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94-706: The crown was made for King Sigismund II Augustus . After Sigismund's death, it was pawned to Giovanni Tudesco and later ransomed by King Sigismund III Vasa for 20,000 florins and used for his coronation in Uppsala as King of Sweden on 19 February 1594. In 1623, King Sigismund III bequeathed it to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , and it was included in the State Treasury at the Wawel Castle after his death in 1633. The appearance of

188-544: A catafalque and remained at the nearby Tykocin Castle until 10 September 1573 when it was transported back to Kraków through Warsaw . After transporting the remains of Barbara Radziwiłł from Kraków to Vilnius , Sigismund was building a church in the Vilnius Castle Complex which should have served as his family's mausoleum, however it was still uncompleted in 1572. Consequently, he was laid to rest at

282-621: A Lasco (Jan Łaski) and Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł . Throughout the 16th century, Frycz Modrzewski advocated for renouncing Rome 's authority and establishing a separate and independent Polish Church. His initiative was chiefly inspired by the creation of the Anglican Church by Henry VIII in 1534. Sigismund Augustus was lenient towards the idea, particularly due to the sudden spread of Protestantism among courtiers, advisors, nobles and peasants. Calvinism became especially popular among

376-594: A better second marriage, the Habsburgs claimed that the marriage was not consummated . In May 1551, after the death of his second scandalous wife Barbara Radziwiłł , King Sigismund II Augustus became a widower. Emperor Ferdinand I pursued the marriage between Catherine and Sigismund to create a pro-Habsburg group within the Polish court. Particularly, he wanted to prevent Polish assistance to Sigismund's sister Isabella Jagiellon and her son John Sigismund Zápolya in

470-474: A breach with Rome at the very crisis of the religious struggle in Poland. He was not free to remarry until Catherine's death on 28 February 1572, but he followed her to the grave less than six months later. Unlike his father, Sigismund Augustus was frail and sickly. Shortly before turning 50, his health rapidly declined. Being involved in many affairs and holding a large number of mistresses, historians agree that

564-401: A common religion. Sigismund agreed to the postulates, however, under the condition that Pope Paul IV will be in favour. Instead, Paul IV was enraged that such a proposition emerged for him to accept; he declined and refused to grant consent. Facing potential excommunication , the assembly were forced to abandon their plans. Nevertheless, Protestantism continued to flourish and spread. In 1565,

658-533: A divorce. In late 1565, she departed to Wieluń , but Polish nobles interfered and her departure to Vienna was delayed until 8 October 1566. In a letter written to Albert, Duke of Prussia , a day before her departure, Catherine expressed her resolve to one day return to Poland. Catherine did not receive a warm welcome in Vienna as she was blamed for the failed marriage. Emperor Maximilian II extended her stay and wanted to meet with Sigismund personally to discuss

752-436: A pompous wedding ceremony on 30 July 1553. On the other hand, Catherine showed resentment towards Sigismund because of how he treated her sister, Queen Elizabeth. She accused him of negligence and indifference during her sudden illness, which caused premature death. The correspondence between the two remained purely formal and political for the remainder of their lives. Since her coronation, Catherine acted as Austria's puppet at

846-502: A rich collection of tapestries (360 pieces), commissioned by him in Brussels in the years 1550–1560. The king enjoyed reading, especially short stories, poems and satires . Under the influence of bishop Piotr Myszkowski , Poland's then greatest writer and poet Jan Kochanowski joined the royal court in 1563. It is uncertain whether Sigismund and Kochanowski were friends, however, Kochanowski's correspondence clearly highlights that

940-477: A third, purely political union with his first cousin, the Austrian archduchess Catherine , to avoid an Austro-Russian alliance. She was also the sister of his first wife, Elizabeth, who had died within a year of her marriage to him, before his accession. Catherine, unlike previous queens, was considered dull and obese. Sigismund Augustus found her immensely unattractive despite accepting the marriage and organizing

1034-480: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This royalty -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sigismund II Augustus Sigismund II Augustus ( Polish : Zygmunt II August , Lithuanian : Žygimantas Augustas ; 1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania , the son of Sigismund I the Old , whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548. He

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1128-542: Is debatable. Her opponents and family members suggested sexually transmitted diseases due to a number of affairs she had before marrying Sigismund. There were also persistent rumors that she was poisoned by Queen Bona Sforza, who had a long history of eliminating her rivals or enemies quickly and efficiently. However, contemporary historians and experts agree on cervical or ovarian cancer . The death of Queen Barbara Radziwiłł, five months after her coronation and under distressing circumstances, compelled Sigismund to contract

