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128-540: Political communication has existed since antiquity . During this era it was common for rulers to use symbols and monuments to communicate power and authority to the masses. In ancient Greece, public speeches such as those delivered by Pericles in Athens, played a crucial role in shaping political discourse and rallying public support for war efforts. During the era of the Roman Empire, political communication took on

256-434: A res publica as long as it continued to use Latin as its official language. Rome acquired imperial character de facto from the 130s BC with the acquisition of Cisalpine Gaul , Illyria , Greece and Hispania , and definitely with the addition of Iudaea , Asia Minor and Gaul during the 1st century BC. At the time of the empire's maximal extension during the reign of Trajan (AD 117), Rome controlled

384-582: A U.S. administration, are at best visionary and without any real practical use”. As explained by Hussein Amin from the American University of Cairo, “-because many people view censorship as a sign of social responsibility, civil society has a deep distrust of itself. While admitting that political communication in the mass media has diversified and developed some more liberal patterns in recent years”. In general, “Mass media have long been linked to

512-449: A barrier to their right to expression. Within the context of personal interactions, some strategies for debunking have the potential to be effective. Simply delivering facts is frequently ineffective because misinformation belief is often not the result of a deficit of accurate information, although individuals may be more likely to change their beliefs in response to information shared by someone with whom they have close social ties, like

640-552: A contributing factor to misinformation belief. One study found that an individual's recollection of political events could be altered when presented with misinformation about the event, even when primed to identify warning signs of misinformation. Misinformation may also be appealing by seeming novel or incorporating existing steoreotypes . Research has yielded a number of strategies that can be employed to identify misinformation, many of which share common features. According to Anne Mintz, editor of Web of Deception: Misinformation on

768-514: A division between movers and shakers at the top and bystanders below." However, one way that contemporary media has tried to combat the imbalances of political communication is through the creation of public access television. According to a study done, Access Television and Grassroots Political Communication in the United States, by Dr. Laura Stein "public access has opened up a space for grassroots political communication on television" this

896-527: A friend or family member. More effective strategies focus on instilling doubt and encouraging people to examine the roots of their beliefs. In these situations, tone can also play a role: expressing empathy and understanding can keep communication channels open. It is important to remember that beliefs are driven not just by facts but by emotion, worldview, intuition, social pressure , and many other factors. Fact-checking and debunking can be done in one-on-one interactions, but when this occurs on social media it

1024-559: A lack of field studies, the presence of testing effects that impede intervention longevity and scalability, modest effects for small fractions of relevant audiences, reliance on item evaluation tasks as primary efficacy measures, low replicability in the Global South and a lack of audience-tailored interventions, and the underappreciation of potential unintended consequences of intervention implementation. Websites have been created to help people to discern fact from fiction. For example,

1152-709: A more sophisticated form with the use of propaganda , rhetoric , and public spectacles in order to try and influence public opinion. Figures famed for their political communication skills include Cicero . After the creation of the print media with the dawn of the modern printing press in modern industrial Britain , this led to the ability to create modern mass media in the 20th century, which transformed political communication, giving rise to new forms of propaganda, advertising, and public relations. Political leaders such as Winston Churchill and Franklin. D. Roosevelt utilized radio broadcasts to reach millions of listeners during times of crisis and war. Edward Herman notes that

1280-582: A research study of Facebook found that misinformation was more likely to be clicked on than factual information. Moreover, the advent of the Internet has changed traditional ways that misinformation spreads. During the 2016 United States presidential election , content from websites deemed 'untrustworthy' reached up to 40% of Americans, despite misinformation making up only 6% of overall news media. Misinformation has been spread during many health crises. For example, misinformation about alternative treatments

1408-761: A result of the crisis of the third century . During Late antiquity Christianity became increasingly popular, finally ousting the Roman imperial cult with the Theodosian decrees of 393. Successive invasions of Germanic tribes finalized the weakening of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century, while the Eastern Roman Empire persisted throughout the Middle Ages , in a state called Romania by its citizens, and designated

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1536-643: A series of conflicts of the 4th and 3rd centuries, the Samnite Wars , Latin War , and Pyrrhic War . Roman victory in the Punic Wars and Macedonian Wars established Rome as a super-regional power by the 2nd century BC, followed by the acquisition of Greece and Asia Minor . This tremendous increase of power was accompanied by economic instability and social unrest, resulting in the Catiline conspiracy ,

1664-688: A short deadline can lead to factual errors and mistakes. An example of such is the Chicago Tribune ' s infamous 1948 headline " Dewey Defeats Truman ". Social media platforms allow for easy spread of misinformation. Post-election surveys in 2016 suggest that many individuals who intake false information on social media believe them to be factual. The specific reasons why misinformation spreads through social media so easily remain unknown. A 2018 study of Twitter determined that, compared to accurate information, false information spread significantly faster, further, deeper, and more broadly. Similarly,

1792-754: A topic, the processes of researching and presenting information, or have critical evaluation skills are more likely to correctly identify misinformation. However, these are not always direct relationships. Higher overall literacy does not always lead to improved ability to detect misinformation. Context clues can also significantly impact people's ability to detect misinformation. Martin Libicki , author of Conquest In Cyberspace: National Security and Information Warfare , notes that readers should aim to be skeptical but not cynical. Readers should not be gullible , believing everything they read without question, but also should not be paranoid that everything they see or read

