119-681: Poitou ( UK : / ˈ p w ʌ t uː / PWUH -too , US : / p w ɑː ˈ t uː / pwah- TOO , French: [pwatu] ; Latin : Pictaviensis, Pictavia ; Poitevin : Poetou ) was a province of west-central France whose capital city was Poitiers . Both Poitou and Poitiers are named after the Pictones Gallic tribe. The main historical cities are Poitiers (historical capital city), Châtellerault (France's kings' establishment in Poitou), Niort , La Roche-sur-Yon , Thouars , and Parthenay . Historically Poitou
238-576: A West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic —the insular variety of Continental Celtic , which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages ( Welsh , Cornish , Cumbric ) cohabited alongside English into
357-559: A century as Received Pronunciation (RP). However, due to language evolution and changing social trends, some linguists argue that RP is losing prestige or has been replaced by another accent, one that the linguist Geoff Lindsey for instance calls Standard Southern British English. Others suggest that more regionally-oriented standard accents are emerging in England. Even in Scotland and Northern Ireland, RP exerts little influence in
476-514: A constitutional monarchy roughly similar to that of England. On 28 May, Robespierre proposed all Frenchmen should be declared active citizens and eligible to vote. On 30 May, he delivered a speech on abolishing the death penalty without success. The following day, Robespierre attacked Abbé Raynal , who sent an address criticising the work of the Assembly and demanding the restoration of the royal prerogative . On 10 June, Robespierre delivered
595-727: A day. On 28 January Robespierre discussed in the Assembly the organisation of the National Guard , for three years a hot topic in French newspapers. In early March, provincial militias were abolished and the Paris département was placed above the Commune in all matters of general order and security. On 27 and 28 April, Robespierre opposed plans to reorganise the National Guard and restrict its membership to active citizens , which
714-513: A decisive ultimatum. Brissot urged the preservation of the constitution, advocating against both the dethronement of the king and the election of a new assembly. On 7 August, Pétion proposed that Robespierre assist in facilitating the departure of Fédérés to pacify the capital, suggesting their more effective service at the front lines. Simultaneously, the Council of Ministers recommended the arrest of Danton, Marat and Robespierre should they attend
833-508: A greater movement, normally [əʊ], [əʉ] or [əɨ]. Dropping a morphological grammatical number , in collective nouns , is stronger in British English than North American English. This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people. The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment: Police are investigating
952-406: A lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence. Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century. In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of
1071-437: A meticulously groomed appearance with powdered, curled, and perfumed wig tied in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century . Some accounts described him as "nervous, timid, and suspicious". Madame de Staël portrayed Robespierre as someone "very exaggerated in his democratic principles" and "maintained the most absurd propositions with a coolness that had the air of conviction". In October, he assumed
1190-573: A monarch. She is therefore neither a monarchy nor a republic. She is both." On 17 July, Bailly and Lafayette declared a ban on gathering followed by martial law . After the Champ de Mars massacre , the authorities ordered numerous arrests. Robespierre, who attended the Jacobin club, did not go back to the Rue Saintonge where he lodged, and asked Laurent Lecointre if he knew a patriot near
1309-483: A prison. Approximately 90 individuals, including Robespierre, were executed without trial in the following days, marking the onset of the Thermidorian Reaction . A figure deeply divisive during his lifetime, Robespierre's views and policies continue to evoke controversy. Academic and popular discourse persistently engage in debates surrounding his legacy and reputation. Maximilien de Robespierre
SECTION 10
#17327730037911428-659: A process called T-glottalisation . National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, not being heard as "no [ʔ] " and bottle of water being heard as "bo [ʔ] le of wa [ʔ] er". It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as later , while often has all but regained /t/ . Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p , as in pa [ʔ] er and k as in ba [ʔ] er. In most areas of England and Wales, outside
1547-520: A regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called "the King's English", "Oxford English" and " BBC English" ), that is essentially region-less. It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period. It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. In
1666-514: A speech on how to save the State and Liberty and did not use the word "war". He began by assuring his audience that everything he intended to propose was strictly constitutional. He then went on to advocate specific measures to strengthen, not so much the national defenses as the forces that could be relied on to defend the revolution. Robespierre promoted a people's army, continuously under arms and able to impose its will on Feuillants and Girondins in
1785-476: A speech on the state of the police and proposed to dismiss officers. On 11 June 1791 he was elected or nominated as (substitute) accuser. Robespierre accepted the function of " public accuser " in the criminal tribunal preparing indictments and ensuring the defence. Two days later, L'Ami du Roi [ fr ] , a royalist pamphlet, described Robespierre as a "lawyer for bandits, rebels and murderers". On 15 June, Pétion de Villeneuve became president of
