The Suhrawardi order ( Arabic : سهروردية , Persian : سهروردیه ) is a Sufi order founded by Abu ’l-Nad̲j̲īb Suhrawardī (died 1168). Lacking a centralised structure, it eventually divided into various branches. The order was especially prominent in India . The ideology of the Suhrawardi order was inspired by Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910), a Persian scholar and mystic from Baghdad .
111-866: Under the Ilkhanate (1256–1335), the Suhrawardi was one of the three leading Sufi orders and was based in western Iran. The order had its own khanqahs (Sufi lodges), which helped them spread their influence throughout Persianate society . The order included prominent members such as the Akbari mystics Abd al-Razzaq Kāshānī (died 1329), Sa'id al-Din Farghani (died 1300), and the Persian poet Saadi Shirazi (died 1292). Today, most orders have dissolved in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria . However,
222-468: A Hanafi Sunni , though he still retained some residual shamanism. In 1309–10, he became a Shi'ite Muslim. An Armenian scribe in 1304 noted the death of "benevolent and just" Ghazan, who was succeeded by Khar-Banda Öljeitü, "who too, exhibits good will to everyone." A colophon from 1306 reports the conversion of Mongols to Islam and "they coerce everyone into converting to their vain and false hope. They persecute, they molest, and torment," including "insulting
333-516: A collection of Yuezhi tribes, took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism , Nestorian Christianity , Zoroastrianism , and Manichaeism were practised in the region. Later the Hephthalite Empire , a collection of nomadic tribes, moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the eighth century. The Samanid Empire , 819 to 999, restored Persian control of
444-836: A continuation of Ala' al-Din Juvayni 's slightly earlier work, Tārikh-i jahangusha ('History of the World Conqueror' ) which narrates the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire and the rise of the Mongol Empire. Various other works were also commissioned. The later years of the Ilkhanate were also marked by interest in the Shahnameh , the Iranian epic by 11th-century poet Firdowsi . Not only were new copies of
555-790: A definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia, and gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region. In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia, invaded the Khwarezmian Empire and sacked its cities, looting and massacring people. Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire , becoming
666-477: A dispute between Hanafi and Shafi'i Sunnis, expressed his view that Islam should be abandoned and Mongols should return to the ways of Genghis Khan. Qāshani also stated that Öljeitü had reverted for a brief period. As Muslims, Mongols showed a marked preference for Sufism , with masters like Safi-ad-Din Ardabili often treated with respect and favour. Öljaitü 's son, the last ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan ,
777-676: A joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched the young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. In 1262, Hulagu gave Greater Khorasan and Mazandaran to Abaqa and northern Azerbaijan to Yoshmut. Hulagu himself spent his time living as
888-578: A new census and decreed that each man in the Mongol-ruled West Asia must pay in proportion to his property. Persia was divided between four districts under Arghun. Möngke Khan granted the Kartids authority over Herat, Jam, Pushang (Fushanj), Ghor , Khaysar, Firuz-Kuh, Gharjistan, Farah, Sistan , Kabul, Tirah, and Afghanistan. Hulegu Khan , third son of Tolui, grandson of Genghis Khan, and brother of both Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan,
999-672: A nomad in southern Azerbaijan and Armenia . During his early rule, the Ilkhanate experienced mass revolts by its subjects, with the exception of the Seljukids and Artuqids in Anatolia and Mardin . It was not until Shams al-Din Juvayni was appointed as vizier after 1262 that things started calming down and a more sustainable administration was implemented. Hulagu fell ill in February 1265 after several days of banquets and hunting. He died on 8 February and his son Abaqa succeeded him in
1110-443: A result praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative. The ceasefire guaranteed 30% of ministerial positions would go to the opposition . Elections were held in 1999 and were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair; Rahmon was re-elected with 98% of the vote. Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon (with 79% of the vote) and he began his third term in office. Opposition parties boycotted
1221-516: A state religion in 1295. However, despite this conversion, the Ilkhanids remained opposed to the Mamluks, who had defeated both Mongol invaders and Crusaders . The Ilkhanids launched several invasions of Syria, but were never able to gain and keep significant ground against the Mamluks , eventually being forced to give up their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals
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#17327718204481332-425: A type known in previous periods, as well as brass inlaid with gold, a newer trend used for more costly court objects. Among these examples is the base of the largest preserved candlestick from Islamic-era Iran, commissioned by one of Öljeitü 's viziers in 1308–09 and measuring 32.5 centimetres (13 in) high. Objects in gold and silver were likely also important but no examples have survived. Ceramic production
1443-521: Is a presidential republic consisting of four provinces . Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country, and their national language is Tajik . Russian is used as the official inter-ethnic language. While the state is constitutionally secular, Islam is nominally adhered to by 97.5% of the population. In the Gorno-Badakhshan oblast , there is a linguistic diversity where Rushani , Shughni , Ishkashimi , Wakhi and Tajik are some of