1920-607: Is deliberately deceptive and propagated. Misinformation can include inaccurate, incomplete, misleading, or false information as well as selective or half-truths. In January 2024, the World Economic Forum identified misinformation and disinformation, propagated by both internal and external interests, to "widen societal and political divides" as the most severe global risks within the next two years. Much research on how to correct misinformation has focused on fact-checking . However, this can be challenging because

2048-503: Is "purposeful communication about politics." For McNair, this means that this not only covers verbal or written statements, but also visual representations such as dress attire, make-up, hairstyle or logo design. In other words, it also includes all those aspects that develop a "political identity" or "image". According to Harald Borgebund, the author of Political Communication and the Realities of Democracy , "Political communication

2176-433: Is a collective ignorance on how harmful image-based posts are compared to other types of misinformation. Social media platforms allow for easy spread of misinformation. The specific reasons why misinformation spreads through social media so easily remain unknown. Agent-based models and other computational models have been used by researchers to explain how false beliefs spread through networks. Epistemic network analysis

2304-616: Is because public access communication has allowed for an open space in a variety of fields of communication no matter the speakers ideological view points. In regards to the Political Strategic Communication in The USA one example is The Bush Administration 's torture-for-intelligence policy, initiated soon after 9/11 , which was kept secret for several years, as remains the level of complicity of many other nation-states' governments. While this secret policy

2432-447: Is becoming increasingly important in electoral politics. Social media experience relies heavily on the user themselves due to the platforms' algorithms which tailor consumer experience for each user. This results in each person seeing more like-minded news due to the increase in digital social behavior. Additionally, social media has changed politics because it has given politicians a direct medium to give their constituents information and

2560-421: Is disseminated in order to hurt someone or their reputation. Examples include doxing , revenge porn , and editing videos to remove important context or content. Misinformation is information that was originally thought to be true but was later discovered not to be true, and often applies to emerging situations in which there is a lack of verifiable information or changing scientific understanding. For example,

2688-552: Is essential in a democratic polity." Reflecting on the relationship between political communication and contemporary agenda-building, Vian Bakir defines Strategic Political Communication (SPC) as comprising 'political communication that is manipulative in intent, utilizes social scientific techniques and heuristic devices to understand human motivation , human behavior and the media environment in order to inform effectively what should be communicated – encompassing its detail and overall direction – and what should be withheld, with

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2816-404: Is false. Factors that contribute to the effectiveness of a corrective message include an individual's mental model or worldview , repeated exposure to the misinformation, time between misinformation and correction, credibility of the sources, and relative coherency of the misinformation and corrective message. Corrective messages will be more effective when they are coherent and/or consistent with

2944-436: Is likely that other people may encounter and read the interaction, potentially learning new information from it or examining their own beliefs. This type of correction has been termed social correction. Researchers have identified three ways to increase the efficacy of these social corrections for observers. First, corrections should include a link to a credible source of relevant information, like an expert organization. Second,

3072-452: Is not the source of a message, but its content and purpose." David L. Swanson and Dan Nimmo define political communication as "the strategic use of communication to influence public knowledge, beliefs, and action on political matters." They emphasize the strategic nature of political communication, highlighting the role of persuasion in political discourse . Brian McNair provides a similar definition when he writes that political communication

3200-474: Is often considered to begin with the earliest recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer (8th–7th-century BC) and ends with the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. Such a wide span of history and territory covers many disparate cultures and periods. Classical antiquity may also refer to an idealized vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe 's words, "the glory that was Greece, and

3328-682: Is often used as an umbrella term to refer to many types of false information; more specifically it may refer to false information that is not shared to intentionally deceive or cause harm. Those who do not know that a piece of information is untrue, for instance, might disseminate it on social media in an effort to help. Disinformation is created or spread by a person or organization actively attempting to deceive their audience. In addition to causing harm directly, disinformation can also cause indirect harm by undermining trust and obstructing the capacity to effectively communicate information with one another. Disinformation might consist of information that

3456-475: Is one example of a computational method for evaluating connections in data shared in a social media network or similar network. Researchers fear that misinformation in social media is "becoming unstoppable." It has also been observed that misinformation and disinformation reappear on social media sites. Misinformation spread by bots has been difficult for social media platforms to address. Sites such as Facebook have algorithms that have been proven to further

3584-491: Is one of the main platforms from which individuals acquire their news, and allows them to interact with it via commenting and sharing. Social media has dramatically changed the way in which modern political campaigns are run. With more digital native citizens coming into the voting population, social media has become an important medium where politicians can establish themselves and engage with voters. In an increasingly digitized world, new research has shown that social media

3712-463: Is partially or completely fabricated, taken out of context on purpose, exaggerated, or omits crucial details. Disinformation can appear in any medium including text, audio, and imagery. The distinction between mis- and dis-information can be muddy because the intent of someone sharing false information can be difficult to discern. Malinformation is accurate information that is disseminated with malicious intent. This includes sensitive material that

3840-561: The Byzantine Empire by later historians. Hellenistic philosophy was succeeded by continued development of Platonism and Epicureanism , with Neoplatonism in due course influencing the theology of the Christian Church Fathers . Many writers have attempted to name a specific date for the symbolic "end" of antiquity, with the most prominent dates being the deposing of the last Western Roman Emperor in 476,

3968-615: The Byzantine Papacy . The Eastern Roman empire's capital city Constantinople remained the only unconquered large urban site of the original Roman empire, as well as being the largest city in Europe. Yet many classical books, sculptures, and technologies survived there along with classical Roman cuisine and scholarly traditions, well into the Middle Ages, when much of it was "rediscovered" by visiting Western crusaders. Indeed,