1222-475: The per procura wedding of Sophia Jagiellon and Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg in January 1556. She also continued to mediate between her husband and her father, carried frequent correspondence with Albert, Duke of Prussia , and was known for generally favorable views on Protestantism . Catherine's dowry was paid by her father at the end of 1555 or very early 1556, and on 19 January 1556, she received

1316-498: The Duchy of Milan until Sforza's suspicious death in 1494. Throughout his youth, Sigismund Augustus was under the careful watch of his mother, Bona. Being the only legitimate male heir to the Polish throne throughout his father's reign, he was well educated and taught by the most renowned scholars in the country. It was also his mother's wish to name her only son Augustus, after the first Roman Emperor Augustus . However, this decision

1410-769: The Duchy of Prussia in 1525, but under Polish suzerainty . However, his efforts to introduce Protestantism to the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the northernmost part of the region was met with fierce resistance and divided the Livonian Confederation . When Albert's brother Wilhelm and Archbishop of Riga attempted to implement a Lutheran church order in his diocese , the Catholic estates rebelled and arrested both Wilhelm and his bishop coadjutor , Christopher, Duke of Mecklenburg . As Prussia

1504-745: The Jagiellonian dynasty . The death of his childless sister, Anna, in 1596 marked the end of the dynasty. In addition to his family connections, Sigismund II Augustus was allied to the Habsburgs as member of the Order of the Golden Fleece . Sigismund's reign was marked by a period of temporary stability and external expansion. He witnessed the bloodless introduction of the Protestant Reformation into Poland and Lithuania, and

1598-804: The Kievan Rus' , were disputed between Lithuania and Russia. However, the Ruthenian nobles were eager to capitalise on the political or economic potential offered by the Polish sphere and agreed to the terms. Previously, the Kingdom of Ruthenia or "Ukraine" was abolished in 1349, after Poland and Lithuania split modern-day Ukraine in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars . Now, under the Union of Lublin, all Ukrainian and Ruthenian territories which were alien in culture, customs, religion and language to

1692-563: The Polish Brethren came into existence as a Nontrinitarian sect of Calvinism. One year after Sigismund's death the Warsaw Confederation was adopted as the first European act granting religious freedoms . Despite this, Protestantism in Poland ultimately declined during the fierce Counter-Reformation measures under the despotic and arch-Catholic Sigismund III Vasa , who ruled for nearly 45 years. For instance,

1786-543: The Polish–Lithuanian union , thus hoping to leave his throne to his heirs. When Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned, Chancellor Krzysztof Szydłowiecki organized a preliminary marriage treaty between the young king and Elizabeth of Austria , daughter of King Ferdinand of Bohemia and Hungary . The marriage was signed on 10–11 November 1530 in Poznań , however, the arrangement was delayed by Queen Bona Sforza , who detested

1880-897: The Royal Castle in Vilnius with the nearby Radziwiłł Palace so that the couple could meet frequently and discreetly. Due to her unpopularity in Poland, Barbara often expressed her wish to reside permanently in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. To ease the situation, Sigismund Augustus provided a luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts for his wife at Wawel Castle since her arrival in Kraków on 13 February 1549. The monarch also granted Barbara several provinces to administer and provide income. Although ambitious and bright, she showed lack of interest in political life, but had some influence over decisions made by Sigismund. This also caused an uproar among

1974-515: The Tsardom of Russia . In early 1553, Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł traveled to the court of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, in an attempt to persuade the emperor to cease his assistance to Tsar Ivan the Terrible . Radziwiłł had further orders to travel to investigate marriage opportunities with Mechthild of Bavaria or one of the daughters of Ercole II d'Este , Duke of Ferrara . However,

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2068-493: The Union of Lublin , which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , jointly with German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities. This achievement might well have been impossible without the monarch's personal approach to politics and ability to mediate. At first, the treaty was perceived as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty. Lithuanian magnates were afraid of losing their powers, since

2162-534: The Wawel Cathedral on 10 February 1574. The stately funeral ceremony, attended by his sister Anna Jagiellon , was the last spectacle of its kind in the Kingdom of Poland. No other Polish monarch was buried with such pomp and splendour. His death introduced an elective monarchy in Poland which lasted until the final partition at the end of the 18th century. Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of

2256-607: The peero-cratic upheaval that placed most political power in the hands of the Polish nobility ; he saw the collapse of the Knights of the Sword in the north, which led to the Commonwealth's acquisition of Livonia as a Lutheran duchy and the consolidation of Ottoman power in the southeast. A less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II Augustus was nevertheless an even more effective statesman than