1554-615: Is a history of the Mongol dynasty while the second is a history of the Iranian and Islamic world, along with stories of other cultures. Ghazan also patronized Abu al-Qasim Qashani , who composed the Ta'rikh-i Uljaytu ('History of Öljeitü'), and Shihab al-Din Waṣṣaf , who wrote the Tajziyat al-amṣar wa-tazjiyat al-a'ṣar ('The Allocation of Cities and Propulsion of Epochs' ). The latter was intended as
1665-751: Is filled with a repeating pattern of rhomboids and ornate medallions with vegetal motifs and peacocks in between them, while the other stripes are filled with large epigraphic inscriptions in Arabic script. Between these are narrower bands filled with other animals. The use of this piece for a royal funerary shroud in Europe suggests that Iranian textiles were still highly prized abroad during this period. In metalwork, Ilkhanid productions were often larger and more richly-decorated than earlier Iranian works. Major centers of production included Tabriz and Shiraz . Surviving pieces are often made of brass inlaid with copper,
1776-500: Is tolerated and all direct protest is suppressed and denied coverage in the local media. In the 2020 Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit , Tajikistan was ranked 160th, after Saudi Arabia , while receiving the designation of "authoritarian regime". In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Tajikistan, signed a joint letter to UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in
1887-572: Is used. Tadzhikistan is the alternate spelling and is used in English literature derived from Russian sources. While the Library of Congress 's 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word "Tajik" because the term is "embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranic peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia," scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are
1998-584: The Encyclopædia Britannica states: The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranic peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time,
2109-477: The Artuqid sultan of Mardin , and Kufa and Luristan . The Qara'unas Mongols ruled Khorasan as an autonomous realm and did not pay taxes. Herat 's local Kart dynasty also remained autonomous. Anatolia was the richest province of the Ilkhanate, supplying a quarter of its revenue while Iraq and Diyarbakir together supplied about 35 percent of its revenue. In 1330, the annexation of Abkhazia resulted in
2220-651: The Ayni Air Base , a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe, at a cost of $ 70 million, completing the repairs in September 2010. It is the main base of the Tajikistan air force. There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility, and Russia continues to maintain a base on the outskirts of Dushanbe. In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in
2331-554: The Basmachi movement . Some industrial development occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure. Two rounds of Stalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938 ) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan . Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including
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#17327718204482442-481: The Delhi Sultanate , Gujarat Sultanate , and Mughal Empire . The Suhrawardīs supported the forced conversion of Hindus and Buddhists to Islam , and its converts were mainly upper caste. Suhrawardiyya spirituality focused on dhikr and Ramadan fasting and followed classical Ṣūfī doctrine. Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of
2553-671: The Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand . Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets). During the 19th century, the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. While the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian,
2664-558: The Islamic Revolution in 1979, he could not regain his previous position and died in 1984 as the last Ilkhan of the Qashqai. After the Ilkhanate, the regional states established during the disintegration of the Ilkhanate raised their own candidates as claimants. Claimants from eastern Persia (Khurasan): Khamag Mongol / Mongol Empire Il-Khanate Tajikistan Tajikistan , officially
2775-733: The Islamic State . Khalimov was allegedly killed on 8 September 2017 during a Russian airstrike near Deir ez-Zor , Syria , although Tajikistan authorities express doubts whether he has died. In 2021, following the Fall of Kabul , Tajikistan allegedly got involved in the Panjshir conflict against the Taliban on the side of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan . In September 2022 armed clashes , including
2886-741: The Kaaba ) to Mecca in 1319. In 1325, Chupan undertook the pilgrimage and sponsored repairs to the water supply in Mecca and the construction of a madrasa (college) and a hammam (bathhouse) in Medina. These actions challenged the primacy of the Mamluks in the Hejaz and provoked the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad , into repeatedly reasserting his dominance in the region by sponsoring his own works there, by purging or replacing local officials, and by undertaking
2997-564: The Mongol Empire . It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids ( Persian : ایلخانان , romanized : Īlkhānān ), and known to the Mongols as Hülegü Ulus ( lit. ' people / state of Hülegü ' ). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known as the Land of Iran or simply Iran . It was established after Hülegü , the son of Tolui and grandson of Genghis Khan , inherited
