Orapakes (1609–1614)
126-631: Tsenacommacah (pronounced / ˌ s ɛ n ə ˈ k ɒ m ə k ə / SEN -ə- KOM -ə-kə in English; also written Tscenocomoco , Tsenacomoco , Tenakomakah , Attanoughkomouck , and Attan-Akamik ) is the name given by the Powhatan people to their native homeland, the area encompassing all of Tidewater Virginia and parts of the Eastern Shore . More precisely, its boundaries spanned 100 miles (160 km) by 100 miles (160 km) from near
252-539: A Paramount Chiefdom consisting of 30 tributary tribes through inheritance, marriage and war, whose territory included much of eastern Virginia . Their territory was called Tsenacommacah ("densely inhabited Land"). English colonists called Wahunsenacawh The Powhatan . Each of the tribes within the confederacy was led by a weroance (leader, commander), all of whom paid tribute to the Powhatan. After Wahunsenacawh died in 1618, hostilities with colonists escalated under
378-733: A chief ( weroance/werowance or weroansqua if female). They paid tribute to the paramount chief ( mamanatowick ), Powhatan. The region occupied by the Powhatan was bounded approximately by the Potomac River to the north, the Fall Line to the west, the Virginia-North Carolina border to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Generally peaceful interactions with the Pamlicos and Chowanocs occurred along
504-541: A driving force behind cultural change. The College provided Powhatan boys with skills considered to be of little use by their people, however, literacy was generally viewed as a benefit of this Western education, and Powhatan boys who had received education at William and Mary sent their sons to the school. The increasing marriage of Powhatans to non-Indigenous people in the 17th century is also believed to have contributed to cultural change. The Powhatans had begun gambling, smoking tobacco, and consuming alcohol recreationally by
630-735: A hunting and trade mission on the Chickahominy River in December 1607, Captain John Smith wrote that he fought a small battle between the Opechancanough , and during this battle, he tied his Indigenous guide to his body and used him as a human shield. Although Smith was wounded in the leg and also had many arrows in his clothing he was not deathly injured, soon after he was captured by the Opechancanough. After Smith
756-421: A long day, the Powhatan people would celebrate and burn off any last energy they had by dancing and singing. This also allowed them to release any tensions they had from working with others. All of Virginia's Native peoples practiced agriculture . They periodically moved their villages from site to site. Villagers cleared the fields by felling, girdling , or firing trees at the base and then using fire to reduce
882-491: A population of about 8,000 people, of whom 2400 were warriors. Later scholars estimated the total population of the paramountcy as 15,000. The Powhatan Confederacy was where English colonists established their first permanent settlement in North America. Conflicts began immediately between the Powhatan people and English colonists; the colonists fired shots as soon as they arrived (due to a bad experience they had with
1008-512: A powerful leader, Powhatan followed two rules: "he who keeps his head higher than others ranks higher," and "he who puts other people in a vulnerable position, without altering his own stance, ranks higher." To finish the "coronation", several English colonists had to lean on Powhatan's shoulders to get him low enough to place the crown on his head, as he was a tall man. Afterward, the English colonists might have thought that Powhatan had submitted to King James, whereas Powhatan likely thought nothing of
1134-522: A prisoner, Opechancanough was killed, shot in the back by a soldier assigned to guard him. He was succeeded as Weroance by Necotowance , and later by Totopotomoi and by his daughter Cockacoeske . The Treaty of 1646 marked the effective dissolution of the United Confederacy, as white colonists were granted an exclusive enclave between the York and Blackwater Rivers. This physically separated
1260-454: A rare firsthand account of the Powhatan ways of life. Smith then renamed the village " Nonsuch ", and tried to get West's men to live in it. Both these attempts at settling beyond Jamestown soon failed, due to Powhatan resistance. Smith left Virginia for England in October 1609, never to return, because of an injury sustained in a gunpowder accident. Soon afterward, English colonists established
1386-471: A result of English colonists encroaching on Powhatan lands. The first, known as the Indian Massacre of 1622 , destroyed colonial settlements such as Henricus and Wolstenholme Towne , and nearly wiped out the colony. Jamestown was spared in the attack of 1622 due to a warning. During each attack, about 350–400 settlers were killed. In 1622, the population had been 1,200, and in 1644, 8,000 prior to
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#17327662254921512-612: A second fort, Fort Algernon , in Kecoughtan territory. In November 1609, Captain John Ratcliffe was invited to Orapakes , Powhatan's new capital. After he had sailed up the Pamunkey River to trade there, a fight broke out between the colonists and the Powhatan. All of the English colonists ashore were killed, including Ratcliffe, who was tortured by the women of the tribe. Those aboard the pinnace escaped and told
1638-497: A swamp at the head of the Chickahominy River . By 1614, Wahunsenacawh had again moved his primary residence, this time further northwest to a location on the north bank of the Pamunkey River known as Matchut, which was not far from where Wahunsenacawh's brother Opechancanough ruled at Youghtanund . Wahunsenacawh died in 1618, after which the chiefdom was ultimately passed to his younger brother Opechancanough , who led
1764-519: A tobacco planter, John Rolfe , in 1614. Within a few years, both Powhatan and Pocahontas were dead. Powhatan died in Virginia, but Pocahontas died in England. Meanwhile, the English settlers continued to encroach on Powhatan territory. After Wahunsenacawh's death, his younger brother, Opitchapam, briefly became chief, followed by their younger brother Opechancanough . The Powhatans were frightened by
1890-450: A variety of trade goods related to the brief interaction of Native Americans and English in the early years of Jamestown. Around 1609, Wahunsenacawh shifted his capital from Werowocomoco to Orapakes , located in a swamp at the head of the Chickahominy River , near the modern-day interchange of Interstate 64 and Interstate 295 . Sometime between 1611 and 1614, he moved further north to Matchut , in present-day King William County on
2016-566: A while, to send those people which were our mortal enemies to relieve us with victuals, as bread, corn fish, and flesh in great plenty, which was the setting up of our feeble men, otherwise we had all perished". The colonists generally mistrusted most Indian tribes, but they noted the Pamunkey did not steal. "Their custom is to take anything they can seize off; only the people of Pamunkey we have not found stealing, but what others can steal, their king receiveth." The Powhatan could not understand