1904-419: A speech on the urgent topic of the National Guard. "To be armed for personal defence is the right of every man, to be armed to defend freedom and the existence of the common fatherland is the right of every citizen". Robespierre coined the famous motto " Liberté, égalité, fraternité " by adding the word fraternity on the flags of the National Guard. In 1791, Robespierre gave 328 speeches, almost one
2023-406: A stillborn son at age 29. The death of his mother is, thanks to Charlotte's memoirs, believed to have had a major effect on the young Robespierre. Around 1767, for unknown reasons, his father left the children. His two daughters were raised by their paternal (maiden) aunts, and his two sons by their maternal grandparents. Demonstrating literacy at an early age, Maximilien commenced his education at
2142-406: Is a citizen. " During the continuing debate on suffrage, Robespierre ended his speech of 25 January 1790 with a blunt assertion that "all Frenchmen must be admissible to all public positions without any other distinction than that of virtues and talents". On 31 March 1790 Robespierre was elected as their president. On 28 April Robespierre proposed to allow an equal number of officers and soldiers in
2261-696: Is a continuing assertion of a local identity and opposition to the central government in Paris , whatever its composition and identity. (...) In the region where Louis XIII and Louis XIV had encountered stiff resistance, the House of Bourbon gained loyal and militant supporters exactly when it had been overthrown and when a Bourbon loyalty came to imply a local loyalty in opposition to the new central government, that of Robespierre ." 46°38′55″N 0°14′52″W / 46.6486°N 0.2478°W / 46.6486; -0.2478 British English British English (abbreviations: BrE , en-GB , and BE )
2380-725: Is also due to London-centric influences. Examples of R-dropping are car and sugar , where the R is not pronounced. British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them. As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /oː/ and /eː/, as in go and say (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to [oʊ] and [eɪ] respectively). Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /iː/ and /uː/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in
2499-565: Is as yet unexperienced; unaware of when to cease, but possesses an eloquence that sets him apart from the rest." By 13 June, Robespierre aligned with deputies, who later proclaimed themselves the National Assembly , asserting representation for 96% of the nation. On 9 July, the Assembly relocated to Paris and began deliberating a new constitution and taxation system. On 13 July, the National Assembly proposed reinstating
SECTION 20
#17327730037912618-480: Is based on British English, but has more influence from American English , often grouped together due to their close proximity. British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings. Robespierre Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre ( French: [maksimiljɛ̃ ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ] ; 6 May 1758 – 10 Thermidor, Year II 28 July 1794)
2737-795: Is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press . The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules , and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style . Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English ,
2856-853: Is punished with death." His speech acted as a call for direct action among the citizens, as well as a strike against the external enemy. Not long after, the September Massacres began. Robespierre and Manuel , the public prosecutor , responsible for the police administration, visited the Temple prison to check on the security of the royal family. In Paris, suspected Girondin and royalist candidates were boycotted; Robespierre contributed to Brissot (and his fellow Brissotins Pétion and Condorcet's) inability to be elected in Paris. According to Charlotte Robespierre , her brother stopped talking to his former friend, mayor Pétion de Villeneuve . Pétion
2975-628: Is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in England , or, more broadly, to the collective dialects of English throughout the British Isles taken as a single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English , Welsh English , and Northern Irish English . Tom McArthur in
3094-521: Is to believe that it is enough for a people to invade a foreign country to make it adopt its laws and their constitution. No one loves armed missionaries... The Declaration of the Rights of Man... is not a lightning bolt that strikes every throne at the same time... I am far from claiming that our Revolution will not eventually influence the fate of the world... But I say that it will not be today (2 January 1792). This opposition from expected allies irritated
3213-547: The Chambers Dictionary , and the Collins Dictionary record actual usage rather than attempting to prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other varieties of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and
3332-543: The Logographe [ fr ] , Carnot promoted the use of pikes and provided to every citizen. On 29 July Robespierre called for the deposition of the King and the election of a Convention. In late July the Brunswick Manifesto began sweeping through Paris. It was frequently described as unlawful and offensive to national sovereignty . The authorship was frequently in doubt. On 1 August,
3451-583: The Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly. The Jacobins decided to study his speech before deciding whether it should be printed. On 15 February, Robespierre failed to get elected in the city council ( Conseil général ); on the same day the installation of the criminal trial court of the department of Paris took place. For Robespierre it was an ungrateful position as "public accuser"; it meant he
