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138-523: The Social Democratic Party ( Romanian : Partidul Social Democrat , PSD ) is the largest political party in Romania . It is also the largest social democratic political party in the country. It was founded by Ion Iliescu , Romania 's first democratically elected president at the 1990 Romanian general election . It is currently part of the National Coalition for Romania (CNR), which

276-488: A lexicon of over 150,000 words in its contemporary form, Romanian showed a high degree of lexical permeability, reflecting contact with Thraco-Dacian , Slavic languages (including Old Slavic , Serbian , Bulgarian , Ukrainian , and Russian ), Greek , Hungarian , German , Turkish , and to languages that served as cultural models during and after the Age of Enlightenment , in particular French . This lexical permeability

414-627: A "regional language" alongside Ukrainian as per the 2012 legislation on languages in Ukraine . Romanian is an official or administrative language in various communities and organisations, such as the Latin Union and the European Union . Romanian is also one of the five languages in which religious services are performed in the autonomous monastic state of Mount Athos , spoken in the monastic communities of Prodromos and Lakkoskiti . In

552-529: A choice which according to Boc reflected the political lines adopted by the PD in previous years. The party group which would have preferred to continue to uphold the social democratic ideology, represented by vice-presidents Cezar Preda and Radu Berceanu , was unable to present any candidacy for the presidency, as it was not supported by at least ten branches, as provided for in the Statutes. As Boc pointed out,

690-615: A conditional cooperation with the ruling Social Democracy Party of Romania (PDSR), Băsescu opted for a total, uncompromising opposition to the PDSR and its successor, the Social Democratic Party (PSD), despite the fact that both had, nominally, the same political ideology. After 2003, a new approach to the centre-right, with the birth of an alliance with the PNL, contributed to a decisive change in its doctrinal orientation. In

828-811: A congress in 2005, PD members voted in favor of joining the European People's Party (EPP) and abandoning the Party of European Socialists (PES) and the Socialist International (SI). In the same year, Petre Roman left the party and, together with his followers, formed the Democratic Force (FD). From mid-2005, the PD's relations with the PNL became strained due to an ongoing open conflict between former President Băsescu and then Prime Minister Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu , who

966-741: A foreign language, for example the Nicolae Bălcescu High-school in Gyula , Hungary. Romanian is taught as a foreign language in tertiary institutions, mostly in European countries such as Germany, France and Italy, and the Netherlands, as well as in the United States. Overall, it is taught as a foreign language in 43 countries around the world. Romanian has become popular in other countries through movies and songs performed in

1104-731: A fulminant comeback, winning the 2000 Romanian general election , this time in a coalition named the Social Democratic Pole of Romania (PDSR) along with the Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSDR, who was part of the government from 1996 to 2000, as a member of the Social Democratic Union , now led by Alexandru Athanasiu ) and the Romanian Humanist Party (PUR). The PSDR merged with PDSR on 16 June 2001, and

1242-794: A more soft Eurosceptic outlook, though it is neutral in regards to European integration . PSD stated that it endorses EU and NATO membership. The party is more conservative than PES when it comes to social issues, reflecting the country's social-conservative outlook, including in its centre-right counterpart, the National Liberal Party (PNL). It has been described as a left-wing nationalist and left-wing populist social democratic party. The party has been described as having centre-left rhetoric and economic policies, while being more conservative on personal and ethical matters. According to Florin Poenaru, "the movement led by Ion Iliescu

1380-530: A name that was extended to the literature and writers around this time such as Vasile Alecsandri , Grigore Alexandrescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Timotei Cipariu . Between 1830 and 1860 "transitional alphabets" were used, adding Latin letters to the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet . The Latin alphabet became official at different dates in Wallachia and Transylvania - 1860, and Moldova -1862. Following

1518-461: A second round of voting, which he narrowly lost to Traian Băsescu of the opposition Justice and Truth Alliance (DA), who became Romania's 4th president. In the 2004 Romanian general election , the PSD gained the largest share of the vote but because it did not have a majority, the other parties that managed to enter parliament, UDMR/RMDSZ and PUR, abandoned their respective pre-electoral agreements with

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1656-578: A significant share of the local population (districts in Chernivtsi , Odesa and Zakarpattia oblasts ) Romanian is taught in schools as a primary language and there are Romanian-language newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting. The University of Chernivtsi in western Ukraine trains teachers for Romanian schools in the fields of Romanian philology, mathematics and physics. In Hertsa Raion of Ukraine as well as in other villages of Chernivtsi Oblast and Zakarpattia Oblast , Romanian has been declared

1794-618: A win for both the PES and the wider European left, as the PES would regain credibility because "mounting authoritarianism in Hungary and Poland has suffered under the burden of PSD's rule-of-law record". In addition, Hegedüs noted the fact that this could represent another chance for the PSD to reform itself and change its ways. In August 2020, Marcel Ciolacu became president of the party (after having previously served for this position only as ad interim between November 2019 and August 2020). During

1932-688: Is a big tent grand coalition comprising also the National Liberal Party (PNL). The CNR formerly included the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR/RMDSZ) until mid June 2023. It is a member of the Progressive Alliance (PA), which was founded in 2013, Socialist International (SI), and Party of European Socialists (PES). As of 2015, the PSD had 530,000 members. PSD traces its origins to

2070-523: Is a neocommunist anti-Western party backed by Russia . Politicians of the party have occasionally employed "utilitarian anti-Semitism", meaning that politicians who may usually not be antisemites played off certain antisemitic prejudices in order to serve their political necessities. On 5 March 2012, PSD Senator Dan Șova , at that time the party spokesman, said on The Money Channel that "no Jew suffered on Romanian territory, thanks to marshal Antonescu ." Elie Wiesel National Institute for Studying

2208-424: Is also spoken within communities of Romanian and Moldovan immigrants in the United States, Canada and Australia, although they do not make up a large homogeneous community statewide. Many are Moldavians who were deported Data only for the districts on the right bank of Dniester (without Transnistria and the city of Tighina). In Moldova, it is sometimes referred to as the " Moldovan language " In Transnistria, it