2350-457: The Emperor convinced Radziwiłł that marriage between Catherine and Sigismund was best. Radziwiłł wrote enthusiastic letters to Sigismund, who soon gave in and gave his consent on 10 April 1553. The papal dispensation (they were first cousins once removed ) was received on 20 May and the wedding treaty was signed on 23 June. The same day the per procura wedding took place. The actual wedding

2444-511: The Habsburg envoys prior to an audience with the king. She would also dictate what and how the envoys should express their views. When Sigismund Augustus found out of Catherine's intrigues, he sent her to Radom and excluded from political life. As Sigismund lost all hope of children by his third bride, he was the last male Jagiellon in the direct line so the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy this by adultery with two of

2538-843: The Habsburgs. In 1573, the first permanent bridge over the Vistula river in Warsaw and also the longest wooden bridge in Europe at the time was named in Sigismund's honour. Catherine of Austria, Queen of Poland Catherine of Austria ( Polish : Katarzyna Habsburżanka ; Lithuanian : Kotryna Habsburgaitė ; 15 September 1533 – 28 February 1572) was one of the fifteen children of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and Anna of Bohemia and Hungary . In 1553, she married Polish King Sigismund II Augustus and became Queen consort of Poland and Grand Duchess consort of Lithuania . Their marriage

2632-478: The Old and some nobles showed compassion towards the new Queen, who was disregarded by her husband and scorned by Bona. Sigismund Augustus was indifferent to her health condition; when the seizures continued to intensify he abandoned Elizabeth and returned to Kraków to collect her dowry . He also sent for Ferdinand's doctors to travel the long distance from Vienna knowing that Elizabeth was ailing and deteriorating fast. She eventually died unattended and exhausted from

2726-644: The Polish Brethren were banned, hunted down and its leaders executed. Sigismund Augustus carried on with the development of several royal residencies including Wawel , Vilnius Castle , Niepołomice and the Royal Castle in Warsaw . In the 1560s he acquired the Tykocin Castle and rebuilt it in Renaissance style. During the reign of Sigismund Augustus the structure served as a royal residence with an impressive treasury and library as well as

2820-451: The Polish city of Lublin , were futile. The right of Poles to settle and own land in the Grand Duchy was questioned by Lithuanian envoys. Following Mikołaj Radziwiłł's departure from Lublin on 1 March 1569, Sigismund announced the incorporation of then-Lithuanian Podlachia , Volhynia , Podolia and Kiev provinces into Poland, with strong approval from the local Ruthenian (Ukrainian) gentry . Those historic regions, which once belonged to

2914-497: The Polish court; she was tasked with espionage and obtaining important information for the benefit of the Habsburgs. Sigismund Augustus was aware of the scheme, but, by marrying Catherine, he obtained a promise from Austria to stay neutral and abandon plans with Russia . This neutrality was undermined by Catherine's actions, who followed her father's policy and objected the return of John Sigismund Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon (Sigismund's sister) to Hungary. She would conspire with

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3008-706: The Polish people would be annexed by Catholic Poland. Strong westernisation and polonisation would follow, including the clandestine suppression of the Ukrainian Eastern Orthodox Church by future King Sigismund III . Ruthenia remained under Polish rule until the Cossack uprisings against Polish domination and the Partitions of Poland , when Ukraine was annexed by the Russian Empire . The Lithuanians were compelled to return to

3102-632: The Sejm negotiations under Jan Hieronim Chodkiewicz and continue negotiations. The Polish nobility once again pressed for the full incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland, however, the Lithuanians disapproved. The parties eventually agreed on a federal state on 28 June 1569 and on 1 July 1569 the Union of Lublin was signed at Lublin Castle , thus establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund Augustus ratified

3196-741: The alliance against Ivan the Terrible to protect lucrative trade routes in Livonia, thus creating a new valid casus belli against the Russian Tsardom . On 22 January 1558, Ivan invaded the Baltic states and started the Livonian War , which lasted 25 years until 1583. Russia's eventual defeat in the war legally partitioned Livonia between Poland ( Latvia , southern Estonia ) and Sweden (central-northern Estonia). The Polish sector became subsequently known as Polish Livonia or Inflanty ; it

3290-473: The care with which he controlled his nation. According to diplomats, everything went as Sigismund wished and he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to obtain more funds from the Sejm than his father ever could, and at one of the parliament sittings he won the hearts of the assembled envoys by unexpectedly appearing in a simple grey coat of a Mazovian lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him