3570-658: The East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of
3689-663: The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598). Under the Edict of Nantes , such discrimination was temporarily suspended but this measure was repealed by the French Crown. Some of the French colonists, later known as Acadians , who settled beginning in 1604 in eastern North America came from southern Poitou. They established settlements in what is now Nova Scotia , and later in New Brunswick —both of which were taken over in
Poitou - Misplaced Pages Continue
3808-644: The Oxford Guide to World English acknowledges that British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions [with] the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity". Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in the United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, north-east England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire , whereas
3927-493: The Royal Spanish Academy with Spanish. Standard British English differs notably in certain vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features from standard American English and certain other standard English varieties around the world. British and American spelling also differ in minor ways. The accent, or pronunciation system, of standard British English, based in southeastern England, has been known for over
4046-490: The Scots language or Scottish Gaelic ). Each group includes a range of dialects, some markedly different from others. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though . Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950),
4165-573: The University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects. The team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC , in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout
4284-610: The West Country and other near-by counties of the UK, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead. This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity . In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel. This is called the intrusive R . It could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently. This
4403-519: The collège of Arras when he was only eight. In October 1769, recommended by the bishop Louis-Hilaire de Conzié [ fr ] , he secured a scholarship at the prestigious Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Among his peers were Camille Desmoulins and Stanislas Fréron . During his schooling, he developed a profound admiration for the Roman Republic and the rhetoric skills of Cicero , Cato and Lucius Junius Brutus . In 1776 he earned
4522-497: The court martial . Robespierre supported the cooperation of all the National Guards in a general federation on 11 May. On 19 June he was elected secretary of the National Assembly. In July Robespierre demanded "fraternal equality" in salaries. Before the end of the year, he was seen as one of the leaders of the small body of the extreme left. Robespierre was one of "the thirty voices". On 5 December Robespierre delivered
4641-417: The interim minister of Interior Roland and Guadet tried to suppress the influence of the Commune because the sections had exhausted the searches. The Assembly, tired of the pressures, declared the Commune illegal and suggested the organisation of communal elections. Robespierre was no longer willing to cooperate with Brissot and Roland . On Sunday morning 2 September the members of the Commune, gathering in
4760-528: The "bourgeois militia" in Paris to quell the unrest. The following day, the populace demanded weapons and stormed both the Hôtel des Invalides and the Bastille . The local militia transitioned into the National Guard , a move that distanced the most impoverished citizens from active involvement. During the discussions and an altercation with Lally-Tollendal who advocated law and order , Robespierre reminded
4879-464: The "tribunal criminel provisoire", after Duport refused to work with Robespierre. After Louis XVI's failed flight to Varennes , the Assembly suspended the king from his duties on 25 June. Between 13 and 15 July, the Assembly debated the restoration of the king and his constitutional rights. Robespierre declared in the Jacobin Club on 13 July: "The current French constitution is a republic with
Poitou - Misplaced Pages Continue
4998-629: The 21st century. RP, while long established as the standard English accent around the globe due to the spread of the British Empire , is distinct from the standard English pronunciation in some parts of the world; most prominently, RP notably contrasts with standard North American accents. In the 21st century, dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary , the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ,
5117-414: The Assembly voted on Carnot's proposal, enforcing the distribution of pikes to all citizens, excluding vagabonds. By 3 August, the mayor and 47 sections demanded the removal of the king. On 5 August Robespierre disclosed the discovery of a plan for the king to escape to Château de Gaillon . Aligning with Robespierre's stance, almost all sections in Paris rallied for the dethronement of the king and issued
5236-601: The Assembly, Robespierre championed the ideals encapsulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) and advocated constitutional provisions outlined in the Constitution of 1791 . However, according to Malcolm Crook , his views rarely garnered majority support among fellow deputies. Despite his commitment to democratic principles, Robespierre persistently donned a knee-breeches and retained
5355-474: The Constituent Assembly deliberated on male census suffrage on 22 October, Robespierre and a select few deputies opposed the property prerequisites for voting and holding office. Through December and January Robespierre notably drew attention from marginalized groups, particularly Protestants , Jews , individuals of African descent , domestic servants, and actors. As a frequent orator in