2346-494: Is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . It is also spoken as a minority language by stable communities in the countries surrounding Romania ( Bulgaria , Hungary , Serbia and Ukraine ), and by the large Romanian diaspora . In total, it is spoken by 25 million people as a first language . Romanian was also known as Moldovan in Moldova, although

2484-616: Is continuing today with the introduction of English words. Yet while the overall lexis was enriched with foreign words and internal constructs, in accordance with the history and development of the society and the diversification in semantic fields, the fundamental lexicon—the core vocabulary used in everyday conversation—remains governed by inherited elements from the Latin spoken in the Roman provinces bordering Danube , without which no coherent sentence can be made. Romanian descended from

2622-485: Is distinguished by the activity of Romanian literature classics in its early decades: Mihai Eminescu , Ion Luca Caragiale , Ion Creangă , Ioan Slavici . The current orthography, with minor reforms to this day and using Latin letters, was fully implemented in 1881, regulated by the Romanian Academy on a fundamentally phonological principle, with few morpho-syntactic exceptions. The first Romanian grammar

2760-503: Is formed by a poor, ignorant and especially devoid of civic conscience. PSD has also ethno-nationalist factions. Under Dragnea's leadership, PSD has been described as national populist and sovereigntist . The PopuList labeled PSD under Victor Ponta and Liviu Dragnea as ultranationalist . In regards to LGBT rights , in general, PSD opposes the recognition of same-sex marriages and civil partnerships . However, in 2018, then PSD president Liviu Dragnea hinted that PSD could support

2898-597: Is official only in the villages of Vojvodinci ( Voivodinț ), Markovac ( Marcovăț ), Straža ( Straja ), Mali Žam ( Jamu Mic ), Malo Središte ( Srediștea Mică ), Mesić ( Mesici ), Jablanka ( Iablanca ), Sočica ( Sălcița ), Ritiševo ( Râtișor ), Orešac ( Oreșaț ) and Kuštilj ( Coștei ). In the 2002 Census, the last carried out in Serbia, 1.5% of Vojvodinians stated Romanian as their native language. The Vlachs of Serbia are considered to speak Romanian as well. In parts of Ukraine where Romanians constitute

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3036-666: Is officially called " Moldovan language " and is written in Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet . Officially divided into Vlachs and Romanians Most in Northern Bukovina and Southern Bessarabia; according to a Moldova Noastră study (based on the latest Ukrainian census). According to the Constitution of Romania of 1991, as revised in 2003, Romanian is the official language of the Republic. Romania mandates

3174-606: Is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova . Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages , a linguistic group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin which separated from the Western Romance languages in the course of the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries. To distinguish it within the Eastern Romance languages, in comparative linguistics it

3312-636: The 1996 general election , the PD jointly ran with the now-defunct Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSDR), under the Social Democratic Union (USD) banner. After having ranked third, they joined a governing coalition with the Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR) and the ethnic Hungarian party Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR/RMDSZ). From 2000 to 2004, PD has been again in opposition. It also began to move from social democracy to conservatism and Christian democracy . When PDSR and PSDR merged in 2001 to form

3450-477: The 2004 Romanian general election . Năstase and his ministers are shown talking about political involvement in corruption trials of the government's members, or involvement in suppressing "disobedient" media. Năstase stated that the transcripts were fake, but several party members, including former PSD president and former foreign minister Mircea Geoană , have said they are genuine, though Geoană later retracted his statement. Security expert Iulian Fota stated that PSD

3588-618: The 2008 Romanian local elections . In February 2010, the Congress elected Victor Ponta as president after Geoană lost the 2009 Romanian presidential election . On 5 February 2011, the PSD formed a political alliance known as the Social Liberal Union (USL) with the PC and the National Liberal Party (PNL). The USL was disbanded on 25 February 2014 with exit of the PNL, which entered the opposition. In July 2015, Liviu Dragnea

3726-517: The 2016 Romanian legislative election . The party remained in power at governmental level until 2019, before being voted down in the parliament and then endorsing a PNL minority government between 2019 and 2020. Subsequently, it entered opposition between 2020 and 2021, before eventually returning to government within the CNR coalition in late 2021. Party founder Ion Iliescu is the only PSD candidate to become President of Romania , he served in office from

3864-547: The Alliance of Liberals and Democrats (ALDE) and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR/RMDSZ), had unsuccessfully tried to pass a series of tremendously controversial laws related to the judicial system. In a 2018 preliminary opinion, the Venice Commission stated that the changes could severely undermine the independence of judges and prosecutors in Romania. This unsuccessful endeavour committed by

4002-614: The Cannes Film Festival ). Also some artists wrote songs dedicated to the Romanian language. The multi-platinum pop trio O-Zone (originally from Moldova) released a song called "Nu mă las de limba noastră" ("I won't forsake our language"). The final verse of this song, "Eu nu mă las de limba noastră, de limba noastră cea română" , is translated in English as "I won't forsake our language, our Romanian language". Also,

4140-558: The Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled in 2013 that "the official language of Moldova is Romanian". On 16 March 2023, the Moldovan Parliament approved a law on referring to the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. On 22 March, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu , promulgated the law. The history of the Romanian language started in the Roman provinces north of

4278-536: The Democratic Liberal Party (PDL). Under the leadership of Petre Roman , the PD represented the reformist social democratic wing resulting from the split of the FSN in 1992. Despite the clear ideological positioning, several observers did not notice substantial programmatic differences between the documents presented by the reformist and left-wing conservative currents that confronted each other during

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4416-636: The Democratic National Salvation Front (FDSN), a leftist breakaway group established in 1992 from the center-left National Salvation Front (FSN) established after 1989. In 1993, this merged with three other parties to become the Party of Social Democracy in Romania ( Romanian : Partidul Democrației Sociale in România , PDSR ), also translated as the Social Democracy Party of Romania . The present name

4554-592: The Dăncilă Cabinet . In May 2019, after Liviu Dragnea 's jailing, Viorica Dăncilă was elected by the Congress of the PSD as the new president of the party. After being ousted from power in October 2019, the PSD also lost the 2019 Romanian presidential election . Such decline sent shockwase across the European Union (EU), especially the PES, as it resulted in their loss of power within von der Leyen Commission . Nonetheless, Daniel Hegedüs posited that this could be