3384-420: The cause of the illness is unknown as she would not allow Polish doctors near her. When her father sent a couple of Austrian doctors, they reported only high fever and chills. She recovered somewhat only in spring 1559 but her recovery was interrupted by frequent travels in summer 1559 to avoid a plague outbreak. Catherine returned to Vilnius only in early 1560 and became ill again. Sigismund was convinced that it

3478-639: The crown was a type of corona clausa , consisting of five larger and five smaller parts ( portiones maiores quinque, minores quinque ) and 262 precious stones, including 24 emeralds, 64 rubies, 30 sapphires, 21 diamonds and 123 pearls. In the 18th century, the crown was depicted in the portrait of Sigismund I the Old by Marcello Bacciarelli , painted to embellish the Marble Room at the Royal Castle in Warsaw . [REDACTED] Media related to Swedish Crown at Wikimedia Commons This Poland -related article

3572-484: The daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł . The marriage was announced by the king himself on 2 February 1548 in Piotrków Trybunalski . The young and beautiful Barbara was despised by Queen Bona, who attempted to annul the marriage at any cost. The agitation was also abundant at Sigismund's first Sejm (parliament) sitting on 31 October 1548 where the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless

3666-421: The day Sigismund and Barbara met, she complained of poor health, particularly stomach and abdominal pain. After the coronation her condition deteriorated rapidly. She was tormented by strong fever, diarrhea, nausea and lack of appetite. After careful observation by hired medics, a lump was discovered on her stomach filled with pus. Sigismund Augustus gravely despaired and sent for doctors and even folk healers from

3760-552: The end of his life, the king was losing teeth and vigour, possibly due to tuberculosis . Antonio Maria Graziani recalls that Sigismund was unable to keep standing without a cane when greeting Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Commendone . During spring 1572, Sigismund Augustus became feverish. Untreated tuberculosis made him feeble and impotent, but he was able to travel to his private retreat in Knyszyn . While at Knyszyn, he corresponded with his diplomats and nobles, highlighting that he

3854-483: The entire country. He personally tended to his sick wife despite her foul smell and dedicated himself when necessary; the king hoped to take Barbara to the hunting castle at Niepołomice and ordered to demolish the small city gate so her carriage could pass freely. However, Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków after continuous pain and agony. It was her dying wish that she'd be buried in Lithuania, her homeland. The body

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3948-562: The epileptic attacks on 15 June 1545 at the age of 18. From the outset of his reign, Sigismund Augustus came into collision with the country's privileged nobility , who had already begun curtailing the power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with the Lithuanian , Calvinist and former mistress, Barbara Radziwiłł ,

4042-609: The exception of the Northern Seven Years' War which aimed to secure Baltic trade. Under his patronage, culture flourished in Poland; he was a collector of tapestries from the Low Countries and collected military memorabilia as well as swords, armours and jewellery. Sigismund Augustus' rule is widely considered as the apex of the Polish Golden Age ; he established the first regular Polish navy and

4136-712: The final defeat in the Livonian War would result in the country's incorporation into the Russian Tsardom . Furthermore, the Poles were reluctant to aid Lithuania without a quid pro quo . The most vocal opponent of the union was Sigismund's brother-in-law, Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł ( Lithuanian : Radvila Rudasis ), who viewed the agreement as "peaceful annexation of Lithuania" by Poland. He also resisted polonisation policies which forced ethnic Lithuanians to change their names and native language to Polish or Latin . As another war with Russia loomed, Sigismund Augustus pressed

4230-507: The first regular postal service in Poland, known today as Poczta Polska . In 1569, he oversaw the signing of the Union of Lublin between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and introduced an elective monarchy . Sigismund Augustus married three times; his first wife, Elizabeth of Austria , died in 1545 at just eighteen. He was then involved in several relationships with mistresses,

4324-549: The first regular Polish postal service operating from Kraków to Venice , thus establishing Poczta Polska (Polish Post). All maintenance costs were borne by the Crown and the post was mostly managed by Italians or Germans. Additional couriers travelled between Kraków, Warsaw and Vilnius. Since 1562, the postal route also encompassed Vienna and cities in the Holy Roman Empire, which enabled continuous correspondence with

4418-472: The fourth time and secure a male heir. In January 1565, Sigismund complained to papal nuncio Giovanni Francesco Commendone that marriage to Catherine was sinful because she was a sister of his first wife, that she hated Poland, that she caused the miscarriage in 1554, and that he was physically disgusted by his wife due to her epilepsy. Due to Habsburg influence, Pope Pius IV did not allow the divorce. In July 1564, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor , died and