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4096-524: The Catholic Church in particular maintained Latin language, culture, and literacy for centuries; to this day the popes are termed Pontifex Maximus which during the classical period was a title belonging to the emperor, and the ideal of Christendom continued the legacy of a united European civilization even after its political unity had ended. The political idea of an Emperor in the West to match

4224-747: The Facebook-Cambridge Analytica scandal which was found to have assisted Donald Trump 's election campaign unethically by mining user's Facebook data, leading to a further distrust of corporate and political institutions. An outline of key areas of political communication study are: James Chesebro , further suggests five critical approaches to the modern study of Political Communication: Robert E. Denton and Gary C. Woodward , via their work in Political Communication in America, define Political communication as

4352-500: The Information Age , social networking sites have become a notable agent for the spread of misinformation, fake news , and propaganda. Social media sites have changed their algorithms to prevent the spread of fake news but the problem still exists. Image posts are the biggest spread of misinformation on social media, a fact which is grossly unrepresented in research. This leads to a "yawning gap of knowledge" as there

4480-578: The Muslim conquests of the 7th century finalized the irreversible loss of all the largest Eastern Roman imperial cities besides the capital itself. The emperor Heraclius in Constantinople , who reigned during this period, conducted his court in Greek, not Latin, though Greek had always been an administrative language of the eastern Roman regions. Eastern-Western associations weakened with the ending of

4608-607: The Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, resulting the integration of Latins and Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, though settlements on the Palatine Hill may date back to the 10th century BC. According to legend, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus . As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and

4736-719: The Social War and the First Triumvirate , and finally the transformation to the Roman Empire during the latter half of the 1st century BC. The precise end of the Republic is disputed by modern historians; Roman citizens of the time did not recognize that the Republic had ceased to exist. The early Julio-Claudian Emperors maintained that the res publica still existed, albeit protected by their extraordinary powers, and would eventually return to its earlier Republican form. The Roman state continued to term itself

4864-696: The Spanish Armada sailed to fight the English. The Spanish postmaster and Spanish agents in Rome promoted reports of Spanish victory in hopes of convincing Pope Sixtus V to release his promised one million ducats upon landing of troops. In France, the Spanish and English ambassadors promoted contradictory narratives in the press, and a Spanish victory was incorrectly celebrated in Paris, Prague, and Venice. It

4992-588: The United Kingdom and the United States , with dedicated 'briefing rooms' whereby members of government address and communicate with the countries' press, which have also come to be known as spin rooms . Now, during the digital age , political communication has come to include the use of online platforms like social media , free online video services like YouTube where news channels can post freely, and online News Websites , which has changed how

5120-653: The classical era , classical period , classical age , or simply antiquity , is the period of cultural European history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the interwoven civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known together as the Greco-Roman world , centered on the Mediterranean Basin . It is the period during which ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished and had major influence throughout much of Europe , North Africa , and West Asia . Conventionally, it

5248-588: The classical orders of architecture. The philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas was derived largely from that of Aristotle , despite the intervening change in religion from Hellenic Polytheism to Christianity . Greek and Roman authorities such as Hippocrates and Galen formed the basis of the practice of medicine even longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy. In the French theater , playwrights such as Molière and Racine wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to

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5376-519: The information deficit model does not necessarily apply well to beliefs in misinformation. Various researchers have also investigated what makes people susceptible to misinformation. People may be more prone to believe misinformation because they are emotionally connected to what they are listening to or are reading. Social media has made information readily available to society at anytime, and it connects vast groups of people along with their information at one time. Advances in technology have impacted

5504-438: The political spectrum , with right-wing readers more concerned with attempts to hide reality. It can be difficult to undo the effects of misinformation once individuals believe it to be true. Individuals may desire to reach a certain conclusion, causing them to accept information that supports that conclusion, and are more likely to retain and share information if it emotionally resonates with them. The SIFT Method, also called

5632-620: The red-figure style , developed by the Andokides Painter in about 530 BC. Greek colonisation refers to the expansion of Archaic Greeks , particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BC , across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea . The Etruscans had established political control in the region by the late 7th-century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power in

5760-484: The 18th and 19th centuries. The earliest period of classical antiquity occurs during a time of gradual resurgence of historical sources after the Late Bronze Age collapse . The 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely protohistorical , with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing during the first half of the 8th century. The legendary poet Homer is usually assumed to have lived during

5888-634: The 1980s was the propaganda model . In 1988 Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky theorized that the interests of globalized elites were warping the journalistic integrity of the mass media and its attempts to communicate news, using the United States Corporate media (and its basis in the British Corporate-Capitalist model) to critique modern Western communications, looking at the communications in relation to Capitalism and Neo-Imperialism . They suggest that

6016-566: The 19th century. John Milton and even Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic educations in Latin. Genres like epic poetry, pastoral verse, and the frequent use of characters and themes from Greek mythology affected Western literature greatly. In architecture, there have been several Greek Revivals , which seem more inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek. Washington, DC has many large marble buildings with façades made to look like Greek temples , with columns constructed in

6144-932: The 8th or 7th century BC, and his lifetime is often considered as the beginning of classical antiquity. During the same period is the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games , in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from ports in Canaan , by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean . Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had established strongholds in Sicily , Italy and Sardinia , which created conflicts of interest with Etruria . A stele found in Kition , Cyprus commemorates

6272-532: The Australian voting population active on social media, political parties are adapting quickly to influence and connect with their voters. Studies have found that journalists in Australia widely use social media in a professional context and that it has become a viable method of communication between the mainstream media and wider audiences. Classical antiquity Classical antiquity , also known as