4692-586: The Jireček Line in Classical antiquity but there are 3 main hypotheses about its exact territory: the autochthony thesis (it developed in left-Danube Dacia only), the discontinuation thesis (it developed in right-Danube provinces only), and the "as-well-as" thesis that supports the language development on both sides of the Danube. Between the 6th and 8th century, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from

4830-432: The Party of European Socialists (PES), the PSD has a centre-left outlook and has been described as governing as centre-left, but has also been described as pragmatic, owing to its syncretic politics . The PSD was formed as a result of the merger of the Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSDR), which had an internationalist social-democratic ideology, with the Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR), whose governance

4968-467: The Romanian Academy . The third phase of the modern age of Romanian language, starting from 1880 and continuing to this day, is characterized by the prevalence of the supradialectal form of the language, standardized with the express contribution of the school system and Romanian Academy, bringing a close to the process of literary language modernization and development of literary styles. It

5106-476: The Social Democratic Party (PSD), PD was invited by both Adrian Năstase and Alexandru Athanasiu to join the new PSD, but PD president Traian Băsescu refused to take part in the merger. In May 2002, the PD absorbed part of the local Socialist Party of National Renaissance subsidiaries (a left-wing nationalist splinter of the Greater Romania Party ). In advance of the 2004 elections ,

5244-856: The Socialist Democratic Party of Romania , the Republican Party, and the Cooperative Party. From 1992 to 1996, the PDSR ruled in coalition with the Romanian National Unity Party (PUNR) and Greater Romania Party (PRM), and the left-wing Socialist Party of Labour (PSM), nicknemed by the Press as the Red Quadrilateral . The PUNR had ministers in the cabinet chaired by Nicolae Văcăroiu from March 1992 to September 1996. The PRM

5382-552: The Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman provinces of Southeastern Europe north of the Jireček Line (a hypothetical boundary between the dominance of Latin and Greek influences). Most scholars agree that two major dialects developed from Common Romanian by the 10th century. Daco-Romanian (the official language of Romania and Moldova) and Istro-Romanian (a language spoken by no more than 2,000 people in Istria ) descended from

5520-538: The centre-right ( PNL ). For Cornel Ban, Assistant Professor of International Relations at the Pardee School of Boston University, the PSD is an anomaly in Eastern Europe in that it was an ideal playground for right-wing populist parties but has seen the political left routinely win; this was in part because the political right and far-right were in government, including at the local level, during

5658-435: The unification of Moldavia and Wallachia further studies on the language were made, culminating with the founding of Societatea Literară Română on 1 April 1866 on the initiative of C. A. Rosetti , an academic society that had the purpose of standardizing the orthography, formalizing the grammar and (via a dictionary) vocabulary of the language, and promoting literary and scientific publications. This institution later became

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5796-492: The "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, Romanian-language newspapers and journals began to appear, such as Basarabia (1906), Viața Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Bessarabia use the Romanian language". Romanian finally became

5934-490: The 16th century, by various foreign travelers into the Carpathian Romance-speaking space, as well as in other historical documents written in Romanian at that time such as Cronicile Țării Moldovei  [ ro ] ( The Chronicles of the land of Moldova ) by Grigore Ureche . The few allusions to the use of Romanian in writing as well as common words, anthroponyms, and toponyms preserved in

6072-588: The 1989 to 1996, and again from 2000 to 2004. Currently, PSD is the largest party in the Parliament of Romania with initially 47 seats in the Senate of Romania and 110 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (as obtained at the 2020 Romanian legislative election ), it also has the largest number of mayors, as well as the second largest number of local and county councillors and county presidents (after PNL), remaining

6210-473: The 2004 elections, Traian Băsescu’s pro-European and anti-corruption message reached mainly young people and residents of the urban areas and the north-west of the country, an electorate traditionally linked to the centre-right. Favored by Băsescu and the new president Emil Boc , the shift to the centre-right was officially realized in 2005, with the adoption of a political program explicitly based on popular and conservative doctrine. The political doctrine of

6348-606: The 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are re-constructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits. From the 12th or 13th century, official documents and religious texts were written in Old Church Slavonic , a language that had a similar role to Medieval Latin in Western Europe. The oldest dated text in Romanian is a letter written in 1521 with Cyrillic letters , and until late 18th century, including during

6486-541: The Assembly, the Executive Council and the provincial administrative bodies. The Romanian language and script are officially used in eight municipalities: Alibunar , Bela Crkva ( Biserica Albă ), Žitište ( Sângeorgiu de Bega ), Zrenjanin ( Becicherecu Mare ), Kovačica ( Covăcița ), Kovin ( Cuvin ), Plandište ( Plandiște ) and Sečanj ( Seceani ). In the municipality of Vršac ( Vârșeț ), Romanian

6624-643: The Cyrillic script, and the Latin script as stipulated by the law, the Croat , Hungarian , Slovak , Romanian and Rusyn languages and their scripts, as well as languages and scripts of other nationalities, shall simultaneously be officially used in the work of the bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in the manner established by the law. The bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina are:

6762-556: The Democratic Party (PD) shifted from social democracy to social conservatism in 2005. The party supported the consolidation of the free market and is supportive of Romania's flat tax rate of 16%. The party also supported reforming the Romanian Constitution in order to bring about decentralization in administration and give greater power to the eight development regions . In terms of European politics,

6900-488: The Democratic Party (PD): The motion that allowed the appointment of Boc, «Prosperous Romania, democratic Romania» («România prosperă, România democrată») was approved by 3,553 votes to 114 and provided for an important ideological reorientation, by adhering to the Christian-democratic popular doctrine at the expense of the social democratic one, officially transforming the party into a centre-right formation,

7038-482: The Holocaust in Romania expressed its deep disagreement and indignation over the statements of the spokesman of the party. Following public outcry, Șova retracted his statement and issued a public apology; nevertheless, the chairman of the party, Victor Ponta , announced his removal from the office of party spokesman. Between 2017 and 2019, the party, along with its former junior coalition partners, more specifically