5474-594: The Countryside in 1789, targeting local authorities and garnering the support of rural electors. This move solidified his position among the country's electors. On 26 April 1789, Robespierre secured his place as one of 16 deputies representing French Flanders in the Estates-General. On 6 June, Robespierre delivered his maiden speech, targeting the hierarchical structure of the church. His impassioned oratory prompted observers to comment, "This young man
5593-836: The English Language (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform , where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling. By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers . Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication
5712-525: The French, King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental Plantagenet territory to France. This was ratified by the Treaty of Paris of 1259 , by which King Louis annexed Normandy , Maine , Anjou , and Poitou). During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poitou was a hotbed of Huguenot (French Calvinist Protestant) activity among the nobility and bourgeoisie. The Protestants were discriminated against and brutally attacked during
5831-613: The Germanic schwein ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French porc ) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans. Another example is the Anglo-Saxon cu meaning cow, and the French bœuf meaning beef. Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English;
5950-508: The Girondins, and the war became a major point of contention between the factions. In his third speech on the war, Robespierre countered on 25 January 1792 in the Jacobin club, "A revolutionary war must be waged to free subjects and slaves from unjust tyranny, not for the traditional reasons of defending dynasties and expanding frontiers..." Robespierre argued such a war could only favour the forces of counter-revolution, since it would play into
6069-545: The Jacobin club, where he met with a triumphant reception. Collot d'Herbois gave his chair to Robespierre, who presided that evening. On 5 December he gave a speech on the organization of the Garde National , which he saw as a unique institution born from the ideals of the French Revolution. On 11 December, Robespierre was finally installed as " accusateur public ". In January 1791 Robespierre promoted
SECTION 50
#17327730037916188-575: The Jacobin club. On 9 August, the commissionaires from several sections assembled in the town hall. Notably absent were Marat, Robespierre and Tallien. The dissolution of the municipal council of the city occurred at midnight. Sulpice Huguenin [ fr ] , a prominent figure among the sans-culottes of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine , was appointed provisional president of the Insurrectionary Commune. In
6307-922: The Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house. British English is the basis of, and very similar to, Commonwealth English . Commonwealth English is English as spoken and written in the Commonwealth countries , though often with some local variation. This includes English spoken in Australia , Malta , New Zealand , Nigeria , and South Africa . It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia , and in parts of Africa. Canadian English
6426-446: The Paris armed sections were integrated into 48 battalions of the National Guard under Santerre's command. The Assembly decreed that all the non-juring priests must leave Paris within a week and leave the country within two weeks. On 28 August, the assembly ordered a curfew for the next two days. The city gates were closed; all communication with the country was stopped. At the behest of Justice Minister Danton, thirty commissioners from
6545-712: The South East, there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP). Cockney rhyming slang can be (and was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand, although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated. Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. Immigrants to
6664-653: The Tuileries who could put him up for the night. Lecointre suggested Duplay's house and took him there. Maurice Duplay , a cabinetmaker and ardent admirer, lived at 398 Rue Saint-Honoré near the Tuileries . After a few days, Robespierre decided to move in permanently. Madame Roland named Pétion de Villeneuve, François Buzot and Robespierre as the three incorruptible patriots in an attempt to honour their purity of principles, their modest ways of living, and their refusal of bribes. His steadfast adherence and defence of
6783-550: The UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country and particularly to London. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. Notably Multicultural London English , a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London . Since
6902-576: The United Kingdom , as well as within the countries themselves. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England (which is itself broadly grouped into Southern English , West Country , East and West Midlands English and Northern English ), Northern Irish English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language ), and Scottish English (not to be confused with
7021-589: The Vendée stayed loyal to the Restoration Monarchy of King Louis XVIII . Napoleon dispatched 10,000 troops under General Lamarque to pacify the region. As noted by historian Andre Lampert: "The persistent Huguenots of 17th Century Poitou and the fiercely Catholic rebellious Royalists of what came be the Vendée of the late 18th Century had ideologies very different, indeed diametrically opposed to each other. The common thread connecting both phenomena