3108-525: The Republic of Tajikistan , is a landlocked country in Central Asia . Dushanbe is the capital and most populous city. Tajikistan is bordered by Afghanistan to the south , Uzbekistan to the west , Kyrgyzstan to the north , and China to the east . It is separated from Pakistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor . It has a population of approximately 10.6 million people. The territory
3219-745: The Sultanate of Rum and the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia . This was in large part due to civil war in the Mongol Empire and the hostility of the khanates to the north and east. The Chagatai Khanate in Moghulistan and the Golden Horde threatened the Ilkhanate in the Caucasus and Transoxiana, preventing expansion westward. Even under Hulagu's reign, the Ilkhanate was engaged in open warfare in
3330-728: The Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara , the Timurid Renaissance flourished. The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire , before becoming part of the Soviet Union . Within the Soviet Union, the country's borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a constituent republic of the Soviet Union on 5 December 1929. On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as
3441-652: The Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi’ , denoting a Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to the Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD. Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991. This is due to a transliteration from the Russian : "Таджикистан" . In Russian, there is no single letter "j" to represent the phoneme /d͡ʒ/ , and therefore дж , or dzh,
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3552-563: The West Asian and Central Asian part of the Mongol Empire after his brother Möngke Khan died in 1259. The Ilkhanate's core territory lies in what is now the countries of Iran , Azerbaijan , and Turkey . At its greatest extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern Iraq , Syria , Armenia , Georgia , Afghanistan , Turkmenistan , Pakistan , part of modern Dagestan , and part of modern Tajikistan . Later Ilkhanid rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, converted to Islam . In
3663-635: The hajj pilgrimage himself. The Ilkhanid period saw the creation of numerous written works devoted to history. They were typically intended for Ilkhanid administrators or even written for a particular ruler. Many of the writers in the early period were scholars who were trained under pre-Mongol dynasties but received patronage under the new regime. The most famous work of this time is the Jami' al-tawarikh ('Compendium of Histories') of Rashid al-Din , initially commissioned by Ghazan but presented to Öljeitü upon its completion in 1307. Its first surviving volume
3774-488: The jizya (minority religion tax). Ghazan gave Buddhists the starker choice of conversion or expulsion and ordered their temples to be destroyed; though he later relaxed this severity. After Nawrūz was deposed and killed in 1297, Ghazan made religious intolerance punishable and attempted to restore relations with non-Muslims. In terms of foreign relations, the Ilkhanids' conversion to Islam had little to no effect on its hostility towards other Muslim states, and conflict with
3885-615: The kuriltai for the next Great Khan. He left a small force of around 10,000 behind in Palestine that was defeated at the battle of Ain Jalut by the Mamluks of Egypt . Due to the suspicious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, Berke of the Golden Horde declared war on Hulagu in 1262. According to Mamluk historians, Hulagu might have massacred Berke's troops and refused to share his war booty with Berke. Berke sought
3996-574: The 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black Death . The last ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan , died in 1335, after which the Ilkhanate disintegrated. The Ilkhanid rulers, although of non-Iranian origin, tried to advertise their authority by tying themselves to the Iranian past, and they recruited historians to present the Mongols as heirs to the Sasanian Empire (224–651). Native intellectuals interested in their own history interpreted
4107-411: The 19th century, for the second time in world history, a European power (the Russian Empire ) began to conquer parts of the region. Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire 's conquest of Central Asia during the 19th century's Imperial Era . Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan , the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by
4218-735: The 2006 election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) criticised it, while observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent. Rahmon's administration came under further criticism from OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media. OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to
4329-693: The Caucasus with the Mongols in the Russian steppes. On the other hand, the China-based Yuan dynasty was an ally of the Ikhanate and also held nominal suzerainty over the latter (the Emperor being also Great Khan) for many decades. Ghazan converted to Islam under influence of Nawrūz and made Islam the official state religion. Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status and had to pay
4440-502: The Chinggisids. Tekuder was the first Muslim ruler of the Ilkhanate but he made no active attempt to proselytize or convert his realm. However he did try to replace Mongol political traditions with Islamic ones, resulting in a loss of support from the army. Arghun used his religion against him by appealing to non-Muslims for support. When Tekuder realized this, he executed several of Arghun's supporters, and captured Arghun. Tekuder's foster son, Buaq, freed Arghun and overthrew Tekuder. Arghun