6400-653: The Dark Ages). In pottery, the Archaic period sees the development of the Orientalizing style , which signals a shift from the geometric style of the later Dark Ages and the accumulation of influences derived from Egypt, Phoenicia and Syria . Pottery styles associated with the later part of the Archaic age are the black-figure pottery , which originated in Corinth during the 7th-century BC and its successor,

6528-610: The Eastern Roman capital ( first in 674–78 and then in 717–18 ) severed the economic, cultural, and political links that had traditionally united the classical cultures around the Mediterranean, ending antiquity (see Pirenne Thesis ). The original Roman Senate continued to express decrees into the late 6th century, and the last Eastern Roman emperor to use Latin as the language of his court in Constantinople

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6656-583: The Emperor in the East continued after the Western Roman Empire's collapse; it was revived by the coronation of Charlemagne in 800; the self-described Holy Roman Empire ruled central Europe until 1806. The Renaissance idea that the classical Roman virtues had been lost as a result of medievalism was especially powerful in European politics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Reverence for Roman republicanism

6784-521: The Four Moves, is one commonly taught method of distinguishing between reliable and unreliable information. This method instructs readers to first Stop and begin to ask themselves about what they are reading or viewing - do they know the source and if it is reliable? Second, readers should Investigate the source. What is the source's relevant expertise and do they have an agenda? Third, a reader should Find better coverage and look for reliable coverage on

6912-578: The Great in 323 BC. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias , son of Peisistratos . Cleomenes I , king of Sparta, established a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras . The Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BC), concluded by the Peace of Callias ended with not only the liberation of Greece, Macedon , Thrace , and Ionia from Persian rule , but also with

7040-523: The Greeks. Fathers had great power over their children, and husbands over their wives. In fact, the word family, familia in Latin, actually referred to those who were subject to the authority of a male head of household. This included non-related members such as slaves and servants. By marriage, both men and women shared property. Divorce was allowed first during the first century BC and could be done by either man or woman. The Roman Empire began to weaken as

7168-691: The Information Environment was launched in 2023 as a consortium of over 250 scientists working to develop effective countermeasures to misinformation and other problems created by perverse incentives in organizations disseminating information via the Internet. There also is research and development of platform-built-in as well browser -integrated (currently in the form of addons ) misinformation mitigation. This includes quality/neutrality/reliability ratings for news sources. Misplaced Pages's perennial sources page categorizes many large news sources by reliability. Researchers have also demonstrated

7296-572: The Internet , one of the simplest ways to determine whether information is factual is to use common sense . Mintz advises that the reader check whether the information makes sense and whether the source or sharers of the information might be biased or have an agenda. However, because emotions and preconceptions heavily impact belief, this is not always a reliable strategy. Readers tend to distinguish between unintentional misinformation and uncertain evidence from politically or financially motivated misinformation. The perception of misinformation depends on

7424-521: The Senate and had Superbus and the monarchy expelled from Rome in 510 BC. After Superbus' expulsion, the Senate in 509 BC voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government . The classical period of Ancient Greece corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, in particular, from the end of the Athenian tyranny in 510 BC to the death of Alexander

7552-558: The United Nations must be transformed into more dynamic communications efforts.”, "This required missions to better understand key audiences, make better use of national staff, embrace technology, train leaders in effective communication, proactively engage with local populations, and tailor both the message and means of communication to particular audiences." The Middle East In the Middle East, “even those supported by

7680-441: The aim of taking into account and influencing public opinion , and creating strategic alliances and an enabling environment for government policies – both at home and abroad'. To further expand on why political communication can be viewed as manipulative, Michael Gurevitch and Jay G. Blumler , contributors of Political Communication Systems and Democratic Values stated that "the very structure of political communication involves

7808-569: The area by the late 6th-century BC, and at this time, the Italic tribes reinvented their government by creating republics , with greater restraints on the ability of individual rulers to exercise power. According to legend, Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas , Romulus and Remus . As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited

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7936-933: The audience's worldview. They will be less effective when misinformation is believed to come from a credible source, is repeated prior to correction (even if the repetition occurs in the process of debunking), and/or when there is a time lag between the misinformation exposure and corrective message. Additionally, corrective messages delivered by the original source of the misinformation tend to be more effective. However, misinformation research has often been criticized for its emphasis on efficacy (i.e., demonstrating effects of interventions in controlled experiments) over effectiveness (i.e., confirming real-world impacts of these interventions). Critics argue that while laboratory settings may show promising results, these do not always translate into practical, everyday situations where misinformation spreads. Research has identified several major challenges in this field: an overabundance of lab research and

8064-431: The claim at hand to understand if there is a consensus around the issue. Finally, a reader should Trace claims, quotes, or media to their original context: has important information been omitted, or is the original source questionable? Visual misinformation presents particular challenges, but there are some effective strategies for identification. Misleading graphs and charts can be identified through careful examination of

8192-463: The closing of the last Platonic Academy in Athens by the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I in 529, and the conquest of much of the Mediterranean by the new Muslim faith from 634 to 718. These Muslim conquests, of Syria (637), Egypt (639), Cyprus (654), North Africa (665), Hispania (718), Southern Gaul (720), Crete (820), and Sicily (827), Malta (870), as well as the sieges of

8320-403: The correct information should be repeated, for example at the beginning and end of the comment or response. Third, an alternative explanation should be offered. An effective social correction in response to a statement that chili peppers can cure COVID-19 might look something like: “Hot peppers in your food, though very tasty, cannot prevent or cure COVID-19. The best way to protect yourself against