7140-465: The West Scottish accent. Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect. Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, /t/ has become commonly realised as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it is in the intervocalic position, in
7259-410: The adjective little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English . The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to
SECTION 60
#17327730037917378-404: The armed Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 . On 27 July, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Public Safety . Robespierre faced growing disillusionment among others due in part to the politically-motivated violence advocated by the Montagnards . Increasingly, members of the Convention turned against him, and accusations piled up on 9 Thermidor . Robespierre was arrested and taken to
7497-426: The award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated: that they were "very pleased"—and indeed, "well chuffed"—at receiving their generous grant. He could, of course, have been "bostin" if he had come from the Black Country , or if he was a Scouser he would have been well "made up" over so many spondoolicks, because as a Geordie might say, £460,000 is a "canny load of chink". Most people in Britain speak with
7616-535: The bar , he was appointed as one of the five judges in the local criminal court in March 1782. However, Robespierre soon resigned, due to his ethical discomfort in adjudicating capital cases, stemming from his opposition to the death penalty . Robespierre was elected to the literary Academy of Arras in November 1783. The following year, the Academy of Metz honored him with a medal for his essay pondering collective punishment , thus establishing him as literary figure . ( Pierre Louis de Lacretelle and Robespierre shared
7735-418: The beginning. By 13 August, Robespierre openly opposed the reinforcement of the départements . Subsequently, Danton invited him to join the Council of Justice. Robespierre published the twelfth and final edition of Le Défenseur de la Constitution , serving as an account and political testament. On 16 August, Robespierre submitted a petition to the Legislative Assembly, endorsed by the Paris Commune urging
7854-399: The case for universal manhood suffrage . On 15 May, the Constituent Assembly declared full and equal citizenship for all free people of color . In the debate Robespierre said: "I feel that I am here to defend the rights of men; I cannot consent to any amendment and I ask that the principle be adopted in its entirety." He descended from the rostrum in the middle of the repeated applause of
7973-420: The citizens of their "recent defense of liberty", which paradoxically restricted their access to it. In October, alongside Louvet , Robespierre supported Maillard following the Women's March on Versailles . Initially, the group of female protesters conveyed a relatively conciliatory message, yet their ranks were soon reinforced by more militarized and seasoned male factions upon reaching Versailles. While
8092-450: The city, "liberty" (the revolution), maintain order and educate the members in democratic and republican principles, an idea he borrowed from Jean-Jacques Rousseau . According to Jean Jaures , he considered this even more important than the right to strike . On 29 May 1792, the Assembly dissolved the Constitutional Guard , suspecting it of royalist and counter-revolutionary sympathies. In early June 1792, Robespierre proposed an end to
8211-514: The country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio". When discussing
8330-410: The dictator of France, arbitrator of the state." On 2 July, the Assembly authorised the National Guard to go to the Festival of Federation on 14 July, circumventing a royal veto. On 11 July, the Jacobins won an emergency vote in the wavering Assembly, declaring the nation in danger and drafting all Parisians with pikes into the National Guard. On 15 July, Billaud-Varenne in the Jacobin club outlined
8449-422: The early hours of ( Friday, 10 August ) 30,000 Fédérés (volunteers hailing from the countryside) and sans-culottes (militant citizens from the Paris) orchestrated a successful assault upon the Tuileries. Robespierre considered it a triumph for the "passive" (non-voting) citizens. The Assembly, rattled by the events, suspended the king and sanctioned the election of a National Convention to supplant its authority. On
8568-406: The end of December, Guadet , the chairman of the Assembly, suggested that a war would be a benefit to the nation and boost the economy. He urged that France should declare war against Austria . Marat and Robespierre opposed him, arguing that victory would create a dictatorship, while defeat would restore the king to his former powers. The most extravagant idea that can arise in a politician's head
8687-425: The establishment of a provisional Revolutionary Tribunal specifically tasked with dealing with perceived "traitors" and " enemies of the people ". The following day, he was appointed as one of eight judges for this tribunal. However, citing a lack of impartiality, Robespierre declined to preside over it. This decision drew criticism. The Prussian army breached the French frontier on 19 August. To fortify defense,
8806-527: The first issue of his weekly periodical Le Défenseur de la Constitution ( The Defender of the Constitution ). In this publication, he criticized Brissot and expressed his skepticism over the war movement. The periodical, printed by his neighbor Nicolas, served multiple purposes: to print his speeches, to counter the influence of the royal court in public policy, and to defend him from the accusations of Girondist leaders; for Albert Soboul its purpose