4551-400: The Ilkhanate and the Yuan Dynasty headquartered in China encouraged this development. The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy influence upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from
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4662-442: The Ilkhanate – is the large fragment of a burial robe for Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (d. 1365), which was made from an Iranian import. The textile was originally manufactured in an Ilkhanid state workshop, most likely in Tabriz , and bears the name and titles of Abu Sa'id after 1319. It is woven in lampas and compound weaves in tan and red colours, with gold wefts . It features a motif of broad alternating bands: one set of stripes
4773-450: The Ilkhanids ruled their realm through a Central Asian-Persian ("Tajik") administration in partnership with Turco-Mongol military officers. Not all of the Persian administrators were Muslims or members of the traditional families that had served the Seljuqs and Khwarazmians (e.g, the Juvayni family ). For example, the Ilkhanate vizier from 1288 to 1291 was Sa'ad al-Dawla , a Jew, while the prominent vizier and historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
4884-423: The Ilkhans, Iranian historians also moved from writing in Arabic to writing in their native Persian tongue. The rudiments of double-entry accounting were practiced in the Ilkhanate; merdiban was then adopted by the Ottoman Empire . These developments were independent from the accounting practices used in Europe. This accounting system was adopted primarily as the result of socio-economic necessities created by
4995-594: The Islamist-led opposition, a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999. "Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country's ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times before the country's November 2006 presidential election. The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates
5106-420: The Jalali branch of the order. Bahāʾ al-Dīn’s most notable disciple was the poet Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn Ibrāhīm ʿIrāḳī . Bahāʾ al-Dīn's descendants remained in Multān, such as his grandson Rukn al-Dīn Abu ’l-Fatḥ . The line ended with the execution of Rukn al-Dīn's successor, Hūd, by the sultān due to embezzlement charges. In Uččh , D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Buk̲h̲ārī “Mak̲h̲dūm-i D̲j̲ahāniyān" , became the most notable figure of
5217-551: The Mamluks for control of Syria continued. The Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar , the only major victory by the Mongols over the Mamluk Sultanate , ended the latter's control over Syria for a few months. For the most part, Ghazan's policies continued under his brother Öljaitü despite suggestions that he might begin to favor Twelver Shi'ism after he came under the influence of the theologians al-Allama al-Hilli and al-Bahrani . Öljeitü, who had been baptised in Christianity as an infant and had flirted with Buddhism, eventually became
5328-425: The Mamluks. In 1327, Abu-Sai'd replaced Chupan with "Big" Hasan. Hasan was accused of attempting to assassinate the khan and exiled to Anatolia in 1332. The non-Mongol emirs Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud-Shah and Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad were given unprecedented military authority, which irked the Mongol emirs. In the 1330s, outbreaks of the Black Death ravaged the Ilkhanate and both Abu-Sai'd and his sons were killed by 1335 by
5439-400: The Mongol conquests was the emergence of the "national state" in Iran during the Ilkhanate era. The Ilkhanate Mongols remained nomadic in their way of life until the end of the dynasty. Their nomadic routes covered central Iraq , northwest Iran , Azerbaijan , and Armenia . The Mongols administered Iraq, the Caucasus , and western and southern Iran directly with the exception of Georgia ,
5550-421: The Mongol expedition, Azerbaijan and the southern Persian dynasties in Fars and Kerman voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute. To the west, Hamadan and the rest of Persia was secured by Chormaqan. The Mongols invaded Armenia and Georgia in 1234 or 1236, completing the conquest of the Kingdom of Georgia in 1238. They began to attack the western parts of Bagratid Armenia , which
5661-445: The Mongol military hierarchy. In Georgia, the population was temporarily divided into eight tumens . In 1244, Güyük Khan stopped raising of revenue from districts in Persia as well and offered tax exemptions to others. In accordance with a complaint by the governor Arghun Aqa , Möngke Khan prohibited ortogh -merchants (Mongol-contracted Muslim traders) and nobles from abusing relay stations and civilians in 1251. He ordered
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#17327718204485772-406: The Mongol old guard with his alleged sexual relations with a boy. Gaykhatu was overthrown in 1295 and replaced with his cousin Baydu . Baydu reigned for less than a year before he was overthrown by Gaykhatu's officer, Ghazan . Hulagu's descendants ruled Persia for the next eighty years, tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as
5883-403: The Mongols. In 1236 Ögedei commanded Greater Khorasan to be restored and the city of Herat repopulated. The Mongol military governors mostly made camp in the Mughan plain in what is now Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger posed by the Mongols, the rulers of Mosul and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided Transcaucasia into three districts based on