8448-927: The correction perceive its accuracy. While social correction has the potential to reach a wider audience with correct information, it can also potentially amplify an original post containing misinformation. Unfortunately, misinformation typically spreads more readily than fact-checking. Further, even if misinformation is corrected, that does not mean it is forgotten or does not influence people's thoughts. Another approach, called prebunking, aims to "inoculate" against misinformation by showing people examples of misinformation and how it works before they encounter it. While prebunking can involve fact-based correction, it focuses more on identifying common logical fallacies (e.g., emotional appeals to manipulate individuals' perceptions and judgments, false dichotomies , or ad hominem fallacies ) and tactics used to spread misinformation as well as common misinformation sources. Research about

8576-690: The creation of a new Greek state in 1832. After the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the Russian Czars (a title derived from Caesar) claimed the Byzantine legacy as the champion of Orthodoxy ; Moscow was described as the " Third Rome ", and the Czars ruled as divinely appointed Emperors into the 20th century. Despite the fact that the Western Roman secular authority disappeared entirely in Europe, it still left traces. The Papacy and

8704-663: The cultures of Persia , the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah , Central Asia and Egypt . Significant advances were made in the sciences ( geography , astronomy , mathematics , etc.), notably with the followers of Aristotle ( Aristotelianism ). The Hellenistic period ended with the increase of the Roman Republic to a super-regional power during the 2nd century BC and the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC. The Republican period of Ancient Rome began with

8832-523: The data presentation; for example, truncated axes or poor color choices can cause confusion. Reverse image searching can reveal whether images have been taken out of their original context. There are currently some somewhat reliable ways to identify AI -generated imagery, but it is likely that this will become more difficult to identify as the technology advances. A person's formal education level and media literacy do correlate with their ability to recognize misinformation. People who are familiar with

8960-488: The disappearance of imperial authority in the west. This tendency reached its maximum when Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" in the year 800, an act which resulted in the formation of the Holy Roman Empire . The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state the jurisdiction of which extended through

9088-412: The dominance of Athens in the Delian League , which resulted in conflict with Sparta and the Peloponnesian League , resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), ending with a Spartan victory. Greece began the 4th century with Spartan hegemony , but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers dismissed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost its naval supremacy. Athens , Argos , Thebes and Corinth ,

9216-415: The effective and efficient use of the information available on social media. An emerging trend in the online information environment is "a shift away from public discourse to private, more ephemeral, messaging ", which is a challenge to counter misinformation. Pew Research reports shared that approximately one in four American adults admitted to sharing misinformation on their social media platforms. In

9344-566: The efficacy of prebunking has shown promising results. A report by the Royal Society in the UK lists additional potential or proposed countermeasures: Broadly described, the report recommends building resilience to scientific misinformation and a healthy online information environment and not having offending content removed. It cautions that censorship could e.g. drive misinformation and associated communities "to harder-to-address corners of

9472-520: The entire Mediterranean as well as Gaul, parts of Germania and Britannia , the Balkans , Dacia , Asia Minor, the Caucasus , and Mesopotamia . Culturally, the Roman Empire was significantly Hellenized , but also incorporated syncretic "eastern" traditions, such as Mithraism , Gnosticism , and most notably Christianity . Classical Rome had vast differences within their family life compared to

9600-585: The entire civilized western world. That model continued to exist in Constantinople for the entirety of the Middle Ages, where the Byzantine Emperor was considered the sovereign of the entire Christian world. The Patriarch of Constantinople was the Empire's highest-ranked cleric, but even he was subordinate to the emperor, who was "God's Vicegerent on Earth". The Greek-speaking Byzantines and their descendants continued to call themselves " Romioi " until

9728-527: The expensive nature of the printing press meant that early on in the technology's existence, labour and co-operative organisations were easily priced out of press media markets due to funding issues, meaning that corporations obtained an early grip on the market. Herman therefore states that this meant that early on in the mass media of Britain, corporate right-wing voices that would self-select editors to run their publications, essentially stopped organised working class and left-wing voices from participating in

9856-426: The feasibility of falsity scores for popular and official figures by developing such for over 800 contemporary elites on Twitter as well as associated exposure scores. Strategies that may be more effective for lasting correction of false beliefs include focusing on intermediaries (such as convincing activists or politicians who are credible to the people who hold false beliefs, or promoting intermediaries who have

9984-540: The fringes of India . The classical Greek period conventionally ends at the death of Alexander in 323 BC and the fragmentation of his empire, which was at this time divided among the Diadochi . Greece began the Hellenistic period with the increasing power of Macedon and the conquests of Alexander the Great . Greek became the lingua franca far beyond Greece itself, and Hellenistic culture interacted with

10112-652: The globalized American corporate media and how it organically acts in the interests of corporate elites , specifically in an anti-democratic way. Therefore, Herman and Chomsky argue that the interests of the corporate elite (trying to profit maximize) are not often interested in the democratic rights of citizens and therefore create a new form of propaganda (via the mass media of privately owned news corporations), which has damaging effects on different democratic governments i.e. The United States Government . Social media has become an increasingly important tool for political communication. For certain demographics it

10240-451: The grandeur that was Rome". The culture of the ancient Greeks , together with some influences from the ancient Near East , was the basis of art, philosophy, society, and education in the Mediterranean and Near East until the Roman imperial period . The Romans preserved, imitated, and spread this culture throughout Europe, until they were able to compete with it. This Greco-Roman cultural foundation has been immensely influential on