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7176-430: The Moldovan European Social Democratic Party (PSDE) to begin a strategic partnership. After the merger, the party changed its name from the Democratic National Salvation Front (FDSN) to the Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR). After the merger, the party changed its name from the Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) to the Social Democratic Party (PSD). Like its counterpart national-level members of

7314-401: The Moldovan autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria . Romanian is also an official language of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia along with five other languages. Romanian minorities are encountered in Serbia ( Timok Valley ), Ukraine ( Chernivtsi and Odesa oblasts ), and Hungary ( Gyula ). Large immigrant communities are found in Italy, Spain, France, and Portugal. In 1995,

7452-449: The Moldovan musicians Doina and Ion Aldea Teodorovici performed a song called "The Romanian language". Romanian is also called Daco-Romanian in comparative linguistics to distinguish from the other dialects of Common Romanian : Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . The origin of the term "Daco-Romanian" can be traced back to the first printed book of Romanian grammar in 1780, by Samuil Micu and Gheorghe Șincai . There,

7590-403: The National Executive Committee, on a proposal from the chair, after consulting the Secretary-General. The Permanent National Bureau is the operative body for analyzing and deciding the party. It has the following composition: PSD President, PSD Honorary President, PSD Secretary General, PSD Deputy Chairpersons. At the National Permanent Bureau, the chairman of the National Council, the leaders of

7728-407: The National Permanent Bureau and responds to the Congress on the general work of the PSD. The president is elected by secret vote by the Congress for a four-year mandate and represents the party in the Romanian society, in relations with the central and local public authorities, as well as with other parties or organizations in the country or abroad. PSD Honorary President is nominated by Congress for

7866-401: The Old Church Slavonic religious writings and chancellery documents, attested prior to the 16th century, along with the analysis of graphemes show that the writing of Romanian with the Cyrillic alphabet started in the second half of the 15th century. The oldest extant document in Romanian precisely dated is Neacșu's letter (1521) and was written using the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet , which

8004-407: The PD group in Chamber of Deputies , 14 were not elected on PD electoral list: Notes : USD members: PD and PSDR (1 senator and 10 deputies). Justice and Truth Alliance members: PNL (28 senators and 64 deputies) and PD. Notes : In 1996, Petre Roman was the candidate of the center-left alliance Social-Democratic Union (USD). USD members: PD and PSDR . Traian Băsescu

8142-442: The PD joined forces with the National Liberal Party (PNL) to create the Justice and Truth Alliance (DA), whose main purpose was to fight the all-dominating PSD. The DA managed to win around 32% of the votes in both Chambers, not enough for a majority and about 6% less than the PSD. Together with its liberal allies, the UDMR/RMDSZ, and the Conservative Party (PC), the PD was part of the governing coalition until April 2007. During

8280-402: The PD self-defined itself as a «centrist-republican party, with a modern European doctrine whose principles are: an efficient, humane and supportive market economy, modern and quality public services, extensive, active and precise social protection in accordance with an independent justice, accessible and safe». Adherence to popular doctrine led to the adoption of orange, borrowed from the EPP, as

8418-531: The PES aimed at favouring the PSD also in internal political matters, had led the PD to turn to the European People’s Party which, on the other hand, needed new members to strengthen its political position in the European Parliament as opposed to the socialists. Beyond the ideological repositioning, after 2004 the PD was above all a pragmatic party and an expression of Băsescu’s presidential policy. Roman also served as Senate President between 27 November 1996 and 22 December 1999. In 2007, out of 54 members of

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8556-406: The PNL led the PSD closer to returning government in the incumbent Ciucă Cabinet within a grand coalition government known as the National Coalition for Romania (or CNR for short). The PSD is still governing Romania as of early 2022, albeit with major tensions in the said grand coalition. The coalition has been described as authoritarian conservative . In November 2022, the PSD agreed with

8694-399: The PSD and joined the Justice and Truth Alliance (DA), mainly at the pressure of Băsescu. Mircea Geoană was elected president of the party in April 2005 by delegates at a PSD Party Congress held in Bucharest. His victory represented a surprise defeat for Iliescu, who was expected to defeat Geoană with ease. On 17 April 2008, the PSD and the PC announced they would form a political alliance for

8832-411: The PSD is "a catch-all party: its values are conservative, its economic policy is liberal and it has a social, left-leaning rhetoric when it comes to public policies." An example is their calls for both tax cuts and pensions and wages increase in 2016. Its more conservative outlook is owed to the social-conservative nature of post-Communist countries, and has been adopted by both the centre-left (PSD) and

8970-506: The Pensioners' League. In order to develop PSD programs and strategies in the field of party life, consultative councils can be set up on: political analysis, image and relations with the media; organization and human resources. The Consultative Council for the Problems of National Minorities of the PSD carries out activities to identify the specific problems faced by national minorities in Romania and develops appropriate solutions and proposals for their resolution. The supreme governing party of

9108-450: The Romanian mass media . By 2009, a number of its incumbent or former senior members have also been accused of corruption, interfering in the judiciary and using their political positions for personal enrichment. As of 2015, founding member Ion Iliescu is facing prosecution on charges of crimes against humanity for his role in the June 1990 Mineriad , while former president Liviu Dragnea was convicted for electoral fraud and for instigation to

9246-440: The Romanian dialect spoken north of the Danube is called lingua Daco-Romana to emphasize its origin and its area of use, which includes the former Roman province of Dacia , although it is spoken also south of the Danube, in Dobruja , the Timok Valley and northern Bulgaria. This article deals with the Romanian (i.e. Daco-Romanian) language, and thus only its dialectal variations are discussed here. The differences between

9384-724: The Romanian language. Examples of Romanian acts that had a great success in non-Romanophone countries are the bands O-Zone (with their No. 1 single Dragostea Din Tei , also known as Numa Numa , across the world in 2003–2004), Akcent (popular in the Netherlands, Poland and other European countries), Activ (successful in some Eastern European countries), DJ Project (popular as clubbing music) SunStroke Project (known by viral video " Epic Sax Guy ") and Alexandra Stan (worldwide no.1 hit with " Mr. Saxobeat ") and Inna as well as high-rated movies like 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days , The Death of Mr. Lazarescu , 12:08 East of Bucharest or California Dreamin' (all of them with awards at