8925-580: The first prize for rhetoric . His appreciation for the classics inspired him to aspire to Roman virtues, particularly the embodiment of Rousseau's citizen-soldier. Robespierre was drawn to the concepts of the influential philosophe regarding political reforms expounded in his work, Contrat Social . Aligning with Rousseau, he considered the general will of the people as the foundation of political legitimacy . Robespierre's vision of revolutionary virtue and his strategy for establishing political authority through direct democracy can be traced back to
9044-415: The hands of those who opposed the sovereignty of the people . The risks of Caesarism were clear: "in troubled periods of history, generals often became the arbiters of the fate of their countries." Already, Robespierre knew that he had lost, as he failed to gather a majority. His speech was nevertheless published and sent to all clubs and Jacobin societies of France. On 10 February 1792, Robespierre gave
9163-435: The idea not only the National Guard but also the people had to be armed. The Jacobins decided his speech would not be printed. The Declaration of Pillnitz (27 August 1791) from Austria and Prussia warned the people of France not to harm Louis XVI or these nations would "militarily intervene". Brissot rallied the support of the Legislative Assembly. As Jean-Paul Marat , Georges Danton and Robespierre were not elected in
9282-458: The idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb. Standard English in the United Kingdom, as in other English-speaking nations, is widely enforced in schools and by social norms for formal contexts but not by any singular authority; for instance, there is no institution equivalent to the Académie française with French or
9401-572: The ideologies of Montesquieu and Mably . While some claim Robespierre coincidentally met Rousseau before the latter's passing, others argue that this account was apocryphal . During his three-year study of law at the Sorbonne , Robespierre distinguished himself academically, culminating in his graduation in July 1780, where he received a special prize of 600 livres for his exceptional academic achievements and exemplary conduct. Admitted to
9520-523: The last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath or grass (i.e. barth or grarss ). Conversely crass or plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby , five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by
9639-737: The later 18th century by the English, (after their 1763 victory in the Seven Years' War ). After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the French Roman Catholic Church conducted a strong Counter-Reformation effort. In 1793, this effort had contributed to the three-year-long open revolt against the French Revolutionary Government in the Bas-Poitou (Département of Vendée ). Similarly, during Napoleon 's Hundred Days in 1815,
9758-518: The later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary . Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of
9877-535: The left and of all the tribunes. On 16–18 May when the elections began, Robespierre proposed and carried the motion that no deputy who sat in the Constituent assembly could sit in the succeeding Legislative assembly . A tactical purpose of this self-denying ordinance was to block the ambitions of the old leaders of the Jacobins, Antoine Barnave , Adrien Duport , and Alexandre de Lameth , aspiring to create
9996-457: The mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian . It is
10115-463: The modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages , influence on English was notably limited . However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting
10234-402: The monarchy and the subordination of the Assembly to the general will . The monarchy faced an abortive demonstration of 20 June . Because French forces suffered disastrous defeats and a series of defections at the onset of the war, Robespierre and Marat feared the possibility of a military coup d'état . One was led by Lafayette, head of the National Guard, who at the end of June advocated
10353-730: The new Society of the Friends of the Constitution , commonly known as the Jacobin Club. Originally, this organisation (the Club Breton ) comprised only deputies from Brittany, but after the National Assembly had moved to Paris, the group admitted non-deputies. Among these 1,200 men, Robespierre found a sympathetic audience. Equality before the law was the keystone of the Jacobin ideology. Beginning in October and continuing through January he made several speeches in response to proposals for property qualifications for voting and officeholding under
10472-761: The new legislature, thanks to the Self-Denying Ordinance, oppositional politics often took place outside the Assembly. On 18 December 1791, Robespierre gave a second speech at the Jacobin club against the declaration of war. Robespierre warned against the threat of dictatorship stemming from war: If they are Caesars , Catilines or Cromwells , they seize power for themselves. If they are spineless courtiers, uninterested in doing good yet dangerous when they seek to do harm, they go back to lay their power at their master's feet and help him to resume arbitrary power on condition they become his chief servants. At
10591-660: The next nine months they gradually eliminated their opponents and gained control of the Convention. On 21 September, Pétion was elected as president of the Convention. The Montagnard Jacobins and Cordeliers took the high benches at the back of the former Salle du Manège , giving them the label the Montagnards ("the Mountain"); below them were the " Manège " of the Girondists, the moderate Republicans. The majority
10710-546: The night of 11 August. Robespierre secured a position in the Paris Commune, representing the Section de Piques , his residential district. The governing committee advocated for the convening of a Convention, selected via universal male suffrage , tasked with establishing a new government and restructering France. Despite Camille Desmoulins' belief that the turmoil had concluded, Robespierre asserted that it marked merely