10368-464: The historical development and emergence of national identities and the modern nation-state by creating bounded spaces of political communication and discourse". In cases of on-going war like Syria and Palestine, the majority of media formats are censored towards the Middle East in order to avoid further catastrophization of an event, possibly by the West. For example, in Syria, 'The Rebel Free Syrian Army'

10496-672: The hypotheses that believers in misinformation use more cognitive heuristics and less-effortfull processing of information have produced mixed results. At the group level, in-group bias and a tendency to associate with like-minded or similar people can produce echo chambers and information silos that can create and reinforce misinformation beliefs. At the societal level, public figures like politicians and celebrities can disproportionately influence public opinions, as can mass media outlets. In addition, societal trends like political polarization, economic inequalities, declining trust in science, and changing perceptions of authority contribute to

10624-447: The impact of misinformation. Historically, people have relied on journalists and other information professionals to relay facts. As the number and variety of information sources has increased, it has become more challenging for the general public to assess their credibility. This growth of consumer choice when it comes to news media allows the consumer to choose a news source that may align with their biases, which consequently increases

10752-481: The increased occurrence of extreme weather events in response to climate change denial ). Interventions need to account for the possibility that misinformation can persist in the population even after corrections are published. Possible reasons include difficulty in reaching the right people and corrections not having long-term effects. For example, if corrective information is only published in science-focused publications and fact-checking websites, it may not reach

10880-613: The inhabitants of Constantinople continued to refer to themselves as Romans, as did their eventual conquerors in 1453, the Ottomans (see Romaioi and Rûm .) The classical scholarship and culture that was still preserved in Constantinople were brought by refugees fleeing its conquest in 1453 and helped to begin the Renaissance (see Greek scholars in the Renaissance ). Ultimately, it was a slow, complex, and graduated change of

11008-546: The insults and smears spread among political rivals in Imperial and Renaissance Italy in the form of pasquinades . These are anonymous and witty verses named for the Pasquino piazza and talking statues in Rome . In pre-revolutionary France , "canards", or printed broadsides, sometimes included an engraving to convince readers to take them seriously. During the summer of 1587, continental Europe anxiously awaited news as

11136-551: The internet". Online misinformation about climate change can be counteracted through different measures at different stages. Prior to misinformation exposure, education and "inoculation" are proposed. Technological solutions, such as early detection of bots and ranking and selection algorithms are suggested as ongoing mechanisms. Post misinformation, corrective and collaborator messaging can be used to counter climate change misinformation. Incorporating fines and similar consequences has also been suggested. The International Panel on

11264-466: The language, politics, law, educational systems, philosophy , science, warfare, literature, historiography, ethics, rhetoric, art and architecture of both the Western , and through it, the modern world. Surviving fragments of classical culture helped produce a revival beginning during the 14th century which later came to be known as the Renaissance , and various neo-classical revivals occurred during

11392-585: The latter two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War , which ended inconclusively in 387 BC. Later, in 371 BC, the Theban generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas won a victory at the Battle of Leuctra . The result of this battle was the end of Spartan supremacy and the establishment of Theban hegemony . Thebes sought to maintain its dominance until it

11520-463: The likelihood that they are misinformed. 47% of Americans reported social media as their main news source in 2017 as opposed to traditional news sources. Polling shows that Americans trust mass media at record-low rates, and that US young adults place similar levels of trust in information from social media and from national news organizations. The pace of the 24 hour news cycle does not always allow for adequate fact-checking , potentially leading to

11648-485: The mass media via lack of capital . During the 1990s and the early 2000s (after successful campaigns by corporate advertising companies) political spin started to come into mainstream usage. Governments like Tony Blair's in The United Kingdom and George W. Bush were known for instituting spin within their communications. Alistair Campbell , a journalist turned Downing Street Press Secretary (who

11776-440: The media or by bloggers, they have been overgeneralized from studies on specific subgroups to incorrectly conclude that backfire effects apply to the entire population and to all attempts at correction. In recent years, the proliferation of misinformation online has drawn widespread attention. More than half of the world's population had access to the Internet in the beginning of 2018. Digital and social media can contribute to

11904-531: The more influential they believe themselves to be, resulting in more people considering themselves to be politically persuasive. In Australia 86% of Australians access the Internet, and with a 17,048,864 voting age population, around 14,662,023 voting population has access to Internet, and 65% of them use social media, with 9,530,314 Australian voters using social media. The 2013 Yellow™ Social Media Report also found that among internet users, 65% of Australians use social media, up from 62% in 2014. With almost half of

12032-454: The new coronavirus is to keep at least 1 meter away from others and to wash your hands frequently and thoroughly. Adding peppers to your soup won’t prevent or cure COVID-19. Learn more from the WHO." Interestingly, while the tone of the correction may impact how the target of the correction receives the message and can increase engagement with a message, it is less likely to affect how others seeing

12160-456: The option for users to flag information that they think is false. Google provides supplemental information pointing to fact-checking websites in search results for controversial topics. On Facebook, algorithms may warn users if what they are about to share is likely false. In some cases social media platforms' efforts to curb the spread of misinformation has resulted in controversy, drawing criticism from people who see these efforts as constructing

12288-694: The overthrow of the Monarchy c. 509 BC and lasted more than 450 years until its subversion through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period. During the half millennium of the Republic, Rome increased from a regional power of the Latium to the dominant force in Italy and beyond. The unification of Italy by the Romans was a gradual process, brought about by

