellian conquest of 1652, most remaining Catholic-owned land was confiscated and thousands of English soldiers settled in Ireland. Scottish settlement in Ulster resumed and intensified during the Scottish famine of the 1690s . By the 1720s, British Protestants were the majority in Ulster. The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with British and Protestant identities. The ruling classes of these communities replaced

7950-722: The Irish army withdrew. In the meantime, FitzStephen had surrendered to the Norse-Irish at Carrick. When they learned that Strongbow was on his way, they burnt Wexford and withdrew to a nearby island with FitzStephen as a hostage. King Henry apparently feared that Strongbow would set up an independent kingdom in Ireland, which could control the Irish Sea and interfere in English affairs. In early 1171, Henry ordered that his subjects return to his realm or all their possessions would be seized. Strongbow reminded Henry that he had gone to Ireland with Henry's permission, to restore Diarmait to

8100-476: The Irish by the "Life of Malachy", written by Malachy 's friend, Bernard of Clairvaux . This hagiography, written within a year of Malachy's death in 1148, depicted the Irish, in fact highly Christianised, in exaggerated terms as barbaric, semi-pagan and in need of reform. Historian F. X. Martin writes that Ireland was "barbaric" in Bernard's eyes because it "had retained its own culture and had remained outside

8250-496: The Irish church and fully implement the Gregorian Reforms . Irish church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel (1101), Ráth Breasail (1111) and Kells (1152). These reforms, intended to tighten attitudes towards marriage, clerical celibacy, the sacramental system, and control of church lands and offices, "would demand the abandonment of features of Gaelic society going back to pre-Christian times and of practises which had been accepted for centuries by

8400-457: The Irish could emulate and be taxed. The second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive/commercial in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions. The first such scheme was the Plantation of King's County (now Offaly ) and Queen's County (now Laois ) in 1556, naming them after

8550-495: The Irish, he put into execution clauses of the statute against Irish customs, particularly forbidding the wearing of the native mantle. Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land in Ireland over which the monarchs of England then claimed sovereignty. The Anglo-Normans claimed

8700-630: The Irish. The Irish rejected the Laudabiliter The first Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest . The Dublin Castle administration intended to pacify and anglicise Irish territories controlled by the Crown and incorporate the Gaelic Irish aristocracy into the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland by using a policy of surrender and regrant . The administration intended to develop Ireland as

8850-430: The Kingdom of Ireland in 1542. Gerald of Wales argued that the English crown has the right to rule Ireland because of a mission to civilise a barbarous people. His writings shaped English and European views of Ireland for centuries. He says: The idle woodland people the Irish reject agriculture, cities, the rights and privileges of citizenship and hence civilisation itself, the mission is to civilise and truly Christianise

9000-432: The Latin secular world". This depiction of Ireland and the Irish became established as the mainstream view throughout Europe. In 1166, Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor), king of Connacht , was acknowledged as High King of Ireland by most of the Irish kings. He led a coalition—that included Tigernán Ua Ruairc (Tiernan O'Rourke) of Bréifne (Breffny), Diarmait Ua Maelsechlainn (Dermot O'Melaghlin) of Míde (Meath),

9150-421: The MacCarthys, appealed the dispossession of their dependants. Other sectors of the plantation were equally chaotic. John Popham imported 70 tenants from Somerset , only to find that the land had already been settled by another undertaker, and he was obliged to send them home. Nevertheless, 500,000 acres (202,343 ha) were planted with English colonists. The Crown hoped that the settlement would attract in

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9300-486: The MacDonnells. This ended with the massacre of 600 MacDonnell men, women and children on Rathlin Island . By this time, Elizabeth had called an end to the scheme. It was a failure which had cost Essex and the Crown dearly. The Munster Plantation of the 1580s was the first mass plantation in Ireland. It was instituted as punishment for the Desmond Rebellions , when the Geraldine Earl of Desmond had rebelled against English interference in Munster . The Desmond dynasty

9450-410: The Munster Plantation include Walter Raleigh , Edmund Spenser , and Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork . The latter especially made huge fortunes out of amassing Irish lands and developing them for industry and agriculture. The Irish Catholic upper classes were unable to stop the continued plantations in Ireland because they had been barred from public office on religious grounds. By 1615 they comprised

9600-419: The Normans altered the agricultural landscape of Ireland. Elements that appear afterwards include: large-scale hay-making; cultivated pears and cherries; larger white-fleeced breeds of sheep; and the introduction of various animals such as rabbits, perch, pike and carp. Another economic effect was the widespread usage of coinage, originally introduced by the Vikings. In the late 1180s, during John's lordship,