9522-426: The Romanian neuter became a mixture of masculine and feminine. The verb morphology of Romanian has shown the same move towards a compound perfect and future tense as the other Romance languages. Compared with the other Romance languages , during its evolution, Romanian simplified the original Latin tense system. Romanian is spoken mostly in Central , South-Eastern , and Eastern Europe , although speakers of

9660-401: The Social Democratic Party is the Congress, which is convened every four years or in extraordinary cases. The PSD Congress is made up of elected delegates by secret ballot by the County Conferences and the Bucharest Municipality and has the following attributions: adopting or modifying the PSD Statute and the Political Program of the Party; sets out the party's guidelines, strategy and tactics for

9798-413: The Youth Organization and the Women's Organization. The adopted decisions are validated by the National Council. The National Executive Committee consists of PSD President, PSD Honorary President, PSD Secretary General, PSD Vice Presidents, President of the National Council, Presidents of County Organizations, Sectors and the Bucharest Municipality Organization, the president of the Women's Organization and

9936-495: The abuse of public office and being indicted for forming an "organised criminal group" in 2018. That same year, former president Victor Ponta had also been investigated for corruption but was ultimately acquitted. Adrian Năstase temporarily self-suspended himself from the position on 16 January 2006, pending investigation of a scandal provoked by his wealth declaration, where he was accused of corruption. Alleged text transcripts of PSD meetings surfaced on an anonymous website just before

10074-697: The basis of the mandate given by the Congress, according to the provisions of the Statute; is responsible for organizing presidential, parliamentary, euro-parliamentary and local electoral campaigns; analyzes the work of parliamentary groups, women's and youth organizations, the National League of Mayors and PSD Councilors; validates the decisions of the National Executive Committee on the Governance Program and confirms

10212-447: The beginning of devoicing of asyllabic [u] after consonants. Text analysis revealed words that are now lost from modern vocabulary or used only in local varieties. These words were of various provenience for example: Latin ( cure - to run, mâneca - to leave), Old Church Slavonic ( drăghicame - gem, precious stone, prilăsti - to trick, to cheat), Hungarian ( bizăntui - to bear witness). The modern age of Romanian starts in 1780 with

10350-400: The best and most efficient Romanian post-communist Prime Minister, being praised for his efforts of Euro-Atlantic integration of Romania and for the stabilization and modernization of the Romanian economy. In November 2004, Adrian Năstase , the PSD candidate and incumbent Prime Minister of Romania , won the first round of the presidential elections but did not have a majority and had to go to

10488-590: The biggest and most influential political force in the country to the present day. Following the 27–29 May 1992 Convention of the National Salvation Front ( Romanian : Frontul Salvării Naționale , FSN) when Petre Roman became President of the Party, former Party Leader Ion Iliescu and his group of supporters withdraw from FSN and founded the Democratic National Salvation Front ( Romanian : Frontul Democrat al Salvării Naționale , FDSN) while

10626-513: The centre-right forces, with which it formed a coalition government between 1996 and 2000, the party continued to share some of its objectives with the centre-left parties that were in opposition. As the direct successor of the FSN, the PD borrowed both its symbol, a rose, and its identifying colour, blue. After the PD joined the Socialist International in 1996, it continued to maintain the social democratic outlook even after

10764-422: The colloquial speech and writing. Outside the political arena the language is most often called "Romanian". In the breakaway territory of Transnistria, it is co-official with Ukrainian and Russian. In the 2014 census , out of the 2,804,801 people living in Moldova, 24% (652,394) stated Romanian as their most common language, whereas 56% stated Moldovan. While in the urban centers speakers are split evenly between

10902-745: The composition of the National Executive Committee and The Permanent National Bureau; decides to conclude political alliances as well as merge by merging or absorbing with other political parties or political parties; to hear the activity reports submitted by members of the Permanent National Bureau, by the Chairman of the Commission for Arbitration and Moral Integrity, by the president of the National Commission for Financial Control and Treasurer and decides accordingly on

11040-608: The country Moldovan . In December 2013, a decision of the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence took precedence over the Constitution and the state language should be called Romanian. In 2023, the Moldovan parliament passed a law officially adopting the designation "Romanian" in all legal instruments, implementing the 2013 court decision. Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are

11178-469: The development of printing, the same alphabet was used. The period after 1780, starting with the writing of its first grammar books, represents the modern age of the language, during which time the Latin alphabet became official, the literary language was standardized, and a large number of words from Modern Latin and other Romance languages entered the lexis. In the process of language evolution from fewer than 2500 attested words from Late Antiquity to

11316-527: The differences as 'accents' or 'speeches' (in Romanian: accent or grai ). Democratic Party (Romania) From 1996 to 2005, the party was a member of the Socialist International (SI). Its official name was Democratic Party - National Salvation Front until 2000, when it officially shortened its name only to the Democratic Party . From 2004 to 2007, the PD was the junior member of

11454-438: The document was based on the recognition of the need for a market economy and support for social justice principles. According to his statements, the new programme was designed to adapt the official ideological positioning to the political line of action pursued by the PD in the years following the election of Băsescu. According to Boc, the text included 80% of the document «Strong Romania forte - Social democratic Romania». In 2007

11592-560: The election of Traian Băsescu as president, who was elected head of the party in 2001 with the motion «Strong Romania - Social democratic Romania». The party made clear that its policy should be oriented towards the needs of the people, supporting a competitive socio-economic framework but focusing on social protection and security of citizens. After Băsescu took over the leadership of the Democratic Party, it successfully used anti-communist , anti-corruption, anti- PDSR and pro-European populist rhetoric and strategies. While Petre Roman wanted

11730-413: The first Romanian school, and Ion Heliade Rădulescu . The end of this period is marked by the first printing of magazines and newspapers in Romanian, in particular Curierul Românesc and Albina Românească . Starting from 1831 and lasting until 1880 the modern phase is characterized by the development of literary styles: scientific, administrative, and belletristic . It quickly reached a high point with