5994-473: The Multān branch, who was also a member of the Chishti order and was notably puritanical. The descendants and disciples of the Mak̲h̲dūm spread to Kalpī, Gujarat , and notably Delhi. The greatest presence of the Suhrawardi order in India was in Kashmir . The king of Kashmir, Rinchana , was converted to Islam by Sayyid S̲h̲araf al-Dīn aka Bulbul Shah . The Suhrawardi order had a strong relationship and exerted influence over Indian rulers and governments such
6105-503: The Persian word for lapis lazuli . These often had a deep blue or sometimes blue-ish turquoise glaze and were then overglaze -painted with red, black, white, and gold colours. These have been found at Takht-i Sulaymān and they may have replaced the pre-Mongol mina'i ceramics. The emergence of the Ilkhanate had an important historical impact in West Asia . The establishment of the unified Mongol Empire had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The communications between
6216-463: The Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian. Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I . While Russian troops brought Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout
6327-428: The Samanid state under one ruler, thus putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority. The Kara-Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania (which corresponded approximately with what later would be Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999 and 1211. Their arrival in Transoxania signalled
6438-404: The Soviet Union was disintegrating . A civil war was fought after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led since 1994 by Emomali Rahmon , who heads an authoritarian regime and whose human rights record has been criticised. Tajikistan
6549-401: The Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization. The Ilkhanate also helped to pave the way for the later Safavid dynastic state, and ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests had also opened Iran to Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under
6660-410: The agricultural and fiscal reforms of Ghazan Khan in 1295–1304. The title ilkhan resurfaced among the Qashqai nomads of southern Iran in the 19th century. Jan Mohammad Khan started using it in 1818/19, and this was continued by all the following Qashqai leaders. The last Qashqai ilkhan was Nasir Khan, who in 1954 was pushed into exile after his support of Mohammad Mosaddegh . When he returned during
6771-544: The cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers. Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik–Afghan border until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks , French troops have been stationed at Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO 's International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan . United States Army and Marine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration. The Government of India rebuilt
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#17327718204486882-423: The country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010. Fighting erupted again, this time in and around Gorno-Badakhshan, in July 2012. In 2015, Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan. In May 2015, Tajikistan's national security underwent a setback when Colonel Gulmurod Khalimov , commander of the special-purpose police unit (OMON) of the Interior Ministry, defected to
6993-424: The cross and the church". Some of the Buddhists who survived Ghazan's assaults made an unsuccessful attempt to bring Öljeitü back into Buddhism, showing they were active in the realm for more than 50 years. The conversion of Mongols was initially a fairly superficial affair. The process of establishment of Islam did not happen suddenly. Öljeitü's historian Qāshāni records that Kutlushah , after losing patience with
7104-412: The defeat, Abaqa executed the local regent Mu'in-ad-Din Pervane and replaced him with the Mongol prince Qongqortai. In 1281, Abaqa sent Mongke Temur against the Mamluks, but he too was defeated at Homs . Abaqa's death in 1282 triggered a succession struggle between his son Arghun , supported by the Qara'unas , and his brother Tekuder, supported by the Chinggisid aristocracy. Tekuder was elected khan by
7215-615: The descendants of the Eastern Iranic inhabitants of Central Asia , in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians and possibly other groups. In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranic or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them." Regarding Tajiks,
7326-411: The difficult socio-economic situation, lack of housing, and youth unemployment. The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms. Islamists began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence. The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate
7437-407: The early part of this conflict in 1992, after Nabiyev was forced at gunpoint on 7 September 1992 to resign from office. Rahmon defeated former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58% of the vote. In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D. Merrem, Special Representative to the Secretary General,
7548-421: The east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September, and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers, followed by fighting outside Gharm that left three militants dead. The country's Interior Ministry insisted that the central government maintained full control over
7659-453: The eastern Iranic dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Tajiki . Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC, including the Bronze Age Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex , the Andronovo cultures and the pro-urban site of Sarazm , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when most, if not all, of Tajikistan
7770-450: The election process and unemployment. Elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose four seats in Parliament, yet still maintain a majority. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards." The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect
7881-445: The era of the Crusades.) Despite their shared opposition to the Muslims , primarily the Mamluk Sultanate , no formal alliance ever was concluded. While Abu Sa'id eventually concluded a peace treaty with the Mamluks in 1322, the rivalry between the two powers continued diplomatically. Abu Sa'id, as a Muslim ruler, sought to demonstrate his legitimacy further abroad in Islamic terms, particularly through efforts to exert influence over
7992-757: The famous Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi learned about the mode of the Chinese calculating tables . An observatory was built on a hill of Maragheh . Taking over from Baiju in 1255, Hulagu established Mongol rule from Transoxiana to Syria . He destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state and the Abbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself ilkhan (subordinate khan). After that he advanced as far as Gaza, briefly conquering Ayyubid Syria and Aleppo in 1260. Möngke's death forced Hulagu to return to Mongolia to attend
8103-516: The first ruler of the Timurid dynasty in and around what later became Tajikistan and Central Asia. What later became Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and, with the empire's collapse in the 18th century, it came under the rule of the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand . The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century. During
8214-588: The historian Rashid al-Din Hamadani , Kublai Khan granted his brother Hülegü the title ilkhan after Hülegü's defeat of Ariq Böke , another brother. The term ilkhan here means " khan of the tribe, khan of the ulus ", and this lesser khanship refers to the initial deference to Möngke Khan and his successors as Great Khans of the Mongol Empire . The title ilkhan carried by the descendants of Hulagu and, later, other Borjigin princes in Persia, does not appear in
8325-459: The incumbent", Rahmon. Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government, and independent press outlets remain restricted, as does an amount of web content. According to the Institute for War & Peace Reporting , access to local and foreign websites is blocked, and journalists are sometimes obstructed from reporting on some events. In practice, no public criticism of the regime
8436-530: The invasion. Muhammad II's son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu returned to Iran in c. 1224 after fleeing to India. The rival Turkic states, which were all that remained of his father's empire, quickly declared their allegiance to Jalal. He repulsed the first Mongol attempt to take Central Persia. However, Jalal ad-Din was overwhelmed and crushed by Chormaqan 's army sent by the Great Khan Ögedei in 1231. During
8547-536: The languages spoken. Mountains cover more than 90% of the country. It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is dependent on remittances , and on production of aluminium and cotton . Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations , CIS , OSCE , OIC , ECO , SCO , CSTO and a NATO PfP partner . The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian Tāzīk ,
8658-399: The late 13th century, although it ceased producing ceramic vessels after 1284 and then produced only tiles until 1340. The designs were less accomplished than in previous periods but they started to incorporate new Chinese-inspired motifs such as lotuses and simurghs . Starting around the 1270s or 1280s, a new style of expensive ceramic started to be produced, known as lajvardina , from
8769-454: The latter, as there are artistic similarities between Mamluk and Ilkhanid manuscripts. One notable development in this period is the production of manuscripts with very large pages, up to 70 by 50 centimetres (28 in × 20 in) in size, with accordingly large scripts, particularly in muhaqqaq style. Illustrations were common and are found in works on a variety of topics such as history, nature, religion, and astronomy. Among these
8880-576: The order is still active in Iraq , where it recruits new members. The presence of the Suhrawardi order in India was established by three disciples of S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar Suhrawardī , who established branches in Delhi , Bengal , and Multan . The most successful proselytizer of the order was Bahāʾ al-Dīn Zakariyyāʾ Multānī . One of his disciples, Sayyid D̲j̲alāl Buk̲h̲ārī aka D̲j̲alāl Surk̲h̲ founded
8991-552: The plague. Ghiyas-ud-Din put a descendant of Ariq Böke , Arpa Ke'un , on the throne, triggering a succession of short-lived khans until "Little" Hasan took Azerbaijan in 1338. In 1357, Jani Beg of the Golden Horde conquered Chupanid-held Tabriz for a year, putting an end to the Ilkhanate remnant. In contrast to the China-based Yuan dynasty, who excluded the native population from gaining control of high offices,
9102-626: The region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara , which became the cultural centers of Iran ; the region was known as Khorasan. The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing Afghanistan, parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan, and Pakistan. Four brothers Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani (892–907) united
9213-694: The reunification of the Kingdom of Georgia. However, tribute received by the Il-Khans from Georgia sank by about three-quarters between 1336 and 1350 because of wars and famines. The courts of Western Europe made many attempts to ally with the Mongols, primarily with the Ilkhanate, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, starting from around the time of the Seventh Crusade in the mid-13th century. (Western Europeans were collectively called 'Franks' – ' 'Farang', 'Faranji' – by Muslims and Asians in