10829-549: The officer and engineer Lazare Carnot and the teacher Joseph Fouché , all of whom would hold significance in his later endeavors. His role as the secretary of the Academy of Arras connected him with François-Noël Babeuf , a revolutionary land surveyor in the region. In August 1788, King Louis XVI declared new elections for all provinces and summoned the Estates-General to convene on 1 May 1789, aiming to address France's grave financial and taxation woes. Engaging in discussions on
10948-618: The officer class and the king. On 23 April Robespierre demanded that Marquis de Lafayette , the head of the Army of the Centre , step down. While arguing for the welfare of common soldiers, Robespierre urged new promotions to mitigate the domination of the officer class by the aristocratic and royalist École Militaire and the conservative National Guard. Along with other Jacobins, he urged the creation of an " armée révolutionnaire " in Paris, consisting of at least 20,000–23,000 men, to defend
11067-405: The prize.) In 1786 Robespierre passionately addressed inequality before the law , criticizing the indignities faced by illegitimate or natural children , and later denouncing practices like lettres de cachet (imprisonment without a trial) and the marginalization of women in academic circles. Robespierre's social circle expanded to include influential figures such as the lawyer Martial Herman ,
11186-521: The program for the next insurrection: the deportation of the Bourbons and "enemies of the people", the cleansing of the National Guard, the election of a Convention, the "transfer of the Royal veto to the people", and exemption of the poorest from taxation. On 24 July a "Central Office of Co-ordination" was formed and the sections received the right to be in a "permanent" session. On 25 July, according to
11305-451: The proposed constitution. This was a position he vigorously opposed, arguing in a speech on 22 October the position that he derived from Rousseau : "sovereignty resides in the people, in all the individuals of the people. Each individual therefore has the right to participate in making the law which governs him and in the administration of the public good which is his own. If not, it is not true that all men are equal in rights, that every man
11424-565: The role of a judge at the Versailles tribunal. Following the 5 October Women's March on Versailles and the forcible relocation of the King and National Constituent Assembly from Versailles to Paris, Robespierre lived at 30 Rue de Saintonge in Le Marais , a district with relatively wealthy inhabitants. He shared an apartment on the third floor with Pierre Villiers who was his secretary for several months. Robespierre associated with
11543-478: The sections were ordered to search in every suspect house for weapons, munitions, swords, carriages, and horses. "As a result of this inquisition, more than 1,000 "suspects" were added to the immense body of political prisoners already confined in the jails and convents of the city". Marat and Robespierre both disliked Condorcet who proposed that the " enemies of the people " belonged to the whole nation and should be judged constitutionally in its name. On 30 August
11662-519: The selection of the French provincial government, Robespierre advocated in his Address to the Nation of Artois that reverting to the former mode of election by the members of the provincial estates would fail to adequately represent the people of France in the new Estates-General . In his electoral district , Robespierre began to assert his influence in politics through his Notice to the Residents of
11781-401: The spoken language. Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as is the case for English used by European Union institutions. In China, both British English and American English are taught. The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around the world and operates in over 200 countries . English is
11900-422: The suppression of the Jacobin Club. Robespierre publicly attacked him in scathing terms: "General, while from the midst of your camp you declared war upon me, which you had thus far spared for the enemies of our state, while you denounced me as an enemy of liberty to the army, National Guard and Nation in letters published by your purchased papers, I had thought myself only disputing with a general... but not yet
12019-603: The theft of work tools worth £500 from a van at the Sprucefield park and ride car park in Lisburn. A football team can be treated likewise: Arsenal have lost just one of 20 home Premier League matches against Manchester City. This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century. For example, Jane Austen , a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of Pride and Prejudice , published in 1813: All
12138-620: The town hall to proceed the election of deputies to the National Convention, decided to maintain their seats and have Roland and Brissot arrested. On 2 September, the 1792 French National Convention election began. Paris was organising its defence, but it was confronted with lack of arms for the thousands of volunteers. Danton delivered a speech in the assembly and possibly referring to the Swiss inmates: "We ask that anyone who refuses to serve in person, or surrender their weapons,
12257-403: The traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne , 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are diphthongised to [ɪi] and [ʊu] respectively (or, more technically, [ʏʉ], with a raised tongue), so that ee and oo in feed and food are pronounced with a movement. The diphthong [oʊ] is also pronounced with
12376-750: The varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon , eventually came to dominate. The original Old English was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman . These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it