11868-407: The first term from March 1992 to May 1996, while the second from December 2004 to March 2006. Social Democratic Pole of Romania members: PDSR, PSDR (2 senators and 10 deputies), and PUR (4 senators and 6 deputies). National Union PSD+PUR members: PSD and PUR (11 senators and 19 deputies). Soon after the elections, PUR broke the alliance with the PSD and switched sides, joining

12006-535: The following duties: Coordinates the entire activity of the party between the meetings of the National Council. The PSD National Executive Committee analyzes, debates and decides on the fundamental issues of the Party's work on: the program, the electoral strategy, the political and electoral alliances, the governing program, the structure and the nominal composition of the Government, the validation of

12144-496: The former PSD–ALDE coalition was the basis for the nationwide 2017–2019 Romanian protests , the largest in the country's entire history thus far. 44°27′40.46″N 26°4′52.85″E  /  44.4612389°N 26.0813472°E  / 44.4612389; 26.0813472 Romanian language Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian ; endonym : limba română [ˈlimba roˈmɨnə] , or românește [romɨˈneʃte] , lit.   ' in Romanian ' )

12282-525: The four-year mandate of the party's recognized personalities. The Honorary President of the PSD participates with the right to vote in the work of the national governing bodies. The Secretary-General manages the functional services at the central level and the relationship with the county and Bucharest organizations. It coordinates the Executive Secretariat of the PSD with 7 to 9 executive secretaries. Executive secretaries shall be appointed by

12420-439: The governing Justice and Truth Alliance (DA), although according to many Romanian opinion polls of the time, it remained the most popular of the two parties. Although it had to formally suspend his leadership to the party when elected president in 2004, the PD was largely associated with former Romanian president Traian Băsescu . In early 1992, conflict broke out between FSN leaders Ion Iliescu and Petre Roman and this led to

12558-674: The government led by the Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). Alliance PSD+PC members: PSD and PC (1 senator and 4 deputies). The Social Liberal Union (USL) was an alliance consisting of two smaller alliances, more specifically the Centre Left Alliance (ACS) and the Centre Right Alliance (ACD). The members of the Centre Left Alliance (ACS) were the PSD and the UNPR (5 senators and 10 deputies) whereas

12696-479: The gradual development of bilingualism . Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular. The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict spurred by an increase in Romanian nationalism. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstva asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and

12834-607: The influence of the Mukacheve eparchy in Ukraine. The language spoken during this period had a phonological system of seven vowels and twenty-nine consonants. Particular to Old Romanian are the distribution of /z/, as the allophone of /dz/ from Common Romanian , in the Wallachian and south-east Transylvanian varieties, the presence of palatal sonorants /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, nowadays preserved only regionally in Banat and Oltenia , and

12972-460: The language and use of the demonym Romanians ( Români ) for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. Romanians always used the general term rumân / român or regional terms like ardeleni (or ungureni ), moldoveni or munteni to designate themselves. Both the name of rumână or rumâniască for the Romanian language and the self-designation rumân/român are attested as early as

13110-514: The language can be found all over the world, mostly due to emigration of Romanian nationals and the return of immigrants to Romania back to their original countries. Romanian speakers account for 0.5% of the world's population, and 4% of the Romance-speaking population of the world. Romanian is the single official and national language in Romania and Moldova, although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in

13248-545: The language, working together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Department for Romanians Abroad. Since 2013, the Romanian Language Day is celebrated on every 31 August . Romanian is the official language of the Republic of Moldova. The 1991 Declaration of Independence named the official language Romanian, and the Constitution of Moldova as originally adopted in 1994 named the state language of

13386-608: The largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East was found in Israel, where Romanian was spoken by 5% of the population. Romanian is also spoken as a second language by people from Arabic-speaking countries who have studied in Romania. It is estimated that almost half a million Middle Eastern Arabs studied in Romania during the 1980s. Small Romanian-speaking communities are to be found in Kazakhstan and Russia. Romanian

13524-658: The late 15th century and ended in the early decades of the 18th century, by which time Romanian had begun to be regularly used by the Church. The oldest Romanian texts of a literary nature are religious manuscripts ( Codicele Voronețean , Psaltirea Scheiană ), translations of essential Christian texts. These are considered either propagandistic results of confessional rivalries, for instance between Lutheranism and Calvinism , or as initiatives by Romanian monks stationed at Peri Monastery in Maramureș to distance themselves from

13662-514: The main coalition partners between December 2008 and October 2009 (with the Democratic Liberal Party , PDL) and again between May 2012 and March 2014 (as part of the Social Liberal Union , USL). PSD left government after former prime minister, Victor Ponta resigned in November 2015, only for PSD to return as the senior governing party in January 2017, shortly after it achieved a major victory in

13800-458: The mandatory refugee quotas . Journalist Daniel Mihăilescu labeled the party as national populist . Deutsche Welle stated that, unlike most European Social-democratic parties, PSD is against social progressivism and is strongly conservative. Journalist and philosipher Andrei Cornea also stated that PSD is not a social-democratic party, but a patrimonial-conservative one, structured around vassalism and clientelism, whose essential electoral pool

13938-462: The media regarding the forgery of the census results. The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia determines that in the regions of the Republic of Serbia inhabited by national minorities, their own languages and scripts shall be officially used as well, in the manner established by law. The Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina determines that, together with the Serbian language and

14076-722: The members of the Centre Right Alliance (ACD) were the PNL (50 senators and 100 deputies) and the PC (8 senators and 13 deputies). Independent candidate endorsed by the USL Alliance PSD+PC members: PSD and PC (1 MEP). Social Democratic Union (USD) members: PSD, PC (2 MEPs), and UNPR (2 MEPs). National Coalition for Romania members: PSD (11 MEPs) and PNL (8 MEPs). Political opponents have criticised PSD for harbouring former Romanian Communist Party (PCR) officials, and for allegedly attempting to control