2142-448: Is an Eastern Algonquian language, also known as Virginia Algonquian. In 1607, an estimated 14,000 to 21,000 Powhatan people lived in eastern Virginia when English colonists established Jamestown . The term Powhatan is also a title among the Powhatan people. English colonial historians often used this meaning of the term. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a mamanatowick ( paramount chief ) named Wahunsenacawh forged
2268-520: Is believed that Powhatans would make offerings and pray to the sun during sunrises. Tsenacommacah originally had two capitals. The main capital was the village of Werowocomoco , located in present-day Gloucester County. The second capital, the village of Powhatan was believed to be in the present-day Powhatan Hill section of the eastern part of Richmond, Virginia , or perhaps nearby in a location that became part of Tree Hill Farm. The English colonists described Werowocomoco as only 15 miles (24 km) as
2394-592: Is believed to have been derived from the name of this site. Although the specific site of his home village is unknown, in modern times the Powhatan Hill neighborhood in the East End portion of the modern-day city of Richmond, Virginia is thought by many to be in the general vicinity of the original village. Tree Hill Farm in Henrico County is also a possible site. "Powhatan" was also the name used by
2520-806: Is called the James River . It forms at the confluence of the Jackson and Cowpasture Rivers near the present-day town of Clifton Forge , flowing east to Hampton Roads . (The Rivanna River , a tributary of the James River, and Fluvanna County , were named after Queen Anne). The only water body in Virginia to retain a name related to the Powhatan people is Powhatan Creek, located in James City County near Williamsburg . Powhatan County and its county seat at Powhatan, Virginia were honorific names established years later, in locations west of
2646-445: Is clearly similar to Powhatan nekut , none of the words correspond to any known Algonquian language, or to reconstructions of proto-Algonquian . Given the extensive ethnic mixing that occurred among the Pamunkey before 1844, it's possible that Dalrymple's list is from an inter-ethnic pidgin or even a language from an otherwise unknown language family, rather than from the original Pamunkey language. The traditional Pamunkey way of life
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#17327662254922772-549: Is located on some of its ancestral land on the Pamunkey River adjacent to present-day King William County, Virginia . The Mattaponi reservation, the only other in the state, is nearby on the Mattaponi River . The Pamunkey language is generally assumed to have been similar in nature to Algonquian languages , but only fourteen words have been preserved. The words, which were recorded in 1844 by Reverend E.A. Dalrymple S.T.D. , are, Except for nikkut 'one', which
2898-884: Is one of 11 Virginia Indian tribal governments recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia , and the state's first federally recognized tribe , receiving its status in January 2016. Six other Virginia tribal governments, the Chickahominy , the Eastern Chickahominy , the Upper Mattaponi , the Rappahannock , the Monacan , and the Nansemond , were similarly recognized through the passage of
3024-570: Is the location of Werowocomoco. The site is on a farm bordering on Purtan Bay of the York River, about 12 nautical miles (22 km) from Jamestown. The more than 50 acres (200,000 m) residential settlement extends up to 1,000 feet (300 m) back from the river. In 2004, researchers excavated two curving ditches of 200 feet (60 m) at the far edge, which were constructed about 1400 CE. In addition to extensive artifacts from hundreds of years of Indigenous settlement, researchers have found
3150-510: The Congressional Black Caucus , who noted that the tribe had historically forbidden intermarriage between its members and black people. The interracial marriage ban, which had long been unenforced and was formally rescinded in 2012, was a relic of the tribe's attempt to circumvent Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924 , which recognized only "White" and "Colored" people. The Bureau of Indian Affairs initially said that
3276-625: The Great Depression , the state of Virginia helped the Pamunkey develop their pottery as a source of income. The state set up a program for a pottery school and provided a teacher. The state furnished materials for the building, but the tribe built it themselves. Tribal members learned methods to increase the speed of manufacture. They incorporated firing pottery in a kiln and using glazes into their techniques. They learned to use squeeze molds to produce copies of pots quickly. Kiln firing produced finished pottery of more uniform brown tones than
3402-421: The Indian Massacre of 1622 as well as a second attack in 1644. Both attacks provoked retaliations from English colonists. A peace treaty, signed in 1646, brought an end to the conflicts between the Powhatan and the English. The treaty was signed by Opechancanough's successor Necotowance – Opechancanough himself was captured by English colonists and killed by a settler assigned to guard him in 1646. As part of
3528-711: The Mattaponi Indian Nation and the Patawomeck Indian Tribe of Virginia have since gained federal recognition. The Powhatan Renape Nation are a state-recognized tribe in New Jersey who identify as descendants of the Powhatan Confederacy. There are six federally recognized tribes of Powhatan people today, all based in Virginia. The Pamunkey Indian Tribe was the first to gain federal recognition in 2016. Then
3654-474: The Powhatan language . The paramount chief of the Powhatan people in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Wahunsenacawh , had originally controlled only six tribes, but throughout the late 16th century, he added more tribes to his nation, through diplomacy or force. He added the Kecoughtan by 1598. By 1607, Wahunsenacawh controlled more than 30 tribes. The original six tribes under Wahunsenacawh were:
3780-587: The Rappahannock and Chickahominy tribes, which had not formerly been under the paramount chiefdom of the Pamunkey. Completion of the treaty ushered in a time of peace between the Virginia tribes and the English. This treaty was signed by more tribal leaders than that of 1646. It reinforced the annual tribute payments and added the Siouan and Iroquoian tribes to the Tributary Indians of the colonial government. More reservation lands were established for
3906-540: The Thomasina E. Jordan Indian Tribes of Virginia Federal Recognition Act of 2017 on January 12, 2018. The historical people were part of the Powhatan paramountcy , made up of Algonquian -speaking nations. The Powhatan paramount chiefdom was made up of over 30 nations, estimated to total about 10,000–15,000 people at the time the English arrived in 1607. The Pamunkey nation made up about one-tenth to one-fifteenth of