12416-418: The people to speak directly to the politicians. This informal nature can lead to informational mistakes because it is not being subjected to the same " fact-checking processes as institutional journalism." Social media creates greater opportunity for political persuasion due to the high number of citizens that regularly engage and build followings on social media. The more that a person engages on social media,

12544-414: The people who believe in misinformation since they are less likely to read those sources. In addition, successful corrections may not be persistent, particularly if people are re-exposed to misinformation at a later date. It has been suggested that directly countering misinformation can be counterproductive, which is referred to as a "backfire effect", but in practice this is very rare. A 2020 review of

12672-403: The political consent of the electorate would also be damaged by this type of political communication in the mass media: "The more elusive or imaginary the foe, the better for manufacturing consent . The picture of the world that's presented to the public has only the remotest relation to reality." In terms of political communication, the propaganda model is generally used in the context of

12800-699: The public and voters receive their political news and information. Barack Obama 's presidential campaigns in 2008 and 2012 are notable for mobilizing supporters, as they helped innovate the use of social media to engage voters and raise funds. Volodymyr Zelenskyy 's successful 2019 Presidential Campaign also featured heavy usage of social media posts. Today, Political communication continues to evolve quickly, as new technologies such as AI and big data analytics have begun to reshape how campaigns can target and persuade voters. However, this has led to large concerns regarding misinformation , echo chambers , and online polarization. Recent election manipulation scandals like

12928-418: The researchers who initially proposed the occurrence of backfire effects, wrote in 2021 that the persistence of misinformation is most likely due to other factors. For most people, corrections and fact-checking are very unlikely to have a negative impact, and there is no specific group of people in which backfire effects have been consistently observed. In many cases, when backfire effects have been discussed by

13056-427: The same identities or worldviews as the intended audience), minimizing the association of misinformation with political or group identities (such as providing corrections from nonpartisan experts, or avoiding false balance based on partisanship in news coverage), and emphasizing corrections that are hard for people to avoid or deny (such as providing information that the economy is unusually strong or weak, or describing

13184-559: The same statement without an image. The translation of scientific research into popular reporting can also lead to confusion if it flattens nuance, sensationalizes the findings, or places too much emphasis on weaker levels of evidence . For instance, researchers have found that newspapers are more likely than scientific journals to cover observational studies and studies with weaker methodologies. Dramatic headlines may gain readers' attention, but they do not always accurately reflect scientific findings. Human cognitive tendencies can also be

13312-575: The same thing at the same time, they are very likely to get different results based on what that platform deems relevant to their interests, fact or false. Various social media platforms have recently been criticized for encouraging the spread of false information, such as hoaxes, false news, and mistruths. It is responsible with influencing people's attitudes and judgment during significant events by disseminating widely believed misinformation. Furthermore, online misinformation can occur in numerous ways, including rumors, urban legends, factoids, etc. However,

13440-576: The scientific guidance around infant sleep positions has evolved over time, and these changes could be a source of confusion for new parents. Misinformation can also often be observed as news events are unfolding and questionable or unverified information fills information gaps. Even if later retracted, false information can continue to influence actions and memory. Rumors are unverified information not attributed to any particular source and may be either true or false. Definitions of these terms may vary between cultural contexts. Early examples include

13568-459: The scientific literature on backfire effects found that there have been widespread failures to replicate their existence, even under conditions that would be theoretically favorable to observing them. Due to the lack of reproducibility , as of 2020 most researchers believe that backfire effects are either unlikely to occur on the broader population level, or they only occur in very specific circumstances, or they do not exist. Brendan Nyhan, one of

13696-507: The site FactCheck.org aims to fact check the media, especially viral political stories. The site also includes a forum where people can openly ask questions about the information. Similar sites allow individuals to copy and paste misinformation into a search engine and the site will investigate it. Some sites exist to address misinformation about specific topics, such as climate change misinformation. DeSmog , formerly The DeSmogBlog, publishes factually accurate information in order to counter

13824-488: The socio-economic structure in European history that resulted in the changeover between classical antiquity and medieval society and no specific date can truly exemplify that. In politics, the late Roman conception of the Empire as a universal state, commanded by one supreme divinely appointed ruler, united with Christianity as a universal religion likewise headed by a supreme patriarch , proved very influential, even after

13952-640: The son-in-law of Servius Tullius , Superbus was of Etruscan birth. It was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock , enraging the people of Rome. The people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia , a patrician Roman, by his own son. Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor to Marcus Brutus ), summoned

14080-409: The sources to investigate for themselves. Research has also shown that the presence of relevant images alongside incorrect statements increases both their believability and shareability, even if the images do not actually provide evidence for the statements. For example, a false statement about macadamia nuts accompanied by an image of a bowl of macadamia nuts tends to be rated as more believable than

14208-424: The spread of misinformation – for instance, when users share information without first checking the legitimacy of the information they have found. People are more likely to encounter online information based on personalized algorithms. Google, Facebook and Yahoo News all generate newsfeeds based on the information they know about our devices, our location, and our online interests. Although two people can search for

14336-436: The spread of misinformation. Further, the distinction between opinion and reporting can be unclear to viewers or readers. Sources of misinformation can appear highly convincing and similar to trusted legitimate sources. For example, misinformation cited with hyperlinks has been found to increase readers' trust. Trust is even higher when these hyperlinks are to scientific journals, and higher still when readers do not click on

14464-725: The state, as can be seen in the architecture of the Panthéon , the Arc de Triomphe , and the paintings of Jacques-Louis David . During the revolution, France transitioned from kingdom to republic to dictatorship to Empire (complete with Imperial Eagles) that the Romans had experienced centuries earlier. Classical antiquity is a general term for a long period of cultural history . Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many rather disparate cultures and periods. "Classical antiquity" often refers to an idealized vision of later people, of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe 's words, "the glory that