14214-588: The national conference of the FSN in March 1992. In the following years, the PD ran against Iliescu’s group, represented by the FDSN , PDSR and PSD parties, to win the same type of electorate linked to the centre-left. Petre Roman’s party was, however, distinguished by the stance of its president, who stressed his supposed attachment to a true social democracy, far removed from the influences of proletarian socialism inherited from Communist dictatorship. Although it approached

14352-567: The new law. However, the current president of the Social Democrats, Marcel Ciolacu , is a strong opponent to the recognition of same-sex marriage and the civil partnership. The party has strong connections with the Romanian Orthodox Church (BOR), reflecting the party's social conservatism . The president of the party conducts the general activity of the party, the activity of the National Executive Committee and

14490-409: The northern dialect. Two other languages, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian , developed from the southern version of Common Romanian. These two languages are now spoken in lands to the south of the Jireček Line . Of the features that individualize Common Romanian, inherited from Latin or subsequently developed, of particular importance are: The use of the denomination Romanian ( română ) for

14628-399: The official colour alongside blue. The Democratic Party also started to endorse neoliberal economic policies. According to some analysts, the new ideological orientation was also determined by political dynamics at European level. In 2005 the Party of European Socialists refused to recognize the PD as a full member, but admitted the PSD instead. The refusal, accompanied by an attitude of

14766-427: The official language with the Constitution of 1923 . Romanian has preserved a part of the Latin declension , but whereas Latin had six cases , from a morphological viewpoint, Romanian has only three: the nominative / accusative , genitive / dative , and marginally the vocative . Romanian nouns also preserve the neuter gender , although instead of functioning as a separate gender with its own forms in adjectives,

14904-501: The parliamentary groups, the presidents of women and youth organizations, the treasurer, the director of the Social Democratic Institute, the representative of the county administrative council presidents, the mayors of municipalities and the representative of the National League of Mayors and PSD Councilors participate. The National Permanent Bureau meets weekly, usually Monday. The Permanent National Bureau have

15042-499: The party was responsible for during the former legislature (more specifically during the years 2017 and 2019), yet remained the biggest parliamentary opposition well up until the end of 2021. During the 2021 Romanian political crisis , the PSD was again willing to have such a vote, this time against the Cîțu Cabinet , which it subsequently did, thereby contributing to its final dismissal. In November 2021, successful negotiations with

15180-424: The party's annual revenue and expenditure budget, decides on its execution. The PSD National Council meets annually and whenever needed. Deputies, senators and MEPs who are not members of the National Council participate in its meetings without the right to vote. The National Council may decide, on a proposal from the Permanent National Bureau, to organize forums, leagues, associations, clubs and other such bodies for

15318-412: The party's preliminary election for the nomination of candidates for senators, MEPs, MEPs, and elected local, merging by absorption or merging with other parties; PSD collaboration agreements with trade unions and employers' confederations; the strategy of selecting, preparing, training and promoting the party's human resources, organizing and conducting internal party choices, coordinating the activities of

15456-509: The period between two congresses; elects the party chairman, the vice-presidents, the general secretary, the other members of the National Council, the National Commission for Arbitration and Moral Integrity and the National Commission for Financial Control; appoints the PSD candidate to the position of President of Romania and the prime minister in the event of winning the elections; resolves possible appeals against decisions of other PSD central bodies. Năstase served twice as Chamber President ,

15594-469: The post-Communist slumps which remained in the mind of many voters. Journalist Jean-Baptiste Chastand said that the PSD-led pro-European government in Romania took a national conservative turn. The historian Ioan Stanomir stated that PSD is a conservative party, that has nothing to do with the left, while journalist Bogdan Tiberiu Iacob described the party as progressive-conservative . PSD also opposed

15732-530: The president of the Youth Organization. The National Council is the governing body of the party in the interval between two congresses. It consists of a maximum of 751 members elected from the candidates nominated by the County and Bucharest Conferences, or proposed by the Congress. The National Council elects and revokes by secret vote the president of the National Council and the treasurer, validates

15870-489: The printing in 1780 of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae , the pre-modern phase was characterized by the publishing of school textbooks, appearance of first normative works in Romanian, numerous translations, and the beginning of a conscious stage of re-latinization of the language. Notable contributions, besides that of the Transylvanian School , are the activities of Gheorghe Lazăr , founder of

16008-659: The printing in Vienna of a very important grammar book titled Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae . The author of the book, Samuil Micu-Klein , and the revisor, Gheorghe Șincai , both members of the Transylvanian School , chose to use Latin as the language of the text and presented the phonetical and grammatical features of Romanian in comparison to its ancestor. The Modern age of Romanian language can be further divided into three phases: pre-modern or modernizing between 1780 and 1830, modern phase between 1831 and 1880, and contemporary from 1880 onwards. Beginning with

16146-524: The printing of Dacia Literară , a journal founded by Mihail Kogălniceanu and representing a literary society, which together with other publications like Propășirea and Gazeta de Transilvania spread the ideas of Romantic nationalism and later contributed to the formation of other societies that took part in the Revolutions of 1848 . Their members and those that shared their views are collectively known in Romania as "of '48"( pașoptiști ),

16284-632: The promotion of strategies in the PSD Political Program, in the Romanian society and in partnership with the trade unions. The party-union relationship as well as the concrete ways of collaboration will be established by the National Permanent Bureau. Within the PSD there are: the National Workers' Forum; National Farmers Forum; National Ecologists' Forum; The National Forum of Scientists, Culture and Art and

16422-721: The proposals of members of the Government; resolve the appeals lodged against the decisions of the councils of the county organizations or of the Bucharest municipality; resolves the divergences between the Councils of the County Organizations, respectively the Bucharest Municipality Organization and the National Executive Committee in connection with the nomination of the candidates for the legislative elections, if they persist; approves

16560-657: The recognition the civil partnership . Also, in January 2001, it was the PSD-dominated Adrian Năstase 's government that adopted the Emergency Ordinance no. 89/2001, which eliminated Art. 200 of the Penal Code and adjusted other articles referring to sex offences to avoid discriminatory treatment of offenders, thus legalising same-sex relations. This ordinance came into force in January 2002, after President Ion Iliescu (the founder of PSD) signed