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4032-482: The slash and stumps. A village became unusable as soil productivity gradually declined and local fish and game were depleted. The inhabitants then moved on to allow the depleted area to revitalize, the soil to replenish, the foliage to grow, and the number of fish and game to increase. With every location change, the people used fire to clear new land. They left more cleared land behind. Native people also used fire to maintain extensive areas of open game habitat throughout
4158-590: The 1646 and 1677 treaties. As far as anyone knows, the tribes have not missed a "payment" in 331 years. Every year, on the Wednesday before Thanksgiving, they go to the Virginia Governor's house in Richmond to make their yearly payment. A ceremony is held in which a deer, turkey, or fish and some pottery are presented to the governor. Before the ceremony a brunch is held where the tribes can converse with
4284-407: The 1677 Treaty of Middle Plantation recognized the Pamunkey queen. As with other tribes in the Powhatan confederacy, the Pamunkey also had a weroance (chief) and a tribal council composed of seven members, elected every four years. The chief and council execute all the tribal governmental functions as set forth by their laws. Traditional elections used a basket, as well as peas and corn kernels, in
4410-620: The Allegheny Mountains around the year 1600. 30,000 of those 500,000 lived in the Chesapeake region under Powhatan’s rule, by 1677 only five percent of his population remained. The huge jump in deaths was caused by exposure and contact with Europeans. In his Notes on the State of Virginia (1781–82), Thomas Jefferson estimated that the Powhatan Confederacy occupied about 8,000 square miles (20,000 km ) of territory, with
4536-483: The Black Laws supposedly being repealed in 2014, the tribe has yet to change their enrollment criteria. Due to this discrimination after the "Black laws" many mixed Black Pamunkey's moved to New Kent (these families were inaccurately referred to as "fringe Pamunkey" by Helen Rountree) and Cumberland Counties, Virginia, and despite the disenfranchisement they still maintained their Pamunkey identity. For example, during
4662-470: The East, later called "barrens" by European colonists. The Powhatan also had rich fishing grounds. Bison had migrated to this area by the early 15th century. Powhatans made offerings and prayed at sunrise. Although, they also prayed and made offerings to specific gods, who were believed to be in control of the harvest. They used the land differently, and their religion was a Native one. Significantly, one of
4788-693: The East, later called "barrens" by European colonists. The Powhatan also had rich fishing grounds. Bison had migrated to this area by the early 15th century. The Powhatan primarily used fires to heat their sleeping rooms. As a result, less bedding was needed, and bedding materials could be easily stored during daytime hours. Couples typically slept head to foot. Powhatan men were warriors and hunters, who traveled on foot through forests in pursuit of enemies or game. Women controlled agricultural fields and gardens. Women tended crops, and processed food, such as grinding cornmeal, and gathered wild plants, including nuts. The women also constructed hunting camps in advance of
4914-621: The Eastern Shore across the Chesapeake Bay, were paid nominal tribute to the Powhatan Chiefdom, but enjoyed autonomy under their own Paramount Chief or "Emperor", Debedeavon (aka "The Laughing King"). By early 1609, relations had begun to sour between the Powhatan and English colonists. As a result, Wahunsenacawh moved his primary residence from Werowocomoco , off the York River, to Orapax (or Orapakes), located in
5040-752: The English settlers established their Virginia Colony at Jamestown . The original six tribes under Wahunsenacawh were: the Powhatan (proper), the Arrohateck , the Appamattuck , the Pamunkey , the Mattaponi , and the Chiskiack . He added the Kecoughtan to his fold by 1598. Some other affiliated groups included the Rappahannock , Moraughtacund, Weyanoak , Paspahegh , Quiyoughcohannock, Warraskoyack , and Nansemond . Another closely related tribe of
5166-496: The English). These boundaries could not be crossed unless it was on official business and badges had to be worn to illustrate the point. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, settlers continued to expand the colony of Virginia , further displacing the Pamunkey and making it impossible for them to sustain traditional practices. Bacon's Rebellion , which began in 1675, resulted in attacks on several tribes that were loyal to
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5292-522: The English, and more fully acknowledged the Virginia tribes' subjection to the King of England. All of the reservations, save two, were lost over the next two centuries. Even so, many of the remaining tribes still live in or near their ancestral lands. The Pamunkey and Mattaponi are the only tribes that still maintain their reservations from the 17th century. As such, these two tribes still make their yearly tribute payments, of fish and game, as stipulated by
5418-443: The English. The rebellion was a joint effort of white and black former indentured servants. The rebellion was led by Nathaniel Bacon against his relation, Governor Sir William Berkeley . The cause of the rebellion was Berkeley's refusal to come to the aid of colonists subjected to frequent raids and murder by natives. Bacon and other colonists, former indentured servants, were victims of raids by local Virginia tribes. Bacon's overseer
5544-647: The Mattaponi and Pamunkey since its establishment. In the 1980s, Virginia recognized six more tribes, also descended from the Powhatan Confederacy. In 2010, Virginia recognized three more tribes; one being the Patawomeck Indian Tribe of Virginia , who identify as being descendants of the Patawomeck people who were loosely connected to the Powhatan Confederacy. Of these state-recognized tribes who identify as being Powhatan descendants, all but
5670-609: The Nansemonds, Weyanokes, and Appomattox, who retreated southward, from the other Powhatan tribes then occupying the Middle Peninsula and Northern Neck . While the southern frontier demarcated in 1646 was respected for the remainder of the 17th century, the House of Burgesses lifted the northern one on September 1, 1649. Waves of new immigrants quickly flooded the peninsular region, then known as Chickacoan , and restricted
5796-528: The National Park Service, Powhatan "men were warriors and hunters, while women were gardeners and gatherers. English colonial accounts described the men, who ran and walked extensively through the woods in pursuit of enemies or game, as tall and lean and possessed of handsome physiques. The women were shorter, and strong because of the hours they spent tending crops, pounding corn into meals, gathering nuts, and performing other domestic chores. When
5922-599: The Natives to refer to the river where the town sat at the head of navigation . The English colonists chose to name it after their leader, King James I . The English colonists named many features in the early years of the Virginia Colony in honor of the king, as well as for his three children, Elizabeth, Henry, and Charles. Although portions of Virginia's longest river upstream from Columbia were much later named for Queen Anne of Great Britain, in modern times, it