9750-399: The Normans. The army included contingents from Connacht , Breffny, Meath , and Dublin, each led by their respective kings. An agreement was reached at Ferns : Diarmait was acknowledged as king of Leinster, in return for acknowledging Ruaidrí as his overlord and agreeing to send his foreign allies away permanently. To ensure compliance, Diarmait agreed to give Ruaidrí hostages , one of whom

9900-473: The Norse-Irish of Dublin , and several Leinster princes —which ousted Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh) as king of Leinster . Diarmait refusing to accept his fate sailed from Ireland on the 1 August for Bristol with his daughter Aoife and sought help from Henry II in regaining his kingship. Henry gave Diarmait permission to recruit forces and authorised his subjects to help Diarmait, in return for Diarmait swearing loyalty to Henry. Among other benefits,

10050-421: The Norse-Irish towns to be crown land , and arranged the synod of Cashel to reform the Irish church. Many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman expansion, but Henry granted the unconquered kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy . After Henry's departure in 1172, fighting between the Normans and Irish continued. The 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of

10200-430: The Northern Uí Néill, along with their kings. It marched into Meath, destroying the castles at Trim and Duleek , before advancing on Dublin. Raymond FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 30 knights, 100 mounted soldiers and 300 archers. When this army arrived at Dublin and reinforced the garrison there, Ruaidrí's army withdrew. In 1175, the Anglo-Normans rebuilt their castles in Meath and raided or "laid waste"

10350-438: The Pale . In the 1540s the English Tudor conquest of Ireland began. The first plantations were in the 1550s, during the reign of Queen Mary I , in Laois (' Queen's County ') and Offaly (' King's County '). These plantations were based around existing frontier forts, but they were largely unsuccessful due to fierce resistance from native Irish clans. The next plantations were during the reign of Elizabeth I . In 1568 there

10500-443: The Pale itself. Meaning subsequent claims by the English monarchy to Ireland such as Henry VIII lordship or later kingship were illegitimate Laudabiliter was a decree issued by the Pope that made Ireland's people the subjects of Henry II, however there is some debate on whether the Laudabiliter was legitimate or a forgery. The Laudabiliter could be compared to the Papal Bull "Inter Caetera," issued by Pope Alexander VI, which gave

10650-458: The Pale, the ' Old English ' had integrated into Irish society. Edmund Spenser wrote of the old English : "they are more sharpely to be chastised and reformed … for they are more stubborne, and disobedient to the law and government, than the Irish". English discourse on Ireland largely viewed the Gaelic Irish outside the Pale as savages, and compared them with the Native Americans in 1580. In 1174 Rory O’Connor (Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair) defeated

10800-545: The Spanish the exclusive right to rule the lands discovered by Columbus, making the native Americans their "subjects". Despite this the Laudabiliter had a continuing political relevance into the 16th century. Henry VIII of England was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December 1538, causing his opponents to question his continuing claim to be Lord of Ireland, which was based ultimately on Laudabiliter. Henry established

10950-484: The Welsh Black Book of Carmarthen describes Henry "crossing the salt sea to invade the peaceful homesteads of Ireland", causing "war and confusion". Gerald de Barri felt obliged to refute what he called the "vociferous complaints that the kings of England hold Ireland unlawfully". Shortly after Henry left Ireland, Hugh de Lacy invaded Meath and was confronted by Tigernán Ua Ruairc. The two leaders met on

11100-493: The Windsor Treaty soon fell apart. Henry was "unable or unwilling" to rein in the Anglo-Norman lords, and Ruaidrí was unable to control all of the Irish kings. Contemporary English historian William of Newburgh wrote that "the military commanders left there by him [Henry] for the government of this subjugated province, desirous either of booty or fame, by degrees extended the boundaries allotted to them". In April 1176,

11250-771: The age of ninety-three in 2008. In 1934 at the age of nineteen, she married into the Cosby family when she took Maj Errold Ashworth Sidney Cosby as her husband. At her death, The Irish Times remembered her as "a strikingly beautiful figure" whilst attending the Laois Hunt Ball at the Hall dressed in emeralds owned by the family. She was also known for organising parties during the Christmas season and bred and also judged Welsh ponies. During World War II , Maj Errold Ashworth Sidney Cosby rejoined his regiment and, being fluent in

11400-480: The area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin . The Lord Deputy of Ireland , the Earl of Sussex , ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement. However, the plantation was not a great success. The O'Moores and O'Connors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought a local insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578,

11550-430: The army was assembling. The Song of Dermot and the Earl recounts that the meeting was friendly, while Gerald of Wales pictures the king's anger gradually subsiding until a friendly agreement was reached. Strongbow's actions may have been only a catalyst for Henry's intervention. Historian Peter Crooks writes that, "No less than his predecessors, Henry II was happy to add Ireland to his empire." An English historian of