16698-472: The regional varieties are small, limited to regular phonetic changes, few grammar aspects, and lexical particularities. There is a single written and spoken standard (literary) Romanian language used by all speakers, regardless of region. Like most natural languages, Romanian dialects are part of a dialect continuum . The dialects of Romanian are also referred to as 'sub-dialects' and are distinguished primarily by phonetic differences. Romanians themselves speak of

16836-452: The rest of FSN was renamed as the Democratic Party ( Romanian : Partidul Democrat) in May 1993. During its first National Conference on the 28th of June 1992, FDSN decided on endorsing Ion Iliescu in the 1992 Romanian general election , which they later won and went on to govern Romania until 1996. On 10 July 1993, it took the name of Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) upon merger with

16974-475: The resulting party took the PSD name, with PDSR/PSD leader Adrian Năstase becoming prime minister. The center-left Democratic Party (PD) was also invited by both Athanasiu and Năstase to join the new PSD, but PD president Traian Băsescu refused to take part in the merger. A controversial figure due to the corruption scandals in which he and his party were involved, Năstase is still regarded by both admirers and rivals (including his archrival Traian Băsescu ), as

17112-553: The same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts. It has been the sole official language since the adoption of the Law on State Language of the Moldavian SSR in 1989. This law mandates the use of Moldovan in all the political, economic, cultural and social spheres, as well as asserting the existence of a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". It is also used in schools, mass media, education and in

17250-402: The same month, the PSD was willing to vote a motion of no confidence against the second Orban cabinet . Shortly after December 2020, while still the largest party in the wake of the 2020 Romanian legislative election , the PSD suffered significant political capital losses (as they previously did in the 2020 Romanian local elections as well) given the chaotic and negative governmental activity

17388-598: The separation of the Iliescu wing under the name of the Democratic National Salvation Front (FDSN), which later became the Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) and then eventually the Social Democratic Party (PSD). FSN was defeated by the FDSN in the 1992 general election and consequently spent the next four years in opposition. In 1993, the FSN changed its name to the Democratic Party (PD). In

17526-478: The two names (with the capital Chișinău showing a strong preference for the name "Romanian", i.e. 3:2), in the countryside hardly a quarter of Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their native language. Unofficial results of this census first showed a stronger preference for the name Romanian, however the initial reports were later dismissed by the Institute for Statistics, which led to speculations in

17664-495: The unrecognised state of Transnistria , Moldovan is one of the official languages. However, unlike all other dialects of Romanian, this variety of Moldovan is written in Cyrillic script . Romanian is taught in some areas that have Romanian minority communities, such as Vojvodina in Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine and Hungary. The Romanian Cultural Institute (ICR) has since 1992 organised summer courses in Romanian for language teachers. There are also non-Romanians who study Romanian as

17802-428: The use of Romanian in official government publications, public education and legal contracts. Advertisements as well as other public messages must bear a translation of foreign words, while trade signs and logos shall be written predominantly in Romanian. The Romanian Language Institute (Institutul Limbii Române), established by the Ministry of Education of Romania, promotes Romanian and supports people willing to study

17940-545: The vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from native dialects , and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian . This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , Istro-Romanian , and Daco-Romanian. Due to limited attestation between

18078-488: Was adopted after a merger with the smaller Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSDR) in 2001. Since its formation, it has always been one of the two dominant parties of the country. The PDSR governed Romania from 1992 to 1996, while the PSDR was a junior coalition partner between 1996 and 2000. The merged PSD was the senior party in the coalitions governing from 2000 to 2004, and from March 2014 to November 2015, as well as one of

18216-505: Was also the chairman of the PNL. Previously, after his presidential victory in 2004, Băsescu appointed Popescu-Tăriceanu as Prime Minister. Although he wanted to, he could not constitutionally dismiss him; at least, it took him a while to do so. On 1 April 2007, Tăriceanu dismissed the ministers of the PD and formed a minority government. On 15 December 2007, the PD merged with the Liberal Democratic Party (PLD) to form

18354-402: Was elected by the Congress of the PSD as the new president of the party, with 97% of the votes from the members. He was elected as leader after the former prime minister Victor Ponta stepped down on 12 July 2015 following charges of corruption that were later dropped. On 12 April 2019, the PSD was suspended from the Party of European Socialists (PES) following concerns about judicial reforms of

18492-512: Was from the very beginning the party of local capitalists and not of the industrial proletariat. ... PSD was the party that aggregated the interests of the autochthonous capitalists, but whose electoral basis was the former industrial proletariat." Poenaru states that PSD never said no to the neoliberal agenda but applied it rather slowly. Andrei Pleșu once stated that the main post-Communist Romanian parties do not act according to some ideology or doctrine. Political analyst Radu Magdin said that

18630-794: Was marked by a combination of social democracy , democratic socialism , labourism , pragmatism, left-wing populism , and nationalism. The 2003 absorption of the Socialist Party of Labour (PSM) and the Socialist Party of the National Renaissance (PSRN) led to the strengthening of the left-wing nationalism component within the party. Until 2021 unlike the majority of Western European PES party members and as other like-minded centre-left, social democratic parties in Central and Eastern European post-Communism , it has taken

18768-421: Was not present at the cabinet-level but was given some posts in the state administration but which it retracted when it left the coalition in 1995. PDSR went into opposition after the 1996 Romanian general election , which was won by the right-wing coalition Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR). After four years of governmental turmoil and economic downfall, poorly managed by the crumbling CDR, saw PDSR making

18906-482: Was published in Vienna in 1780. Following the annexation of Bessarabia by Russia in 1812, Moldavian was established as an official language in the governmental institutions of Bessarabia , used along with Russian, The publishing works established by Archbishop Gavril Bănulescu-Bodoni were able to produce books and liturgical works in Moldavian between 1815 and 1820. Bessarabia during the 1812–1918 era witnessed

19044-478: Was used until the late 19th century. The letter is the oldest testimony of Romanian epistolary style and uses a prevalent lexis of Latin origin. However, dating by watermarks has shown the Hurmuzaki Psalter is a copy from around the turn of the 16th century. The slow process of Romanian establishing itself as an official language, used in the public sphere, in literature and ecclesiastically, began in

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