6048-526: The Pamunkey weroance , Totopotomoi , received 5,000 acres (20 km) for his tribe along both sides of the upper Pamunkey River, and the Kiskiack weroance , Ossakican was reserved 5,000 acres (20 km) on the Piankatank. In 1650, another treaty reserved land for the creation of Indian towns, where 50 acres (200,000 m) of land was granted per warrior. These lands became smaller and smaller in
6174-478: The Pamunkey had met its requirements for federal recognition in January 2014, but the final decision was repeatedly delayed until July 2, 2015, when the BIA granted them formal recognition. . In February 2016 the Pamunkey received a court victory over a challenge to their right to exist as a political entity. During the process of obtaining federal recognition controversy around the tribe's racist legacy came to light as
6300-446: The Pamunkey people did not use fertilizers , they moved their fields and homes about every ten years to allow land to lie fallow and recover from cultivation. The Pamunkey, and all Virginia tribes, had an intimate, balanced relationship with the animals, plants, and the geography of their homeland. Like other native tribes, they had techniques, such as controlled burning , to clear land for cultivation or hunting. The land belonged to
6426-631: The Pamunkey tribe, with formal relations dating back to the treaties of 1646 and 1677. However, since the United States did not exist at the time of those treaties, no formal relations existed between the Pamunkey and the federal government. In 1982, the Pamunkey began the process of applying for federal recognition . Their formal application met with opposition from MGM Casinos , which feared potential competition with its planned casino in Prince George's County, Maryland , and from members of
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#17327662254926552-560: The Powhatan (proper), the Arrohateck , the Appamattuck , the Pamunkey , the Mattaponi , and the Chiskiack . Other affiliated groups included the Rappahannocks , Weyanoak , Paspahegh , Warraskoyack , and Nansemond . Another closely related tribe of the same language group was the Chickahominy , but they managed to preserve their autonomy from the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom. The Accawmacke, located on
6678-472: The Powhatan Confederacy spoke mutually intelligible Algonquian languages . The most common was likely Powhatan. Its use became dormant due to the widespread deaths and social disruption suffered by the people. Much of the vocabulary bank is forgotten. Attempts have been made to reconstruct the vocabulary of the language using sources such as word lists provided by Smith and by the 17th-century writer William Strachey . Pamunkey The Pamunkey Indian Tribe
6804-641: The Powhatan Confederation. The Pamunkey and Mattaponi are the only two peoples who have retained reservation lands from the 17th century. Today many descendants of the Powhatan Confederacy are enrolled in six federally recognized tribes in Virginia. They are: The name "Powhatan" (also transcribed by Strachey as Paqwachowng ), also spelled Powatan , is the name of the Native American village or town of Wahunsenacawh. The title Chief or King Powhatan, used by English colonists,
6930-479: The Powhatan people died from these diseases in the 17th century alone. By the mid-17th century, English colonist were desperate for labor to develop the land. Almost half of the European immigrants to Virginia arrived as indentured servants . As settlement continued, the colonists imported growing numbers of enslaved Africans for labor. By 1700, the colonies had about 6,000 enslaved Africans, one-twelfth of
7056-490: The Powhatans again attacked English colonial settlements to force them from Powhatan territories, which was again met with strong reprisals from the colonists, ultimately resulting in the near destruction of the tribe. The Second Anglo–Powhatan War that followed the 1644 incident ended in 1646 after Royal Governor of Virginia William Berkeley 's forces captured Opechancanough, thought to be between 90 and 100 years old. While
7182-625: The Spanish before their arrival). Within two weeks of the arrival of English colonists at Jamestown, deaths had occurred. The settlers had hoped for friendly relations and had planned to trade with the Virginia Indians for food. Captain Christopher Newport led the first colonial exploration party up the James River in 1607 when he met Parahunt, weroance of the Powhatan proper. English colonists initially mistook him for
7308-557: The Tribal Chief about serving a warrant. But, such action is not legally required. The tribe does not operate a police force or jail. Most tribal members obey the tribal laws out of respect for the chief and the council. The tribe discourages verbal attacks against members. As the former Chief Brown explains, they have strict slander laws because, "We're like a 400-year-old subdivision. If we didn't get along we'd have probably killed each other long before now." The chief continued to pay
7434-682: The United States entered WWII many Powhatans volunteered to serve in the military. Powhatan men fought to be regarded separately from the Black community by the Selective Service. In 1954, Powhatans were given partial legal recognition by the General Assembly through a law stating that people with one-fourth or more Indian ancestry and one-sixteenth or less African ancestry were to be recognized as tribal Indians. The Commonwealth of Virginia state-recognized 11 tribes, beginning with
7560-665: The Vital Statistics office in the state for more than 30 years, beginning in the early 20th century, and took a personal interest in eliminating traces of Virginia Indians. Plecker surmised that no true Virginia Indians were remaining as years of intermarriage had "diluted the race". Over his years of service, he conducted a campaign to reclassify all biracial and multiracial individuals as Black, believing such persons were fraudulently attempting to claim their race to be Indian or white. The effect of his reclassification has been described by tribal members as "paper genocide". After
7686-441: The Weroance of Arrohattec (whose given name was Ashaquid) was often referred to simply as "Arrohattec", much as the Earl of Essex would be referred to just as "Essex" instead of a personal name. When the first English colonists arrived in Virginia, some of the weroances subject to the paramount chief Powhatan, or mamanatowick (Wahunsenacawh) were his own nearest male relatives: In Tsenacommacah, women could inherit power, because
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#17327662254927812-468: The York, were cut off from the southern tribes by the English colonial authorities. The Virginia Colony long respected its southern boundary established by this treaty, refusing to recognize settlements beyond it as late as 1705. However, the ban on settling north of the York River was lifted on September 1, 1649, and a wave of new immigrants quickly flooded the northern tribes, leaving them scattered and isolated on ever-shrinking patches of land. That year,