11700-460: The assistance of his fleet, but was still forced to flee to Ireland in 1102. Orderic Vitalis ' account says De Montgomery used his troops to aid O'Brien in Ireland and hoping to succeed his father-in-law as king, but had to flee after his hosts turned against him. William of Malmesbury states it was only after the Normans imposed a trade embargo on Ireland that the situation died down and the O'Brien-de Montgomery alliance ended. From at least 1144,

11850-518: The best land. This meant that many English and Scottish landowners had to take Irish tenants, contrary to the terms of the Plantation of Ulster. In 1609, Chichester deported 1300 former Irish soldiers from Ulster to serve in the Swedish Army . The attempted conversion of the Irish to Protestantism also had few successes; at first the clerics sent to Ireland were all English speakers, whereas

12000-428: The castle at Slane and forced the Anglo-Normans to abandon Galtrim, Kells, and Derrypatrick. Strongbow died in May 1176, and Henry appointed William FitzAldelm as his new representative in Ireland. He was replaced the following year by Hugh de Lacy. In February 1177, John de Courcy left Dublin with a force of about 22 knights and 500 soldiers. De Courcy swiftly marched north, into the kingdom of Ulaid, and captured

12150-524: The church in Ireland." Implementing the reforms was slow and difficult. At the Synod of Kells , the church of Canterbury had its claims to primacy over the Irish church dismissed by Pope Eugene III , who felt the Irish church could handle its own affairs. This did not go down well with the Anglo-Norman clergy. In 1155 John of Salisbury , Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and good friends with

12300-429: The city of Bristol , England in the early eighteenth century. An account written at the time described how the family returned rather quickly to Stradbally "not all of us liking England." Stradbally Hall has been rebuilt several times, most recently in 1860 by Charles Lanyon , who rebuilt it in an Italianate style complete with a ballroom. Enid Elizabeth Cosby lived in the house for seventy years until her death at

12450-629: The civil wars. In addition to the Parliamentarians, thousands of Scottish Covenanter soldiers, who had been stationed in Ulster during the war, settled there permanently after its end. Some Parliamentarians had argued that all the Irish should be deported to west of the River Shannon and replaced with English settlers. However, this would have required hundreds of thousands of English settlers willing to come to Ireland, and such numbers of aspirant settlers were never recruited. Rather,

12600-454: The conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the remainder of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. The treaty soon collapsed: Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms and the Irish continued to attack the Normans. In 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be the "Lord of Ireland" (i.e. claiming the whole island) and authorised the Norman lords to conquer more land. The territory they held became

12750-594: The defeated rebel lords. However, the settlements were scattered and attracted far fewer settlers than was hoped for. When the Nine Years' War broke out in the 1590s, most of these settlements were abandoned, although English settlers began to return following the war. The plantation of Ulster began in the 1610s, during the reign of James I . Following their defeat in the Nine Years' War, many rebel Ulster lords fled Ireland and their lands were confiscated. This

12900-484: The defence of planted districts from attack. However, the colonial plans were complicated by surveys showing less land available than previously imagined, as well as lawsuits influenced by the earl of Ormond. It was agreed that ninety-one families would be settled on 12,000 acres and further smaller grants of 8,000, 6,000 and 4,000 acres families were to be planted. In 1611 it has been estimated that 94,000 acres originally assigned to undertakers had been reclaimed. Out of

13050-417: The eighty-six, original volunteers only fifteen ultimately took out patents, although these were supplemented by another twenty individuals not associated with the initial scheme. On the outbreak of the Nine Years' War, one contemporary estimate was that the plantation had attracted about 5,000 English settlers, but it is more commonly surmised that the total English population in the colony stood at c. 4000 at

13200-469: The estate on to his eldest son, Adrian. Adrian farmed the estate before passing it on to his son, Thomas. Thomas initiated the annual Electric Picnic music festival which began in 2004. Plantations of Ireland#Laois and Offaly Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland ( Irish : Plandálacha na hÉireann ) involved the confiscation of Irish-owned land by the English Crown and

13350-405: The first Norman coins in Ireland were minted. Other mints operated in the major towns, with De Courcy in Ulster even minting coins in his own name. Whether as a direct consequence of the Normans or not, the commoner's independence decreased in both Norman and Gaelic areas. Where once they could serve more than one lord or even transfer from one lord to another, they were now unfree tenants bound to