4512-486: The initial euphoria demonstrated by royal subjects, the marriage was unsuccessful from the very beginning. Sigismund Augustus did not find Elizabeth attractive and continued to have extramarital affairs with several mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł . Elizabeth was also known to be timid, meek and apprehensive due to strict upbringing. The young and garrulous king was also repulsed by Elizabeth's newly diagnosed epilepsy and subsequent seizures. Only Sigismund

4606-718: The issue, but he refused. In March 1567, Andreas Dudith relayed that Sigismund categorically refused to live with Catherine (reportedly, he once said that he would gladly become a monk if that meant he could get rid of Catherine) and that he would not protest if Catherine remained in Austria. Sigismund would not specify where Catherine should live if she returned to Poland and would not allot money for her court, in effect precluding her from returning. In June 1567, Catherine became seriously ill with what doctors called melancholia . After recovering, in October, she moved to Linz to live out

4700-475: The jewellery she had received from him. The majority of her money was left for charity. Catherine died on 28 February 1572 and was buried in castle's chapel. When Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor , ordered reconstruction of the castle, her body was moved to the St. Florian Monastery on 22 September 1599. A funeral was not organized until 22 September 1614 during the reign of Emperor Matthias . The surviving sarcophagus

4794-400: The king had venereal disease which caused him to be infertile . At 16, he also contracted malaria which further contributed to his inability of producing any offspring. By 1558 Sigismund had gout and since 1568 he also suffered from kidney stones , which triggered immense pain. He employed numerous medics, healers or even quack doctors and imported expensive ointments from Italy. By

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4888-563: The last Master of the Order, was granted the newly established Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . Wilhelm was restored to his former position as archbishop on Sigismund's demand, with the Lutheran church order being enacted. The incorporation of Courland into the Polish sphere of influence created an alliance which threatened Russia's plans of expanding into the Baltic coast . Sigismund directed

4982-415: The main arsenal of the crown. Sigismund Augustus was a passionate collector of jewels and gemstones . According to nuncio Bernardo Bongiovanni's relation, his collection was cached in 16 chests. Among the precious items in his possession was Charles V 's ruby of 80,000 scudos ' worth, as well as the Emperor's diamond medal with Habsburgs Eagle on one side and two columns with a sign Plus Ultra on

5076-409: The members of parliament (Sejm) for the union, gradually gaining more followers due to his persuasive abilities and auspicious diplomacy. The potential union agreement would lead to the eviction of Lithuanian landowners who opposed the transition of territory from multi-ethnic Lithuania to Poland. Such terms were causing an outrage among the most renowned members of Lithuanian upper classes, but Sigismund

5170-462: The most beautiful of his countrywomen, Barbara Giza and Anna Zajączkowska but was unable to impregnate either of them. The Sejm was willing to legitimize, and acknowledge as Sigismund's successor, any male heir who might be born to him; however, the King remained childless. The King's marriage was a matter of great political import to Protestants and Catholics alike. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would divorce and remarry and thus bring about

5264-476: The most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł , who became Sigismund's second wife and Queen of Poland in spite of his mother's disapproval. The marriage was deemed scandalous and was fiercely opposed by the royal court and the nobility . Barbara died five months after her coronation, presumably due to ill health, however, rumours circulated that she was poisoned. Sigismund finally wedded Catherine of Austria , but remained childless throughout his life. Sigismund Augustus

5358-540: The nation, often distrustful of the Germans . He also avoided serious complications and skirmishes with the powerful Turks. During Sigismund Augustus' reign, Livonia was in political turmoil. His father, Sigismund I, permitted Albert of Prussia to introduce the Protestant Reformation and secularize the southern part of the Teutonic Order State . Albert then established Europe's first Protestant state in

5452-580: The new bride. The treaty was renewed on 16 June 1538 in Wrocław by Johannes Dantiscus and the betrothal ceremony took place on 17 July 1538 in Innsbruck . Bona continued to lobby against the marriage and instead proposed Margaret of France to potentially form an alliance with the French against the Habsburgs . On 5 May 1543, Elizabeth's escorted convoy entered Kraków and was greeted with enthusiasm by both

5546-404: The new king repudiated Barbara. The nobles portrayed Barbara as an opportunistic prostitute that charmed the king for her own benefit. That perception was shared with Bona Sforza, who decisively eliminated all her rivals by any means to stay in power. The young monarch even considered abdicating . By 1550, when Sigismund summoned his second Sejm, the nobles had begun to be in his favor; the nobility