9324-539: The smaller examples from Baghdad took four years to transcribe and eight years to decorate – and feature elaborate multi-coloured frontispieces with geometric designs similar to those seen in Ilkhanid architecture such as the Sultaniyya Mausoleum . High-quality silk textiles were also produced under the Ilkhanids. The most important surviving example – possibly the only one definitively attributable to
9435-517: The sources until after 1260. When Muhammad II of Khwarazm ordered a contingent of merchants, dispatched by the Mongols, to be killed, Genghis Khan declared war on the Anushtegin dynasty in 1219. The Mongols overran the empire , occupying the major cities and population centers between 1219 and 1221. Iran was ravaged by the Mongol detachment under Jebe and Subutai , who left the area in ruin. Transoxiana also came under Mongol control after
9546-621: The summer. Upon Abaqa 's accession, he immediately faced an invasion by Berke of the Golden Horde, which ended with Berke's death in Tiflis . In 1270, Abaqa defeated an invasion by Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq of the Chagatai Khanate . Abaqa's brother Tekuder sacked Bukhara in retaliation. In 1277, the Mamluks invaded Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan . Stung by
9657-801: The top position of first secretary. Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%. Bobojon Ghafurov , First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the republic during the Soviet Era. Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000 (4%) and 120,000 (8%) of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II. Following
9768-490: The two holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina . Even prior to the peace treaty's conclusion, the Ilkhan began sending large and richly-equipped pilgrimage ( hajj ) caravans from Iraq. In 1330 he went so far as to include, at great cost, an elephant in the caravan. He also arranged for his name to be read aloud in the khutba (Friday sermon) in Medina for a time in 1318 and sent the kiswa (the ceremonial cloth covering
9879-548: The two top per capita income groups, and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people. By the 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991, a day which is celebrated as the country's Independence Day . In February 1990, riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to
9990-603: The unification by the Mongols as a revival of their long-lost dynastic tradition, and the concept of "Land of Iran" ( Irān-zamin ) was considered an important ideology and was further developed by the later Safavid Empire (1501–1736). Similar to the development in China under the Yuan dynasty , the revival of the concept of territorial unity, although not intended by the Mongols, became a lasting legacy of Mongol rule in Iran. According to
10101-532: The unrest. Following independence, the nation fell into civil war among factions distinguished by clan loyalties. Regional groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan. led by a combination of liberal democratic reformers and Islamists , who eventually became the United Tajik Opposition , rose up against the newly formed government of President Rahmon Nabiyev , which
10212-534: The use of artillery, erupted along most of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In 2023, according to the World Health Organization , Tajikistan received its certification, declaring its a status as a malaria -free country. After independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war. Factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan , Iran, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Russia. Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in
10323-537: The war and the end of Stalin's reign, attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan. During 1957–58 Nikita Khrushchev 's Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics . In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR, the lowest percentage of households in
10434-484: The warring nation to decrease the chances of U.S. or Turkish involvement. Russia backed the pro-government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan-Afghan border. All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and
10545-504: The will of the Tajik people. The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism , which is evident in bordering Afghanistan . The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamic Renaissance Party . Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed
10656-595: The work produced, but it also inspired new historical works that copied its style and format, such as those of Hamdallah Mustawfi . Among the arts patronized by the Ilkhans, the most important were the arts of the book. The major centers of manuscript production and illumination were Mosul and Baghdad in Iraq. They matched the quality of contemporary production in the Mamluk Sultanate and may have influenced
10767-530: The year in various locations in Tajikistan. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as basmachi , waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence. The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population suppressed. Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation. Practising Islam , Judaism , and Christianity
10878-465: Was a Jewish convert to Islam. The Ilkhanid rulers, who were keen to increase their autonomy, supported their Persian bureaucrats' promotion of the traditional Iranian idea of kingship. The Persian concept of monarchy over a territorial empire, or more specifically, the "Kingship of the Land of Iran" ( pādshāhi-ye Irān-zamin ), was easily sold to their Mongol masters by these bureaucrats. A lasting effect of