7938-431: The annual tribute to Virginia's governor. This consists of game, usually a deer, and pottery or a "peace pipe". The Pamunkey have been paying such tribute since the treaty of 1646. Making this annual payment has not always been easy. Former Chief Miles remembers one year that was particularly hard, "We couldn't find anything, no deer, no turkeys—nothing. My dad was chief then, and we knew we had to have something to present to
8064-412: The area populated by the Powhatan peoples. The county was formed in March 1777. Various tribes each held some individual powers locally, and each had a chief known as a weroance (male) or, more rarely, a weroansqua (female), meaning "commander". As early as the era of John Smith , the individual tribes of this grouping were recognized by English colonists as falling under the greater authority of
8190-499: The attacks. Captured in 1646, Opechancanough was killed by a settler assigned to guard him, against orders. His death contributed to the decline of the Powhatan chiefdom. In 1646, the first treaty was signed between the Opechancanough's successor, Necotowance , and the English. The treaty set up boundaries between lands set aside for the Virginia tribes and those that were now considered property of English colonists, reservations lands, and yearly tribute payment of fish and game (made to
8316-406: The centralized power led by the chiefdom of Powhatan (c. 1545 – c. 1618), whose proper name was Wahunsenacawh or (in 17th century English spelling) Wahunsunacock . In 1607, when the first permanent English colonial settlement in North America was founded at Jamestown , he ruled primarily from Werowocomoco , which was located on the northern shore of the York River . This site of Werowocomoco
8442-557: The chiefdom of his brother, Opchanacanough , who unsuccessfully tried to repel encroaching English colonists. His 1622 and 1644 attacks against the invaders failed, and the English almost eliminated the confederacy. By 1646, the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom had been decimated, not just by warfare but from the infectious diseases , such as measles and smallpox newly introduced to North America by Europeans. The Native Americans did not have any immunity to these, which had been endemic to Europe and Asia for centuries. At least 75 percent of
8568-553: The colony enslaved Indians for control. In 1691, the House of Burgesses abolished the enslavement of Native peoples; however, many Powhatans were held in servitude well into the 18th century. English and Powhatan people often married, with the best-known being Pocahontas and John Rolfe . Their son was Thomas Rolfe , who has more than an estimated 100,000 descendants today. Many of the First Families of Virginia have both English and Virginia Algonquian ancestry. Virginia state-recognized eight Native tribes with ancestral ties to
8694-426: The crow flies from Jamestown, but they also described as 25 miles (40 km) downstream from present-day West Point , measurements which conflict with each other. In 2003, archaeologists initiated excavations at a site in Gloucester County that revealed an extensive Indigenous settlement from about 1200 CE (the late Woodland period) through the early contact period. Work since then has added to their belief that this
8820-429: The dwindling tribes to lesser tracts of land that became some of the earliest Indian reservations. In 1665, the House of Burgesses passed stringent laws requiring the Powhatan to accept chiefs appointed by the governor. After the Treaty of Albany in 1684, the Powhatan Confederacy all but vanished. Educational programs established through the creation of the Indian School at the College of William and Mary in 1691 were
8946-407: The eldest sister; but never to the heires of the males. Powhatan The Powhatan people ( / ˌ p aʊ h ə ˈ t æ n , ˈ h æ t ən / ) are Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands who belong to member tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy , or Tsenacommacah . They are Algonquian peoples whose historic territories were in eastern Virginia . Their Powhatan language
9072-556: The end of the 17th century. The Powhatan lived east of the Fall Line in Tidewater Virginia . They built their houses, called yehakins , by bending saplings and placing woven mats or bark over top of the saplings. They supported themselves primarily by growing crops, especially maize , but they also fished and hunted in the great forest in their area. Villages consisted of many related families organized in tribes led by
9198-486: The first successful English settlement, based at Jamestown, had a complicated relationship with Virginia's Native Americans. In the winter of 1607, Opechanacanough , chief of the Pamunkey tribe, captured Captain John Smith . Smith was brought to Opechancanough's brother, Chief Powhatan . This first meeting between Powhatan and Smith resulted in an alliance between the two people. Powhatan sent Smith back to Jamestown in
9324-473: The following years. Tracts were surveyed for the remaining tribes in the following decades, but these quickly shrank as they were either sold off or in some cases actually seized outright. Following Bacon's Rebellion , the Treaty of Middle Plantation was signed by many Virginia Indian leaders in 1677, limiting Tsenocommacah even further. The treaty set up six reservations, reinforced the annual tribute payment to
9450-401: The governor. It has not always been easy for the Mattaponi and the Pamunkey to get the necessary items for their yearly payment, but they have made it a point of honor to uphold their end of the bargain. The population of Tsenacommacah was 14,000 to 21,000 people by 1607. The tribes shared mutually intelligible dialects of the Powhatan language. The language, however, died out by the 1790s after
9576-418: The governor; so we went to a turkey farm, bought a live turkey, brought it back to the reservation and killed it. That way we were able to fulfill the terms of the treaty—after all it was killed on the reservation." As far as anyone knows, they have not missed a payment in 342 years. Based on archaeological evidence, scholars estimate that various distinct cultures of Native Americans occupied this part of
9702-476: The ground, about a foot high or more, with small poles attached. The framework was about four feet (1.2 m) wide, over which reeds were put. One or more mats were placed on top for bedding; more mats or skins served as blankets, with a rolled mat for a pillow. The bedding was rolled up and stored during the day to make the space available for other functions. The Pamunkey practice of matrilineal succession also created some confusion for Englishmen, who finally in
9828-435: The group as a whole. The chief and council would allot a parcel of cleared ground to a family head for life. Differing concepts of land and farm animal ownership and use caused some conflicts between the Virginia tribes and English colonists. For native tribes, the land was "owned" only as long as it was farmed; after that, it was available for "public" use. The Englishmen had, instead, laws on private property and believed that