5640-400: The nobility. To avoid an armed rebellion, Sigismund was forced to form an alliance with his former father-in-law, Emperor Ferdinand I. This allowed for Barbara's coronation as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 by Primate Mikołaj Dzierzgowski . Queen Bona eventually succumbed to her son's demand and accepted the marriage sending a messenger in 1551 who informed Barbara of her decision. Since

5734-461: The nobles and the townsfolk. The same day 16-year-old Elizabeth married 22-year-old Sigismund Augustus, whom she met for the first time shortly before marriage vows. The ceremony was performed at the Wawel Cathedral and the wedding continued for two weeks. Bona began to plot against the new queen. As a result, the newly wedded couple decided to reside in Vilnius , far from the royal court. Despite

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5828-405: The other hand, she was ambitious, intelligent, perceptive and had an exemplar taste in fashion. She always wore precious pearl necklaces when sitting for portraits. The mutual admiration between Sigismund and Barbara made the relationship "one of the greatest love affairs in Polish history". While still married to Elizabeth, Sigismund Augustus ordered the construction of a secret passage connecting

5922-598: The other side. In 1571, after the death of his nephew John Sigismund Zápolya , he inherited the Hungarian Crown used by some Hungarian monarchs. A Swedish Crown was also made for him. The Polish king treated those crowns as a family keepsake, and kept them in a private vault in the Tykocin Castle. He had also a sultan 's sword of 16,000 ducats ' worth, 30 precious horse trappings and 20 different private-use armours . The king's possession included

6016-589: The proposed union would lower their rank and status to an equivalent with petty nobility rather than wealthier Polish aristocracy. On the other hand, the unification would provide a strong alliance against Russian (Muscovite) attack from the east. Lithuania was ravaged by the Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars which endured for over 150 years. During the Second War , Lithuania lost 210,000 square miles (540,000 km ) of its territory to Russia, and

6110-662: The remaining five years of her life. According to a witness, Catherine lived like a widow. She received 28,000 guldens annually from Sigismund for her court of more than fifty people. She was visited by her family, she studied the Bible and other theological works, and established a garden for medicinal herbs which produced various herbal remedies. It seems that she still wanted to return to Poland: she tearfully asked Giovanni Francesco Commendone for help when he visited her twice and kept writing letters to her husband. In her last will, she asked her husband for forgiveness and left him all

6204-657: The status of an independent ' city state '. 11 Polish privateers sent by Sigismund were eventually executed, which greatly angered the king. Poland then joined Denmark against Sweden for Baltic domination. The war ended as status quo ante bellum in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin , which was signed by Bishop Martin Kromer on behalf of Sigismund Augustus. However, the ineffective conflict did have its input in establishing Poland's first registered naval fleet (Naval Commission) in 1568. Sigismund's most striking legacy may have been

6298-413: The stern and majestic Sigismund I the Old . Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons , and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish Sejm and national assembly. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to

6392-421: The succession disputes over the Kingdom of Hungary . Both Catherine and Sigismund personally opposed the marriage. Catherine blamed Sigismund of mistreating and causing the early death of her older sister and his first wife Elizabeth of Austria . Sigismund feared that Catherine would be similarly unattractive and of frail health as Elisabeth. However, the Habsburgs threatened to create an anti-Polish alliance with

6486-415: The time, so the wedding took place six years later on 22 October 1549. In October 1549, Catherine with a dowry of 100,000 Rhine florins was escorted by her elder brother Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria from Innsbruck to Mantua . The marriage lasted only four months as Francesco drowned in Lake Como on 21 February 1550, and a widowed Catherine returned home to Innsbruck. To improve Catherine's chances of

6580-427: The towns of Wiślica , Żarnów , Radom , Nowy Korczyn , Kozienice , Chęciny , and Radoszyce . In the spring of 1556, the Queen mother Bona Sforza returned to her native Italy and her two yet-unmarried daughters, Anna Jagiellon and Catherine Jagiellon , moved to Vilnius. It seems that the three women became close. In summer 1558, the royal family returned to Poland. In October, Catherine became severely ill, but

6674-443: The two had close contact and he assisted the monarch at most important occasions, including military maneuvers in Lithuania in 1567. Kochanowski was also present during the signing of Lublin Union in 1569. Sigismund was fond of foreign craft-makers and employed Italian goldsmiths, jewellers and medalists, very much like his father. One of the more renowned figures brought to Poland was Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio . In Italy, Caraglio

6768-402: The unification act on 4 July, and henceforth governed one of the largest and multicultural countries of 16th-century Europe. In comparison to his staunchly Catholic father, Sigismund Augustus paid little attention to the matters of faith and religion. Having a large number of mistresses before, during and after being married, he was viewed by the clergy as an adulterer and libertine . Sigismund