13500-532: The first overthrow in 1598. This was well short of the 11,375 people that the original plans had envisaged. There was an enterprising capitalist element to the Munster plantations. Privateers and the enterprising public could buy land in Munster at pennies an acre as undertakers, sometimes backed by private investors. Sir Walter Raleigh owned large estates in Munster and harvested the forests around his estate to make tobacco pipes and wine barrels, although his company proved unprofitable. However, other investors made

13650-412: The fisheries in Munster. The scheme was privately funded but also received a stipend from the English crown At about this time as part of the joint stock scheme Grenville also seized lands from the native Irish for colonization at Tracton , to the west of Cork harbour creating the first English joint stock colony in history. After Richard Greenville had departed from Ireland the fledging colony of Tracton

13800-609: The fledgling colonies were destroyed by the Irish under James FitzMaurice when the first Desmond Rebellion began. Dr Hiram Morgan has stated that the Plantations of Munster starting with St leger were the prototype for the American colonies, the joint stock Irish model became the model for the Virginia Company. In the 1570s, there was an attempt to colonize parts of east Ulster , which had formerly been part of

13950-486: The important Norse-Irish towns of Dublin and Waterford, and Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter Aoífe . Diarmait died in May 1171 and Strongbow claimed Leinster, which Diarmait had promised him. Led by High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Conor), a coalition of most of the Irish kingdoms besieged Dublin , while Norman-held Waterford and Wexford were also attacked. However, the Normans managed to hold most of their territory. In October 1171, King Henry landed with

14100-454: The invasion was sanctioned by the papal bull Laudabiliter . At the time, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over most of the other kings. The Anglo-Norman invasion was a watershed in Ireland's history, marking the beginning of more than 800 years of British rule in Ireland . In May 1169, Anglo-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh),

14250-414: The kingship, and that whatever he had gained in Ireland was "by the grace and favour of Henry, and was at his disposal". In July, before the siege of Dublin, Henry granted Strongbow most of the land he had gained and honored him with the post of "royal constable in Ireland". By September 1171, Henry had decided to lead a military expedition to Ireland, and summoned Strongbow to meet him at Pembroke while

14400-419: The land and redistributed it, creating concentrations of British settlers around new towns and garrisons. The new landowners were explicitly banned from taking on Irish tenants, and had to import their tenant farmers from England and Scotland. The remaining Irish landowners were granted one quarter of the land in Ulster. The common Irish residents were to be relocated to live near garrisons and Protestant churches,

14550-455: The land. The Normans also instigated the widespread building of castles by aristocrats, a key component of the feudal system they brought to Ireland, and round towers . From 1169 until the mid-fourteenth century, castles were mostly associated with Norman lordships and formed the basis of new settlements. Not until after 1205, during the reign of king John, was a royal castle built in Ireland. De Courcy, who had conquered Ulaid, instigated

14700-629: The landscape, and also to centuries of ethnic and sectarian conflict. They took place before and during the earliest British colonization of the Americas , and a group known as the West Country Men were involved in both Irish and American colonization. There had been small-scale immigration from Britain since the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion . By the 15th century, direct English control had shrunk to an area called

14850-759: The major Catholic landowners in Leinster for similar treatment, including members of the powerful Butler dynasty. Wentworth's plans were interrupted by the outbreak of the Bishops Wars in Scotland, which eventually resulted in Wentworth's execution by the English Parliament and civil war in England and Ireland. Wentworth's constant questioning of Catholic land titles was one of the major causes of

15000-466: The march to Limerick. Norman power in Ireland seemed to be disintegrating, and in the words of Gerald de Barri, "the entire population of Ireland took the opportunity of this disorder to rise with one consent against the English". Shortly after the Norman defeat at Thurles, the Norse-Irish of Waterford rose up and killed the Norman garrison of 200 soldiers. Ruaidrí gathered an army that included contingents from Connacht, Meath, Breffny, Oriel, Ulster, and

15150-518: The migrants were women – a very high ratio compared, for instance, to contemporary Spanish settlement in Latin America or English settlement in Virginia . New England attracted more families, but still was predominately male in its early years. But the Irish population was neither removed nor Anglicised. In practise, the settlers did not stay on poorer lands, but clustered around towns and

15300-484: The monastic towns of Fore and Killeigh . Henry also made Dublin available for the freemen of Bristol to colonise. Many of the Norse-Irish inhabitants were forced to re-settle outside the walls, at what became Oxmantown . Henry left Ireland on 17 April 1172, setting sail from Wexford. Some English writers – such as William of Canterbury and Ralph Niger – condemned Henry's military intervention, describing it as an unlawful "hostile invasion" and "conquest". A poem in