10989-636: Was also an increased production of copies of the Shahnameh . The most celebrated copy is the Great Mongol Shahnameh , a large manuscript probably produced for Abu Sa'id in the 14th century. Its pages include highly expressive illustrations that reflect influences from across Eurasia, including China and Europe. Some two dozen large-scale Qur'ans have survived and are among the most impressive artistically-produced Qur'ans created up to this point. They were each produced over many years – one of
11100-500: Was confirmed as ilkhan by Kublai Khan in February 1286. During Arghun's reign, he actively sought to combat Muslim influence, and fought against both the Mamluks and the Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz in Khorasan. To fund his campaigns, Arghun allowed his viziers Buqa and Sa'd-ud-dawla to centralize expenditures, but this was highly unpopular and caused his former supporters to turn against him. Both viziers were killed and Arghun
11211-608: Was discouraged and repressed, and mosques, churches , and synagogues were closed. As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies, Central Asia , Tajikistan included, underwent a famine that claimed lives. In 1924, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan , and in 1929 the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajikistan SSR, Таджикская ССР)
11322-537: Was dominated by people from the Khujand and Kulob regions. The war lasted until 1997. More than 500,000 residents fled during this time because of persecution and increased poverty, seeking better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics. The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country. Emomali Rahmon came to power in
11433-707: Was enthroned in 1316. He was faced with rebellion in 1318 by the Chagatayids and Qara'unas in Khorasan, and an invasion by the Golden Horde at the same time. An Anatolian emir, Irenchin, also rebelled. Irenchin was crushed by Chupan of the Taichiud in the Battle of Zanjan-Rud on 13 July 1319. Under the influence of Chupan, the Ilkhanate made peace with the Chagatais, who helped them crush the Chagatayid revolt, and
11544-524: Was made a separate constituent republic; the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR . Between 1927 and 1934, collectivisation of agriculture and an expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region. Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived
11655-519: Was murdered in 1291. The Ilkhanate started crumbling under the reign of Arghun's brother, Gaykhatu . The majority of Mongols converted to Islam while the Mongol court remained Buddhist . Gaykhatu had to buy the support of his followers and as a result, ruined the realm's finances. His vizir Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani tried to bolster the state finances by adopting paper money from the Yuan dynasty , which remained largely unsuccessful. Gaykhatu also alienated
11766-432: Was of good quality but not as fine and as diverse as pottery from the preceding century. The type most commonly attributed to Ilkhanid Iran is the so-called "Sultanabad" ceramics. These were made of a softer white paste with a green or gray-brown slip . Bowls of this type were typically underglaze -painted with animal figures with a background of leaves. Kashan remained an important center of lustreware production until
11877-505: Was part of Sogdia , a collection of city-states which was overrun by Scytho-Siberians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC. The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi (141 BC–87 BC) commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished. Sogdians played a role in facilitating trade and worked in other capacities, as farmers, carpetweavers, glassmakers, and woodcarvers. The Kushan Empire ,
11988-790: Was part of the Achaemenid Empire . Some authors have suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC parts of Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of the Hindu Kambojas tribe before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire . After the region's conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom , a successor state of Alexander's empire. Northern Tajikistan (the cities of Khujand and Panjakent )
12099-686: Was previously home to cultures of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age , including the city of Sarazm , and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of various faiths and cultures including the Oxus civilization , Andronovo culture , Buddhism , Nestorian Christianity , Hinduism , Zoroastrianism , Manichaeism , and Islam . The area has been ruled by empires and dynasties including the Achaemenid Empire , Sasanian Empire , Hephthalite Empire , Samanid Empire , and Mongol Empire . After being ruled by
12210-550: Was the first khan of the Ilkhanate. Immediately after his brother Möngke's accession as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of North China, however in the following year, North China was assigned to Kublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering the Abbasid Caliphate . He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the campaign and he took his sons Abaqa and Yoshmut along with him. Hulagu also took with him many Chinese scholars and astronomers, from whom
12321-597: Was under the Seljuks , the following year. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia (including modern-day Azerbaijan), Armenia, Georgia (excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds), as well as all of Afghanistan and Kashmir . After the battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, the Mongols under Baiju occupied Anatolia , while the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and the Empire of Trebizond became vassals of
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