12495-470: The views he expressed earned him the nickname l'Incorruptible . According to his friend, the surgeon Joseph Souberbielle , Joachim Vilate , and Duplay's daughter Élisabeth, Robespierre became engaged to Duplay's eldest daughter Éléonore , but his sister Charlotte vigorously denied this; his brother Augustin refused to marry her. On 3 September, the French Constitution of 1791
12614-434: The war, Robespierre was also accused of acting as a secret agent for the " Austrian Committee ". The Girondins planned strategies to out-maneuver Robespierre's influence among the Jacobins. On 27 April, as part of his speech responding to the accusations by Brissot and Guadet against him, he threatened to leave the Jacobins, claiming he preferred to continue his mission as an ordinary citizen. On 17 May, Robespierre released
12733-568: The world are good and agreeable in your eyes. However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used. The world is blinded by his fortune and consequence. Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives . Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence. While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows
12852-564: The writings having to be subject to censorship or inspection prior to their publication..." Pétion and Robespierre were brought back in triumph to their homes. On 16 October, Robespierre held a speech in Arras; one week later in Béthune , a small town he wished to settle. He went to a meeting of the Society of Friends of the Constitution , which was held on Sundays. On 28 November, he was back in
12971-537: Was a French lawyer and statesman, widely recognized as one of the most influential and controversial figures of the French Revolution . Robespierre fervently campaigned for the voting rights of all men and their unimpeded admission to the National Guard . Additionally, he advocated the right to petition , the right to bear arms in self-defence, and the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade . He
13090-656: Was a radical Jacobin leader who came to prominence as a member of the Committee of Public Safety , an administrative body of the First French Republic . His legacy has been heavily influenced by his actual or perceived participation in repression of the Revolution's opponents, but is notable for his progressive views for the time. As one of the prominent members of the Paris Commune , Robespierre
13209-443: Was accepted, ten days later by the King also. On 30 September, the day of the dissolution of the Assembly, Robespierre opposed Jean Le Chapelier , who wanted to proclaim an end to the revolution and restrict freedom of expression . He succeeded in getting any requirement for inspection out of the constitution's guarantee of freedom of expression: "The freedom of every man to speak, to write, to print and publish his thoughts, without
13328-525: Was accused of conspicuous consumption by Desmoulins, and finally rallied to Brissot. On 5 September, Robespierre was elected deputy to the National Convention but Danton and Collot d'Herbois received more votes than Robespierre. Madame Roland wrote to a friend: "We are under the knife of Robespierre and Marat, those who would agitate the people." The election was not the triumph for the Montagnard Jacobins that they had anticipated, but during
13447-595: Was baptised on 6 May 1758 in Arras , Artois . His father, François Maximilien Barthélémy de Robespierre, a lawyer, married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer, in January 1758. Maximilien, the eldest of four children, was born four months later. His siblings were Charlotte Robespierre , Henriette Robespierre, and Augustin Robespierre . Robespierre's mother died on 16 July 1764, after delivering
13566-505: Was elected as a deputy to the National Convention in early September 1792. He joined the radical Montagnards , a left-wing faction . However, he faced criticism for purportedly trying to establish either a triumvirate or a dictatorship . In April 1793, Robespierre advocated the mobilization of a sans-culotte army aiming at enforcing revolutionary laws and eliminating any counter-revolutionary elements. This call led to
13685-422: Was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g. swine (like
13804-408: Was not allowed to the bar before the jury had spoken their verdict . Robespierre was responsible for the coordination of the local and the federal police in the department and the sections. On 26 March, Guadet accused Robespierre of superstition, relying on divine providence . Shortly after Robespierre was accused by Brissot and Guadet of "trying to become the idol of the people". Being against
13923-410: Was regarded as too aristocratic. He demanded the reconstitution of the National Guard on a democratic basis, to abolish the use of decorations and to allow an equal number of officers and soldiers in the court martial . He felt that the National Guard had to become the instrument of defending liberty and no longer be a threat to it. In the same month Robespierre published a pamphlet in which he argued
14042-642: Was ruled by the count of Poitou , a continuous line of which can be traced back to an appointment of Charlemagne in 778. A marshland called the Poitevin Marsh (French Marais Poitevin ) is located along the Gulf of Poitou , on the west coast of France, just north of La Rochelle and west of Niort . At the conclusion of the Battle of Taillebourg in the Saintonge War , which was decisively won by
14161-399: Was to give voice to the economic and democratic interests of the broader masses in Paris and defend their rights. When the Legislative Assembly declared war against Austria on 20 April 1792, Robespierre stated that the French people must arm themselves, whether to fight abroad or to prevent despotism at home. An isolated Robespierre responded by working to reduce the political influence of
#790209