15450-552: The more ready for Protestant control. The Planters were barred from selling their lands to any Irishman. The second major influence on the plantation of Ulster was the political negotiation among the interest groups on the British side. The principal landowners were to be English Undertakers , wealthy men from England and Scotland who undertook to import tenants from their own estates. The planters were granted around 3,000 acres (1,214 ha) each, on condition that they settle there

15600-585: The native population were usually monoglot speakers of Irish Gaelic . Later, the Catholic Church made a determined effort to retain its followers among the native population. In addition to the Ulster plantation, several other small plantations occurred under the reign of the Stuart Kings — James I and his son Charles I —in the early 17th century. The first of these took place in north county Wexford in 1610, where lands were confiscated from

15750-709: The new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary I respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown (now Daingean ) and Maryborough (now Portlaoise ). An act, the Counties of Leix and Offaly Act 1556 (3 & 4 Phil. & Mar. c. 2 (I)), was passed "whereby the King and Queen's Majesties, and the Heires and Successors of the Queen, be entitled to the Counties of Leix, Slewmarge, Irry, Glinmaliry, and Offaily, and for making

15900-426: The new settlers were principally Scots, tens of thousands of whom fled a famine in the lowlands and border regions of Scotland to come to Ulster. At this point Protestants and people of Scottish descent (who were mainly Presbyterians ) became an absolute majority of the population in Ulster. French Huguenots , who were Protestant, were also encouraged to settle in Ireland; they had been expelled from France after

16050-446: The older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes. There had been small-scale immigration from Britain in the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion , creating a small Anglo-Norman , English, Welsh and Flemish community in Ireland, under the Crown of England. By the 15th century, English control had shrunk to an area called The English Pale . By

16200-466: The other kings but did not rule Ireland as a unitary state , though it had a common culture and legal system. The five port towns of Dublin , Wexford , Waterford , Cork , and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-Irish and had their own rulers. The Normans conquered England between 1066 and 1075, with all earldoms thereafter held by Normans, as were all bishoprics after 1096. In parallel,

16350-477: The peaceful early years of the 17th century, thousands more English and Welsh settlers arrived in the province. There were many small plantations in Munster in this period, as Irish lords were required to forfeit up to one third of their estates to get their deeds to the remainder recognised by the English authorities. The settlers became concentrated in towns along the south coast – especially Youghal , Bandon , Kinsale and Cork city . Notable English Undertakers of

16500-439: The planters and their descendants and the native Irish Catholics. But the ethnic/religious divisions were less stark in Munster than in Ulster. Some of the earlier English Planters in Munster had been Roman Catholics and their descendants largely sided with the Irish in the 1640s. Conversely, some Irish noblemen who had converted to Protestantism – notably Earl Inchiquin – sided with the settler community. Over 12,000 veterans of

16650-676: The political power of the Irish Catholic gentry. Wentworth confiscated land in Wicklow and planned a full-scale Plantation of Connacht – where all Catholic landowners would lose between a half and a quarter of their estates. The local juries were intimidated into accepting Wentworth's settlement; when a group of Connacht landowners complained to Charles I, Wentworth had them imprisoned. However, settlement proceeded only in County Sligo and County Roscommon . Next, Wentworth surveyed

16800-529: The projected figure. The Munster Plantation was supposed to develop compact defensible settlements, but the English settlers were spread in pockets across the province, wherever land had been confiscated. Initially, the English Undertakers were given detachments of English soldiers to protect them, but these were abolished in the 1590s. As a result, when the Nine Years War – an Irish rebellion against English rule – reached Munster in 1598, most of

16950-505: The province and declared the lands of O'Neill, O'Donnell and their followers forfeit. Initially, Chichester planned a fairly modest plantation, including large grants to Irish-born lords who had sided with the English during the war. However, in 1608 Cahir O'Doherty 's rebellion in County Donegal interrupted implementation of this plan. O'Doherty was a former ally of the English who felt he had not been fairly rewarded for his role in

17100-481: The province from Athlone in the west to Drogheda in the east. They also hanged the Irish king of Meath, Magnus Ua Máel Sechlainn (Manus O'Melaghlin). On 6 October 1175, Henry II of England and High King Ruaidrí agreed to the Treaty of Windsor . The treaty divided Ireland into two spheres of influence: Henry was acknowledged as overlord of the Norman-held territory, and Ruaidrí was acknowledged as overlord of

17250-458: The province to be forfeit to the Crown. In 1571, Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Thomas Smith a large portion of Clannaboy and the Ards to colonize. Smith envisaged a colony led by the younger sons of English gentlemen, in which the native Irish would be employed as labourers. The scheme was partly privately funded and partly state-sponsored by way of military support. In 1572 Smith's son landed in