6862-526: The upper classes as it promoted democratic freedoms and called for rebellion against absolutism , which the privileged Polish nobility favoured. During the 1555 Sejm session in Piotrków , the nobles intensively discussed the rights of priests in the newly proposed Polish Church and demanded the abolition of celibacy . Some Catholic bishops were supportive of the concepts and acknowledged the need for uniting Poland, Lithuania, Prussia and their vassals under

6956-481: Was epilepsy , the same disease that tormented his first wife and Catherine's sister. Their marriage became very distant. In October 1562, at the wedding of Catherine Jagiellon and Duke John of Finland , the couple saw each other for the last time. Catherine lived in Vilnius and Hrodna before being sent to Radom in April 1563. 40-year-old Sigismund sought to obtain annulment of the marriage as he wanted to marry for

7050-415: Was inaugurated as Grand Duke of Lithuania and the ceremony was held in the Vilnius grand ducal palace . In 1530, the ten-year-old Sigismund Augustus was crowned by Primate Jan Łaski as co-ruler alongside his father, in accordance with the vivente rege law. Sigismund the Old hoped to secure his son's succession to the throne and maintain the Jagiellonian dynasty 's position in Poland. The move

7144-603: Was a tributary state of the Polish Crown, Sigismund Augustus, a Catholic, was forced to intervene in favour of Protestant Albert and his brother Wilhelm. In July 1557 the Polish forces left for Livonia. The armed intervention proved to be successful; the Catholic Livonians surrendered and signed the Treaty of Pozvol on 14 September 1557. The agreement placed most Livonian territories under Polish protection and de facto became part of Poland. Gotthard Kettler ,

7238-534: Was acutely aware of the criticism of his treatment of his first wife Elizabeth of Austria. In February 1554, the royal couple separated for the first time. Catherine was in Parczew while Sigismund attended general sejm in Lublin . According to royal secretary Michał Trzebuchowski, the queen was very upset by the separation and kept crying. When Sigismund visited his wife on 9–10 April, Catherine informed him that she

7332-493: Was also affected as the trade route from the Baltic ran through Gdańsk and along the Vistula river to the southern province of Lesser Poland . Gdańsk, which was privileged with its own army and government, resisted against Sigismund's order of sending privateers and creating the first Polish Admiralty in their city. Most of the deputies in the city council were merchants and tradesmen of German descent or Protestants who were either politically leaning towards Sweden or fighting for

7426-642: Was also reasonably tolerant towards minorities and supported nobles of different faith and nationality to be part of the national assembly, the Sejm. He continued his father's policies, but was more accepting of the Protestant Reformation in Poland (only to the status of a minority religion). Several magnates converted to Calvinism or Lutheranism during the Reformation started by Martin Luther and John Calvin , most notably Stanisław Zamoyski , Jan Zamoyski , Mikołaj Rej , Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski , Johannes

7520-666: Was crowned with the male title of Rex Poloniae. Catherine was one of the fifteen children of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor , and Anna of Bohemia and Hungary . She spent most of her childhood at Hofburg, Innsbruck and received education based on discipline and religion, learning the Italian and Latin languages. On 17 March 1543, Catherine was betrothed to Francesco III Gonzaga , Duke of Mantua and Marquess of Montferrat , reflecting her father's desire to strengthen Habsburg influence against France in northern Italy, particularly Milan . Catherine and Francesco were 9 and 10 years old at

7614-604: Was crucial to silence the members of nobility who were against the Jagiellons and viewed the action as a step towards absolutism . The law was officially abolished by the Henrician Articles , or the new constitution adopted between the nobles and the newly elected King Henry of Valois in 1573. Sigismund Augustus began his reign as the Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1544 and initially opposed

7708-521: Was decisive and ruthless in this matter. Moreover, the personal union between the two countries created by the marriage of Jadwiga with Jogaila in 1385 was not entirely constitutional. Being the last male member of the Jagiellons, childless Sigismund sought to preserve his dynasty's legacy. The newly proposed constitutional union would create one large Commonwealth state, with one elected monarch who would simultaneously reign over both domains. The initial Sejm negotiations on unity in January 1569, near

7802-511: Was delayed due to Sigismund's ill health from 1 July to 30 July. The celebrations lasted 10 days. Catherine's dowry was 100,000 florins as well as 500 grzywnas of silver, 48 expensive dresses, and about 800 jewels. Catherine spoke Italian and therefore could communicate with Queen mother Bona Sforza and her family. She was ambitious and tried to gain political influence in the Polish court which caused Sigismund's ire. At least at first, he attempted to do right by his wife – he needed an heir and