9954-404: The head of the vital Statistics office, directed all state and local registration offices to use only the terms "white" or "colored" to denote race on official documents. This eliminated all traceable records of Virginia Indians. All state documents, including birth certificates, death certificates, marriage licenses, tax forms, and land deeds, thus bear no record of Virginia Indians. Plecker oversaw
10080-469: The influx of immigrants, the expansion of new villages on traditional farming lands, the subsequent need to purchase food from the settlers, and the enforced placement of Indian youth in "colleges." In March 1622, they attacked the Jamestown plantations killing hundreds. The settlers quickly sought retaliation, killing hundreds of tribesmen and their families, burning fields, and spreading smallpox. In 1644
10206-415: The inheritance of power was matrilineal . In A Map of Virginia John Smith of Jamestown explains: His [ Chief Powhatan 's] kingdome descendeth not to his sonnes nor children: but first to his brethren, whereof he hath 3 namely Opitchapan , Opechancanough , and Catataugh ; and after their decease to his sisters. First to the eldest sister, then to the rest: and after them to the heires male and female of
10332-532: The known facts. They point out that nothing is known of 17th-century Powhatan adoption ceremonies and that an execution ritual is different from known rites of passage. Other historians, such as Helen Rountree, have questioned whether there was any risk of execution. They note that Smith failed to mention it in his 1608 and 1612 accounts, and only added it to his 1624 memoir after Pocahontas had become famous. In 1608, Captain Newport realized that Powhatan's friendship
10458-467: The land was theirs as soon as the tribe sold it to them. As a result, when Englishmen allowed land to lie fallow, Native Americans assumed they were free to use it for hunting and gathering. Many Englishmen considered both as encroachments on their private property. Pamunkey homes, called yihakans (or yehakins ), were long and narrow; they were described as " longhouses " by English colonists. They were structures made from bent saplings lashed together at
10584-559: The last 1: 4, and the studies of Christian Feest are decisive. The last-mentioned figures refer to the first mention as well as the last mention of the respective tribes - e.g. 1585/1627 for the Chesapeake (Source: Handbook of North American Indians ). After Virginia passed stringent racial segregation laws in the early 20th century, and ultimately the Racial Integrity Act of 1924 which mandated every person who had any African heritage be deemed "black", Walter Plecker ,
10710-408: The major duties of Powhatan priests was controlling the weather. The number of tribes listed and the number of warriors are based on estimates or reports which mostly go back to Captain John Smith (1580 - 1631) and William Strachey (1572 - 1621). Usually, only the number of the warriors of the individual tribes is known, the stem number will therefore be determined with a ratio of 1: 3, 1: 3,3, or
10836-450: The men undertook extended hunts, the women went ahead of them to construct hunting camps. The Powhatan domestic economy depended on the labor of both sexes." Powhatan women would form work parties to accomplish tasks more efficiently. Women were also believed to serve as barbers, decorate homes, and produce decorative clothing. Overall, Powhatan women maintained a significant measure of autonomy in both their work lives and sexual lives. After
10962-565: The men. Women were also likely barbers. They decorated homes and produced embellished clothing. The Powhatan domestic economy depended on the labor of both sexes. The original Powhatan religion was documented by Europeans. The Powhatans believed in two primary Gods. Ahone was the creator of life. Oke was the lesser twin god who accepted sacrifices and was prayed to for help. Beneath these two were many other spirits. The Powhatan tried to appease Oke with various offerings such as jewelry and tobacco. Religious leaders were advisors to tribal leaders. It
11088-474: The mid-Atlantic coast for more than 10,000 years before European contact. Evidence has been collected by archaeologists, anthropologists , and historians . Varying cultures of indigenous peoples of the Americas lived in the areas later occupied by the historic Pamunkey. The Pamunkey are part of the larger Algonquian -speaking language family. This was composed of a number of tribes who spoke variations of
11214-419: The new fish are grown enough, usually after 21 days, they are flushed back into the river. Chief Miles estimated that seven million fry were put back into the river in 1998 and probably triple that number in 1999. The Pamunkey tradition of pottery making dates back to before the English settled Jamestown. They have been using clay from the banks of the Pamunkey River since prehistoric times. Many continue to use
11340-403: The north bank of the Pamunkey River . Each tribe had its own name and chief ( werowance / weroance if male or weroansqua if female), and Tsenacommacah as a whole was ruled by a paramount chief ( mamanatowick ) named Wahunsenacawh, or more popularly Chief Powhatan . The Mamanatowick let their district and subordinate weroances make the final decision on how to handle hostile situations. This
11466-425: The old methods for fishing, part of the tribe's traditional heritage. They also continue to hunt and trap on reservation lands. In 1998, the tribe built a shad hatchery to ensure continuation of an important food source. When shad are caught, the eggs of females are taken and placed into a bucket. Sperm from males are put into the same bucket. At holding tanks, the fertilized eggs are allowed to grow and hatch. Once
11592-516: The other six were recognized by Congress through the Thomasina E. Jordan Indian Tribes of Virginia Federal Recognition Act of 2017. Two of these tribes, the Mattaponi and Pamunkey , still retain their reservations from the 17th century and are located in King William County, Virginia . As part of a treaty in 1646, and then another in 1677, the tribes agreed to bring wild game to the governor of Virginia each year. The tribes of
11718-444: The paramount Powhatan ( mamanatowick ), his father Wahunsenacawh, who ruled the confederacy. Settlers coming into the region needed to befriend as many Native Americans as possible due to the unfamiliarity with the land. Not too long after settling down, they realized the huge potential for tobacco. To grow more and more tobacco, they had to impede on Native territory. There were immediate issues that resulted in 14 years of warfare. On
11844-413: The peace). Instead of using corporal punishment, incarceration, or chastisement, anyone who broke a tribal law was fined or banished. Because the Pamunkey resented that, in the past, outsiders picked out some laws for ridicule, no outsiders are now allowed to see tribal laws. Tribal laws govern all civil matters. In criminal matters, outside authorities such as a Sheriff or Police, may respectfully notify
11970-454: The people switched to English. Much of the language has been forgotten, and is only known from two wordlists made by William Strachey and Captain John Smith . However, there have been attempts to reconstruct the language, particularly from linguists like Frank T. Siebert and Blair A. Rudes . The Powhatan lived in Tidewater Virginia . Their homes, called yehakins , were constructed by bending saplings and laying woven mats or bark over top of