17400-469: The recently elected Anglo-Norman Pope Adrian IV , made an "extraordinary intervention" at the Roman Curia . He called for Norman involvement in Ireland to reform its "barbaric and impious" people. This resulted in the papal bull Laudabiliter , or an equivalent, which purported to grant Henry II papal authority to intervene in Ireland, such as by conquest. Salisbury had been inspired in his views on

17550-414: The region of 15,000 colonists, but a report from 1589 showed that the English Undertakers had imported only about 700 English tenants between them. Historians have noted that each tenant was the head of a household and that he therefore likely represented at least 4–5 other people. This would put the English population in Munster at nearer to three or four thousand persons, but it was still substantially below

17700-545: The remainder of the 17th century, Irish Catholics tried to get the Cromwellian Act of Settlement reversed. They briefly achieved this under James II during the Williamite war in Ireland , but the Jacobite defeat there led to another round of land confiscations. During the 1680s and 90s, another major wave of settlement took place in Ireland (though not another plantation in terms of land confiscation). At this time,

17850-513: The rest of Ireland. Ruaidrí also swore fealty to Henry and agreed to pay him a yearly tribute in cow hides, which Ruaidrí could levy from throughout his kingdom. A Connacht-based annalist reported the treaty in triumphal terms: " Cadla Ua Dubthaig [archbishop of Tuam] came out of England from [Henry] the son of the Empress, having with him the peace of Ireland, and the kingship thereof, both Foreigner and Gael, to Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair". However,

18000-518: The same Countries Shire Grounds.". The act was repealed in 1962 . Archived 11 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine .</ref> This plantation initiated the colonial settlement pattern for extending English control in hostile regions. The Leix-Offaly plantation also demonstrated to the Crown high cost of colonialism, leading them to encourage private financial participation in colonial ventures. The O'Moore and O'Connor clans, which occupied

18150-489: The same time, an Irish army from Thomond and Connacht, led by Domnall Ua Briain (Donal O'Brian), forced the Normans out of Kilkenny and destroyed Strongbow's motte-and-bailey castle there. Strongbow responded in early 1174 by marching an army into Thomond and advancing towards Limerick. At the Battle of Thurles , Domnall Ua Briain's forces defeated a contingent of Strongbow's army, killing thousands and forcing him to abandon

18300-567: The settler and native communities in the province. Although peace was eventually restored to Ulster, the wounds opened in the plantation and civil war years were very slow to heal and arguably still fester in Northern Ireland in the early 21st century. In the 1641 Rebellion, the Munster Plantation was temporarily destroyed, just as it had been during the Nine Years' War . Ten years of warfare took place in Munster between

18450-554: The settler population in the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . Irish Catholics attacked the plantations all around the country, but especially in Ulster . English writers at the time put the Protestant victims at over 100,000. William Petty , in his survey of the 1650s, estimated the death toll at around 30,000. More recent research, however, based on close examination of the depositions of the Protestant refugees collected in 1642, suggests

18600-455: The settlers were chased off their lands without a fight. They took refuge in the province's walled towns or fled back to England. However, when the rebellion was put down in 1601–03, the Plantation was re-constituted by the Governor of Munster, George Carew . The English settler population in the 1620s was four times greater than in the earlier Munster plantation and powerful enough to control

18750-559: The streets, in which 700 defenders were killed. Diarmait and the other Norman commanders then arrived in Waterford, where Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter, Aífe. The Normans and Diarmait held a council of war at Waterford and agreed to take Dublin. High King Ruaidrí encamped a large army near Dublin to intercept them. As well as troops from Connacht, it included troops from Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), and Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill). The Normans and Diarmait bypassed them by travelling over

18900-628: The surrounding countryside. They were then besieged by a much larger force of Irish and Norse-Irish. The outnumbered Anglo-Normans drove a large herd of cattle into the opposing army. In the ensuing havoc, the Normans routed the besiegers, killing up to 500 and capturing 70. These captives were then executed: the Normans broke their limbs before beheading them and throwing their bodies off the cliff. On 23 August, Strongbow landed at Passage with at least 200 knights and 1,000 soldiers. They met with Raymond's force and assaulted Waterford. The walls were eventually breached and there followed fierce fighting in

19050-556: The survey took in the lands belonging to other families and clans that had supported the rebellions in Kerry and southwest Cork. However, the settlement here was rather piecemeal because the ruling clan – the MacCarthy Mór line – argued that the rebel landowners were their subordinates and that the lords actually owned the land. In this area, lands once granted to some English Undertakers was taken away again when native lords, such as