7896-458: Was feeling well and hoped to recover. Great Marshal Jan Firlej denied these claims and reported that the king was bleeding severely due to consumption and was troubled by pain in the chest and lumbar . Sigismund died in Knyszyn on 7 July 1572 at 6 in the afternoon, surrounded by a group of senators and envoys. The official cause of death given by the medics was consumption. His body placed on

7990-420: Was met with Sigismund the Old's strong disapproval, who hoped for a lineage of Sigismunds on the Polish throne. Consequently, it was established that the child would bear two names to settle the conflict. The tradition of adopting Augustus as a second or middle name was also observed during the coronation of Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski who became King Stanisław II Augustus in 1764. In 1529, Sigismund Augustus

8084-622: Was not happy and they had no children together. After a likely miscarriage in 1554 and a bout of illness in 1558, Sigismund became increasingly distant. He tried but failed to obtain a divorce from the pope. In 1565, Catherine returned to Austria and lived in Linz until her death. Sigismund died just a few months after her, bringing the male line of the Jagiellon dynasty to its end. The dynasty would continue, strictly speaking, for one more reign—that of Sigismund Augustus’ sister, Anna Jagiellon , who

8178-418: Was one of the first reproductive printmakers . In Poland, Sigismund tasked him with the production of cameos , medallions, coins and jewellery. Numerous medals and roundels from this period feature the last members of the Jagiellonian dynasty . When Sigismund's mother Bona died in 1557, Sigismund had to collect his inheritance from the Italian estates. On 18 October 1558, the king granted the right to arrange

8272-463: Was pregnant. At the end of April, the royal couple traveled to Lithuania and on 25 May reached Vilnius where with short breaks Catherine lived for nine years. It is unclear whether it was a miscarriage , false pregnancy , or an intrigue, but there was no birth in October 1554. Relatively normal, albeit somewhat distant, the marriage continued for a few more years. It seems that Catherine accompanied her husband to general sejm in spring 1555 and to

8366-424: Was rebuked by Marshal Piotr Kmita Sobieński , who accused them of attempting to unduly diminish the legislative prerogatives of the Polish Crown. Furthermore, Bona was removed from Wawel and sent to Mazovia where she established her own small courtly entourage. Unlike her predecessor, Barbara was disliked by the royal court and led a more secluded life with Sigismund Augustus, who was deeply in love with her. On

8460-467: Was settled with colonists from Poland proper resulting in systematic polonisation of these lands. When the Kalmar Union between Sweden and Denmark was disbanded in 1523 due to Swedish resentment of Danish tyranny, Baltic trade became threatened. The port city of Gdańsk (Danzig), Poland's wealthiest city, faced difficulties due to ongoing conflict on the sea and piracy . The capital, Kraków ,

8554-551: Was succeeded by his son Maximilian II . The new emperor sent his diplomats Andreas Dudith and Wilhelm von Kurzbach to try to reconcile the couple, or if that failed, to convince Sigismund to allow her to leave Poland. The plan for Catherine to leave was discussed in May 1565. Initially Sigismund refused, fearing that it would only increase the anti-Polish sentiment in the Habsburg court, but later changed his mind because he believed that Catherine's departure would make it easier to obtain

8648-484: Was the first ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the last male monarch from the Jagiellonian dynasty . Sigismund was the only son of Italian-born Bona Sforza and Sigismund the Old. From the beginning he was groomed and extensively educated as a successor. In 1529 he was crowned vivente rege while his father was still alive. Sigismund Augustus continued a tolerance policy towards minorities and maintained peaceful relations with neighbouring countries, with

8742-618: Was the last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty . Following the death of his sister Anna in 1596 the Jagiellonian dynasty came to an end. Sigismund Augustus was born in Kraków on 1 August 1520 to Sigismund I the Old and his wife, Bona Sforza of Milan . His paternal grandparents were Casimir IV Jagiellon , King of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria . Sigismund's maternal grandparents, Gian Galeazzo Sforza and Isabella of Aragon , daughter of King Alfonso II of Naples , both ruled

8836-411: Was transported to Vilnius Cathedral , where she was finally buried on 23 June next to Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a major blow to Sigismund; he often attended her coffin on foot while being transported to Vilnius in hot weather. Sigismund also became more serious and reserved; he avoided balls, temporarily renounced his mistresses and dressed in black until his death. The cause of Barbara's death

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