12096-481: The political structure of the chiefdom and confederacy. Powhatan (and his several successors) ruled what is called a complex chiefdom , referred to by scholars as the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom . Research work continues at Werowocomoco and elsewhere that deepens understanding of the Powhatan world. Wahunsenacawh had inherited control over six tribes but dominated more than 30 by 1607 when
12222-462: The population. Enslaved people would at times escape and join the surrounding Powhatan. Some white indentured servants were also known to have fled and joined the Indigenous peoples . African slaves and indentured European servants often worked and lived together, and while marriage was not always legal, some Native people lived, worked, and had children with them. After Bacon's Rebellion in 1676,
12348-481: The release of some English prisoners and ammunitions held by her father. Initial contact with Europeans was around 1570. "And from [1570] on at ever briefer intervals until the first permanent English colony was established at Jamestown in 1607, the Powhatan Confederacy was visited by white men: Spanish, French, and English." (Barbour, 5). Scholars estimate that when the English arrived in 1607, this paramount chiefdom numbered about 14,000–21,000 people. Colonists of
12474-407: The same language group was the Chickahominy , but they managed to preserve their autonomy from the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom. The Accawmacke, located on the Eastern Shore across the Chesapeake Bay, were nominally tributary to the Powhatan Chiefdom but enjoyed autonomy under their own Paramount Chief or "Emperor", Debedeavon (aka "The Laughing King"). Half a million Native Americans were living in
12600-581: The same language, a language now mostly lost. By 1607, more than 30 tribes were tributaries of the Algonquian Powhatan Confederacy , of which the Pamunkey were the largest and one of the most powerful. Chief Powhatan and his daughter Matoaka (better known as Pocahontas to historians), who achieved historical fame, were Pamunkey Native Americans. Captain Samuel Argall abducted her as a hostage in an attempt to secure
12726-412: The same number as voters. Members first voted for the chief, followed by votes for the seven council members. For each candidate, a corn kernel signified approbation and a pea a "no" vote, or if there were but two candidates, each could be indicated by a type of seed. The same 1896 study noted that tribal laws were concerned with, but not limited to, controlling land use, stealing, and fighting (breaking
12852-493: The saplings. All of Virginia's natives practiced slash-and-burn agriculture , and cultivated maize . A village became unusable as soil productivity gradually declined and local fish and game were depleted, so they periodically moved their villages from site to site. Villagers cleared the fields by felling, girdling , or firing trees at the base and then using fire to reduce the slash and stumps. The natives also used fire to maintain extensive areas of open game habitat throughout
12978-470: The shades of gray from traditional pottery techniques. Pamunkey pottery-makers learned how to paint and glaze pots. The teacher taught them designs and pictographs based on well-known and popular Southwestern Native American traditions. Two pictographs represent important stories to the tribe: the story of Captain John Rolfe and Pocahontas and the story of the treaty that set up payments of game. After
13104-575: The sort. After John Smith became president of the colony, he sent a force under Captain Martin to occupy an island in Nansemond territory and drive the inhabitants away. At the same time, he sent another force with Francis West to build a fort at the James River Falls. He purchased the nearby fortified Powhatan village (present site of Richmond, Virginia ) from Parahunt for some copper and an English colonist named Henry Spelman , who wrote
13230-546: The south side of the mouth of the James River all the way north to the south end of the Potomac River and from the Eastern Shore west to about the Fall Line of the rivers. The term Tsenacommacah comes from the Powhatan language , and means “densely inhabited land.” The Powhatan were part of a powerful political network of Virginia Indian tribes known as the Powhatan Confederacy . Members spoke
13356-445: The southern boundary, while the western and northern boundaries were more contested. Conflicts occurred with Monacans and Mannahoacs along the western boundary and Massawomecks along the northern boundary. The Powhatans primarily used fires to heat their sleeping rooms. As a result, less bedding was needed, and bedding materials could be easily stored during daytime hours. Couples typically slept head to foot. According to research by
13482-449: The spring of 1608 and started sending gifts of food to the colonists. If not for Powhatan's donations, the settlers would not have survived through the first winters. As the settlement expanded, competition for land and other resources, and conflict between the settlers and Virginia tribes, increased. The story of Pocahontas (Matoaka) tells a piece of Pamunkey history, but from an English colonial perspective. Study of primary documents from
13608-514: The surviving tribes of the now-dissolved confederacy, the Appomattocs , Nansemonds , and Weyanokes retreated to the south, becoming independent of Necotowance, as did the Powhites or Powhatan proper. The Pamunkey , Mattaponi , Chickahominy , Rappahannock , Kiskiack , Wiccocomico , Patawomeck , Morattico , Nanzatico , Sekakawon , and Onawmanient , occupying the peninsulas north of
13734-560: The tale at Jamestown . During that next year, the tribe attacked and killed many Jamestown residents. The residents fought back, but only killed twenty. However, the arrival at Jamestown of a new Governor, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr , (Lord Delaware) in June 1610 signaled the beginning of the First Anglo-Powhatan War . A brief period of peace came only after the capture of Pocahontas, her baptism, and her marriage to
13860-512: The teacher left the school, some members returned to traditional pottery techniques. Today, Pamunkey use both traditional and newer techniques to create their pieces. To differentiate, pots made the traditional way are called 'blackware'. The Pamunkey Indian Museum has a variety of vessels, as well as videos and exhibits, that explain the differences in construction methods, types of temper, and decorating techniques. The Pamunkey ensured their Pamunkey Indian Tribe Museum , built in 1979, resembled
13986-445: The time of English arrival shows that initial contact was characterized by mutual cultural misunderstanding. Colonists portrayed the Virginia tribes by contrasts. They had respect for Powhatan, but characterized other Native Americans by terms such as "naked devils". Their fear and appreciation of Native Americans was coupled with distrust and unease. George Percy 's account of the early years expresses such duality: "It pleased God, after