14592-413: The strict rules of the classical unities derived from Aristotle's Poetics . The desire to dance in a manner allegedly similar to the manner of the ancient Greeks caused Isadora Duncan to create her brand of ballet . Misinformation Misinformation is incorrect or misleading information . Misinformation can exist without specific malicious intent; disinformation is distinct in that it

14720-441: The underlying factor is that it contains misleading or inaccurate information. Moreover, users of social media platforms may experience intensely negative feelings, perplexity, and worry as a result of the spread of false information. According to a recent study, one in ten Americans has gone through mental or emotional stress as a result of misleading information posted online. Spreading false information can also seriously impede

14848-577: The victory of King Sargon II in 709 BC over the seven kings of the island, marking an important part of the transfer of Cyprus from Tyrian rule to the Neo-Assyrian Empire . The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages , and saw significant advancements in political theory , and the beginnings of democracy , philosophy , theatre , poetry , as well as the revitalization of the written language (which had been lost during

14976-529: The way people communicate information and the way misinformation is spread. Misinformation can influence people's beliefs about communities, politics, medicine, and more. The term also has the potential to be used to obfuscate legitimate speech and warp political discourses. The term came into wider recognition during the mid-1990s through the early 2020s, when its effects on public ideological influence began to be investigated. However, misinformation campaigns have existed for hundreds of years. Misinformation

15104-436: The ways and intentions of message senders to influence the political environment. This includes public discussion (e.g. political speeches , news media coverage , and ordinary citizens' talk ) that considers who has authority to sanction the allocation of public resources, who has authority to make decisions, as well as social meaning like what makes someone American. "...the crucial factor that makes communication 'political'

15232-510: The well-funded disinformation campaigns spread by motivated deniers of climate change . Science Feedback focuses on evaluating science, health, climate, and energy claims in the media and providing an evidence-based analysis of their veracity. Flagging or eliminating false statements in media using algorithmic fact checkers is becoming an increasingly common tactic to fight misinformation. Google and many social media platforms have added automatic fact-checking programs to their sites and created

15360-534: Was Greece , the grandeur that was Rome !" During the 18th and 19th centuries AD, reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in Europe and the United States than it is now. Respect for the ancient people of Greece and Rome affected politics , philosophy , sculpture , literature , theatre , education , architecture , and sexuality . Epic poetry in Latin continued to be written and circulated well into

15488-550: Was created as an opposition to Bashar al-Assad's dictatorship. Political communication has long used political persuasion . Political figures understand the role of the media in gaining the acceptance of voters. For example, political communication delivered through social media tends to be accompanied by social interaction and public opinion. Logos , ethos , and pathos are key methods of communication theories known to be used in political public speaking to persuade. A theoretical model in political communication that emerged during

15616-718: Was emperor Maurice , who reigned until 602. The overthrow of Maurice by his mutinying Danube army commanded by Phocas resulted in the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and the weakening of Balkan and Greek urban culture (resulting in the flight of Balkan Latin speakers to the mountains, see Origin of the Romanians ), and also provoked the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 in which all the great eastern cities except Constantinople were lost. The resulting turmoil did not end until

15744-669: Was finally ended by the increasing power of Macedon in 346 BC. During the reign of Philip II , (359–336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paeonians , the Thracians and the Illyrians . Philip's son, Alexander the Great , (356–323 BC) managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states but also to the Persian Empire , including Egypt and lands as far east as

15872-656: Was gradually revealed from 2004 onwards, initiated by the Abu Ghraib torture photos, the Bush administration engaged in SPC to publicly reframe and protect its secret policy. SPC included silencing and persuasive discursive activity. According to Jake Sherman and Albert Trithart, “United Nations peace operations often struggle to communicate their messages to the local population and the broader global community.” It argued, therefore, that “the outdated public information approach of

16000-680: Was not until late August that reliable reports of the Spanish defeat arrived in major cities and were widely believed; the remains of the fleet returned home in the autumn. The first recorded large-scale disinformation campaign was the Great Moon Hoax , published in 1835 in the New York The Sun , in which a series of articles claimed to describe life on the Moon, "complete with illustrations of humanoid bat-creatures and bearded blue unicorns". The challenges of mass-producing news on

16128-499: Was referred to as a ' spin doctor ' in the media) had the job of deflecting or ' spinning ' bad situations that showed the government in a bad light, via press briefings with the British media. Campbell became an influential and controversial addition to the political communication toolkit of Tony Blair's Labour government in the United Kingdom . This practice has now become standard in subsequent governments in Western countries like

16256-740: Was spread during the Ebola outbreak in 2014–2016. During the COVID-19 pandemic , the proliferation of mis- and dis-information was exacerbated by a general lack of health literacy. Factors that contribute to beliefs in misinformation are an ongoing subject of study. According to Scheufele and Krause, misinformation belief has roots at the individual, group and societal levels. At the individual level, individuals have varying levels of skill in recognizing mis- or dis-information and may be predisposed to certain misinformation beliefs due to other personal beliefs, motivations, or emotions. However, evidence for

16384-686: Was strong among the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Latin American revolutionaries; the Americans described their new government as a republic (from res publica ) and gave it a Senate and a President (another Latin term), rather than use available English terms like commonwealth or parliament . Similarly in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, republicanism and Roman martial virtues were promoted by

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