19200-498: The territories Diarmait had claimed sovereignty over. First they besieged the Norse-Irish seaport of Wexford , which surrendered after two days. They then raided and plundered the territories of north Leinster, which had refused to submit to Diarmait. They also raided the neighbouring kingdom of Ossory , defeating the forces of king Donnchad Mac Gilla Patraic (Donagh MacGillapatrick) in the battle of Achad Úr . However, Donnchad withdrew his forces to safety. Prendergast then announced he

19350-434: The territory they had conquered to him. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared Dublin, Wexford and Waterford to be crown land . Fifteen Irish kings and chiefs submitted to Henry, likely in the hope that he would curb unprovoked Norman expansion into their territories. Those who did not submit included Ruaidrí (the High King and king of Connacht) and the kings of Meath and the Northern Uí Néill . Against this,

19500-601: The time of Elizabeth and James I, the Catholics of England suffered a greater degree of persecution than English Catholics in Ireland. In England, Catholics were greatly outnumbered by Protestants and lived under constant fear of betrayal by their fellows. In Ireland they could blend in with the local majority-Catholic population in a way that was not possible in England. English Catholic planters were most common in County Kilkenny , where they may have made up half of all

19650-410: The time, William of Newburgh , wrote that Henry wanted to have "the glory of such a famous conquest" and its proceeds for himself. On 17 October 1171, King Henry landed at Waterford with a large army of at least 500 mounted knights and 4,000 men-at-arms and archers. Several siege towers were also shipped over, should he need to assault the Norman-held towns, or others such as Cork and Limerick. This

19800-553: The total settler population could have been as high as 80,000 to 150,000. They formed local majorities of the population in the Finn and Foyle valleys (around modern Derry and east County Donegal), north County Armagh and east County Tyrone . Planters had achieved substantial settlement on unofficially planted lands in north Down, led by James Hamilton and Hugh Montgomery , and in south Antrim under Sir Randall MacDonnell. The settler population increased rapidly, as just under half of

19950-424: The town of Downpatrick . The Ulaid, led by king Ruaidrí Mac Duinnsléibe (Rory MacDunleavy), tried to re-take the town but were repelled after a fierce battle. King Henry held a council at Oxford in May 1177, which marked a change of policy towards Ireland. He declared his son John (aged ten) to be "Lord of Ireland", and made plans for him to become king of all Ireland when he came of age . The territory held by

20100-421: The town of Wexford and two neighbouring cantreds . Under Irish law, Diarmait had no right to do this. Having secured their help, he returned to his home territory of Uí Ceinnselaig (Hy Kinsella) in 1167 with one knight, Richard FitzGodebert, and a small number of soldiers. He smoothly resumed power as chief and awaited the arrival of his allies. King Ruaidrí and Tigernán confronted him with a small force and there

20250-633: The town, but were repulsed by de Cogan's forces. Ascall was captured and publicly executed. A great army, led by Ruaidrí, surrounded Dublin. It comprised troops from most of the Irish kingdoms: contingents from Connacht, Breffny (led by King Tigernán ), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn ), Thomond (led by King Domnall Ua Briain ), Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill ), Ulster (led by King Magnus Mac Duinnsléibe ), and Leinster (led by Diarmait's brother Murchad). A Norse-Gaelic fleet of 30 ships, sent by Godred Olafsson , blockaded Dublin bay. Robert FitzStephen sent his best troops out of Wexford to help

20400-455: The towns (especially Dublin) – notably as bankers and financiers. By 1641, there were calculated to be up to 125,000 Protestant settlers in Ireland, though they were still outnumbered by native Catholics by around 15 to 1. Not all of the early 17th century English Planters were Protestants. A considerable number of English Catholics settled in Ireland between 1603 and 1641, in part for economic reasons but also to escape persecution in England. In

20550-541: The ultimate capitalist-colonialist of the period, the newly created Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork . He then partnered with another Munster colonist, Captain William Newce, to invest in the newly—formed Virginia Company and helped establish the colony at Jamestown in North America. As well as the former Geraldine estates (spread through the modern counties of Limerick , Cork , Kerry and Tipperary ),

20700-526: The use of the Irish language in 1537 with The Statute of Ireland – An Act for the English Order Habit and Language (28. Hen. 8. c. 15 (I)). Irish clothing was also banned throughout the centuries. On 14 February 1588, William Herbert wrote to Francis Walsingham that he desired to show posterity his affection for his God and his prince 'by a volume of my writing,' by 'a colony of my planting,' and by 'a college of my erecting.' Moderate in treating

20850-418: The war. The rebellion was swiftly put down and O'Doherty killed, but these events gave Chichester a justification for expropriating all of the original landowners in the province. In 1603 James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, uniting these two crowns and also gaining possession of the Kingdom of Ireland , at that time an English Crown possession. The Plantation of Ulster was promoted to him as