14112-454: The top to make a barrel shape. Indians covered the saplings with woven mats or bark. The 17th-century historian William Strachey thought that bark was harder to acquire, as he noticed that only higher-status families owned bark-covered houses. In summer, when the heat and humidity increased, the mats could be rolled up or removed to allow more air circulation. Inside the house, they built bedsteads along both walls. They were made of posts put in
14238-452: The total, as they numbered about 1,000 persons in 1607. When the English arrived, the Pamunkey were one of the most powerful groups of the Powhatan chiefdom. They inhabited the coastal tidewater of Virginia on the north side of the James River near Chesapeake Bay . The Pamunkey Tribe is one of only two that retain the reservation lands assigned by the 1646 and 1677 treaties with the English colonial government. The Pamunkey reservation
14364-670: The traditional yehakin . Located on the reservation, the museum provides visitors with insight into the tribe's long history and culture. Included are artifacts from more than 10,000 years of indigenous settlement, replicas of prehistoric materials, and stories. The Smithsonian Institution recently selected the Pamunkey as one of 24 tribes to be featured in the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C. The Commonwealth of Virginia has always recognized
14490-566: The traditional method. To do so, they let the clay dry, then break it into smaller pieces. These pieces are soaked in water until reaching the consistency of cream. The clay is strained to remove rocks or debris. The water is drained and pressed out until the clay is like dough. It is then ready to be made into pots. Traditional pottery by Pamunkey ancestors of the Woodland Period was strengthened with crushed or burned shells, crushed steatite, river pebbles, or quartz sand. In 1932, during
14616-421: The treaty of 1646, the size of Tsenacommacah was reduced. The boundaries specified in the treaty separated Virginia Indian lands from those that were considered colonial territory, and restricted crossings to those on official business. Badges were required for all visitors. The treaty also established the payment of a yearly tribute to the English, as well as delineating a number of tribal land reservations. Among
14742-536: The tribe disenfranchised and outlawed their members from intermarrying with Black families such as the Dungey's/Dungee families during their the 1861 "Black laws". Therefore, using the 1900 and 1910 censuses as their only base rolls has been considered problematic by many because it excludes those Pamunkey Indians who were disenfranchised and forced to move from the Reservation before those censuses were taken. Despite
14868-559: The tribes, but the treaty required Virginia Native American leaders to acknowledge they and their peoples were subjects of the King of England . Today, about 430 tribal members remain, some of whom live on their 1,200-acre (4.9 km ) reservation. Others are spread out across the United States. The Pamunkey have been able to survive because of their ability to adapt as a tribe. Withstanding pressure to give up their reservation lands has helped them maintain traditional ways. Men use some of
14994-645: The violent tactics employed by the colonists. As one noted, "What it will avail you to take by force you may quickly have by love, or to destroy them that provide you food? What can you get by war, when we can hide our provisions and fly to the woods? Whereby you must famish by wronging us your friends. And why are you thus jealous of our loves seeing us unarmed, and both do, and are willing still to feed you, with that you cannot get but by our labors?" Smith included this translation of Powhatan's questions in his writings. Powhatan's maternal half-brother and ultimate successor, Opechancanough, launched attacks in 1622 and 1644 as
15120-456: The younger brother of Wahunsenacawh. Smith became the first English colonist to meet the paramount chief Powhatan. According to Smith's account, Pocahontas , Chief Powhatan's daughter, prevented her father from executing Smith. Some researchers have asserted that a mock execution of Smith was a ritual intended to adopt Smith into the tribe, but other modern writers dispute this interpretation, noting that many of Smith's stories do not line up with
15246-425: Was captured the Natives had him ready for execution until he gave them a compass which they saw as a sign of friendliness so they did not kill him, instead took him to a more popular chief, followed by a ceremony. Smith first was introduced to Powhatan's brother, which was a chief under Powhatan to run a smaller portion of the tribe. Later Smith was introduced to Powhatan himself. Smith was captured by Opechancanough ,
15372-407: Was crucial to the survival of the small Jamestown colony. In the summer of that year, he tried to "crown" the paramount Chief, with a ceremonial crown, to transform him into a " vassal ". They also gave Powhatan many European gifts, such as a pitcher, feather mattress, bed frame, and clothes. The coronation went badly because they asked Powhatan to kneel to receive the crown, which he refused to do. As
15498-621: Was made apparent with the events that took place in 1607 and the hostility with the newcomers (English colonists). Weroances and Priest were the only ones allowed to enter into religious temples. A weroance did not go to meet any visitor, visitors were escorted to see a weroance. The weroance, their wives, and councilors often dressed in the finest jewels, and tanned deer skin. Several of the weroances' personal names were known and some recorded by William Strachey and other sources. The names of their respective chieftaincies were also commonly used as titles, exactly analogous to European peerages, so that
15624-539: Was murdered by raiding Indians. Cockacoeske ( weroansqua of the Pamunkey), who succeeded her husband after he was killed fighting for the English, was an ally of Berkeley against Bacon. To the English, she was known as "Queen of the Pamunkey". She is known for having signed the Articles of Peace ( Treaty of Middle Plantation ) in 1677, after Bacon's Rebellion ended. As a result of the treaty, she gained authority over
15750-534: Was rediscovered in the early 21st century; it was central to the tribes of the Confederacy. The improvements discovered at the site during archaeological research have confirmed that Powhatan had a paramount chiefdom over the other tribes in the power hierarchy. Anthropologist Robert L. Carneiro in his The Chiefdom: Precursor of the State. The Transition to Statehood in the New World (1981), deeply explores
15876-455: Was subsistence living. They lived through a combination of fishing, trapping, hunting, and farming. The latter was developed in the late Woodland Period of culture, roughly the years 900 to 1600. The peoples used the Pamunkey River as a main mode of transportation and food source. The river also provided access to hunting grounds, and other tribes. Access to the river was crucial, because Pamunkey villages were seldom permanent settlements. Because
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