21000-431: Was a skirmish at Killistown. Diarmait gave hostages to Ruaidrí and a hundred ounces of gold to Tigernán, and FitzGodebert left Ireland. On 1 May 1169, Robert FitzStephen and Maurice de Prendergast landed at Bannow Bay, on the south coast of County Wexford, with a force of at least 40 knights, 60 men-at-arms and 360 archers. This force merged with about 500 men led by Diarmait. They set about conquering Leinster and

21150-582: Was an attempt to establish the first joint stock colony in Kerrycurrihy barony, but it was destroyed by the Irish. In the 1570s a privately-funded plantation of east Ulster was attempted, but it also sparked conflict with the local Irish lord and ended in failure. The Munster plantation of the 1580s followed the Desmond Rebellions . Businessmen were encouraged to invest in the scheme and English colonists were settled on land confiscated from

21300-765: Was annihilated in the aftermath of the Second Desmond Rebellion (1579–83) and their estates were confiscated by the Crown. The English authorities took the opportunity to settle the province with colonists from England and Wales, who, it was hoped, would be a bulwark against further rebellions. In 1584, the Surveyor General of Ireland, Sir Valentine Browne and a commission surveyed Munster, to allocate confiscated lands to English Undertakers (wealthy colonists who "undertook" to import tenants from England to work their new lands). The English Undertakers were obligated to develop new towns and provide for

21450-605: Was granted their own town , and lands. The final major recipient of lands was the Protestant Church of Ireland , which was granted all churches and lands previously owned by the Roman Catholic church. The Crown intended that clerics from England and the Pale convert the population to Protestantism . The Plantation of Ulster was a mixed success for the English. By the 1630s, there were 20,000 adult male English and Scottish settlers in Ulster, which meant that

21600-440: Was his son. However, Diarmait apparently sought to use his Anglo-Norman allies to make himself High King. Shortly after the Ferns agreement, Maurice FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 10 knights, 30 mounted archers and 100-foot archers. In a show of strength, Maurice and Diarmait marched an army north and laid waste to the hinterland of Dublin. By 1170, Strongbow appears to have been funded financially for his invasion by

21750-502: Was invited to address a conference of young members of his country's Conservative Party at Stradbally Hall on one occasion. This was later cancelled at short notice. In the latter decades of the twentieth century, a financial struggle ensued over the maintenance of Stradbally Hall. Buckets were positioned under leaks to prevent rainwater damaging the main reception rooms. Paintings and emeralds were sold off to raise much needed funds. Maj Errod Ashworth Sidney Cosby died in 1984 and passed

21900-511: Was sacked by Donald McCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancare and Fitzmaurice along with the native inhabitants. The colony was small and quickly overwhelmed and all the English colonial inhabitants were killed except three or four English soldiers, who were promptly executed the next day. Sir Peter Carew had also asserted his claim to lands in south Leinster. The plantations in the south of Ireland led to bitter disputes with local Irish. However, in June 1569

22050-427: Was taken over by Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex , who set out to colonize much of County Antrim. He provided most of the funding, with the state providing some of the military support. He landed at Carrickfergus in 1573 with 1,100 men, but their numbers dwindled following an outbreak of plague in the town. The colonists were opposed by McPhelim, Turlough Luineach O'Neill of Tyrone , and Sorley Boy MacDonnell of

22200-563: Was the biggest and most successful of the plantations and comprised most of the province of Ulster. While the province was mainly Irish -speaking and Catholic , the new settlers were required to be English-speaking Protestants , with most coming from northern England and the Scottish Lowlands . This created a distinct Ulster Protestant community. The Ulster plantation was one cause of the 1641 Irish Rebellion , during which thousands of settlers were killed, expelled or fled. After

22350-435: Was the first time a reigning King of England had set foot on Irish soil, and marked the beginning of England's claim to sovereignty in Ireland. Henry led his army to Lismore , the site of an important monastery, and chose the site for a castle. He then moved on to Cashel , which he had in mind as the venue for a church council. Henry then led his army to Dublin. The Norman lords affirmed their loyalty to Henry and handed over

22500-451: Was withdrawing from Ireland with his 200 men, but Diarmait would not let them set sail from Wexford. In response, Prendergast offered his men as mercenaries to Donnchad of Ossory, which Donnchad accepted. He used these mercenaries to temporarily subdue Loígis . However, Prendergast refused to fight his former companions, and he soon left Ireland with his men. In response, High King Ruaidrí led an army into Leinster to confront Diarmait and

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