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144-468: With the exception of Martin I , no pope during this period questioned the authority of the Byzantine monarch to confirm the election of the bishop of Rome before consecration could occur; however, theological conflicts were common between pope and emperor in the areas such as monothelitism and iconoclasm . Greek-speakers from Greece, Syria, and Sicily replaced members of the powerful Roman nobles in

288-430: A "sham election" to replace Vigilius; afterwards, Justinian was content to be limited to the approval of the pope, as with Pope John III after his election. Justinian's successors would continue the practice for over a century. Although the Byzantine troops that captured Italy called themselves Romans, many inhabitants of the city had a deep-seated mistrust of Greeks, and Hellenistic influence more generally. Before long,

432-645: A "slightly increased vitality". Conversely, knowledge of Latin in Constantinople was "not only rare but a 'complete anachronism'". Pope Vitalian (657–672) established a schola cantorum to train ceremonial chanters, which was almost entirely "in imitation of its Byzantine model". Vitalian also introduced the celebration of the Easter vespers and baptism at Epiphany , both traditions originating in Constantinople. The "liturgical byzantinization" furthered by Vitalian would be continued by his successors. However,

576-628: A crucial event in his adoption by God. Historically in the Alexandrian school of thought (fashioned on the Gospel of John ), Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos who already possesses unity with the Father before the act of Incarnation . In contrast, the Antiochian school viewed Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine. The notion of pre-existence

720-516: A decree denouncing bribery in papal elections and forbidding discussion of candidates for three days after the funeral of the previous pope; thereafter, Boniface III decreed that the clergy and the "sons of the Church" (i.e. noble laymen) should meet to elect a successor, each voting according to his conscience. This abated factionalism for the next four successions, each resulting in quick elections and imperial approval. The prestige of Gregory I ensured

864-555: A gradual incorporation of Eastern influence, which retained the distinctiveness of the Roman church; Gregory's two successors were chosen from his former apocrisiarii to Constantinople, in an effort to gain the favor of Phocas , whose disputed claim to the throne Gregory had enthusiastically endorsed. Pope Boniface III was very likely of Greek extraction, making him the "Easterner on the papal throne" in 607 (many authors incorrectly regard Pope Theodore I , who reigned from 642 to 649, as

1008-678: A half to one". Any power vacuum was swiftly filled from Rome: for example, Pope Gregory II came to the aid of the exarchate of Ravenna in 729 by helping to crush the rebellion of Tiberius Petasius , and Pope Zacharias in 743 and 749 negotiated the withdrawal of the Lombards from imperial territory. Popes of the first half of the eighth century perceived Constantinople as a source of legitimating authority and in practice "paid handsomely" to continue to receive imperial confirmation, but Byzantine authority all but vanished in Italy (except for Sicily) as

1152-576: A majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul. According to the "New Religionsgeschichtliche Schule ", or the Early High Christology Club, which includes Martin Hengel , Larry Hurtado , N. T. Wright , and Richard Bauckham , this "incarnation Christology" or "high Christology" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a "big bang" of ideas which were already present at

1296-439: A martyr . Martin was born near Todi, Umbria, in the place nowadays named after him: Pian di San Martino, close to Todi. According to his biographer Theodore, Martin was of noble birth, of commanding intelligence, and showed great charity to the poor. Piazza states that Martin belonged to the order of St Basil . By 641, he was an abbot, and Pope John IV sent him to Dalmatia and Istria with large sums of money to alleviate

1440-451: A more complex understanding of the idea of God in first century Judaism. However, Andrew Loke argues that if Jesus did not claim and show himself to be truly divine and rise from the dead, the earliest Christian leaders who were devout ancient monotheistic Jews would have regarded Jesus as merely a teacher or a prophet; they would not have come to the widespread agreement that he was truly divine, which they did. Brant Pitre also argues that

1584-614: A name also given to Byzantine churches founded in Ravenna and Naples ). The portion of the Aventine overlooking this quarter became known as the ad Balcernas or Blachernas , after the district of Constantinople . This region was later called the piccolo Aventino ("little Aventine") once it developed into a "Greco-oriental quarter" after successive waves of Sabaite monks. Byzantine immigrants to Rome included merchants from Byzantine territories such as Syria and Egypt. Refugees from

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1728-628: A number of the existing issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of perfection of Christ 's human attributes. The Middle Ages also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the Kyrios image. Article 10 of the Belgic Confession , a confessional standard of the Reformed faith , subscribes to Nicene orthodoxy regarding

1872-470: A series of military setbacks during this period, virtually losing its grip on Italy. By the time of Liudprand of Cremona 's late-10th-century visits to Constantinople , despite Byzantium's recovery under Romanos I and Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus , relations were clearly strained between the papacy and Byzantium. Indeed, he notes the anger of the Byzantine civil service at the Emperor being addressed by

2016-590: A synod in Rome of predominantly Latin bishops that stymied Imperial efforts to enforce doctrinal unity (and thus end the domestic strife which much aided the Persian advance) on the issue of Monothelitism . As a result of this theological flowering, "for the first time in well over a century, the church of Rome would be in a position to debate theological issues with Byzantium from a position of equality in both intellectual substance and rhetorical form". However, "the irony

2160-701: A theological iota, they took place in controversial political circumstances, reflecting the relations of temporal powers and divine authority, and certainly resulted in schisms, among others that separated the Church of the East from the Church of the Roman Empire. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea defined the persons of the Godhead and their relationship with one another, decisions which were ratified at

2304-444: A tour of St. Peter's tomb ), even while Constans II's workmen were stripping the bronze from the monuments of the city to be melted down and taken to Constantinople with the Emperor when he departed. However, both Vitalian and Constans II would have been confident upon his departure that the political and religious relationship between Rome and Constantinople was effectively stabilized, leaving Constans II free to focus his forces against

2448-550: Is also conjectured to be the Greek translation of Aramaic Mari , which in everyday Aramaic usage was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just 'teacher' and was somewhat similar to ' rabbi '. While the term Mari expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek Kyrios came to represent his lordship over the world. The early Christians placed Kyrios at

2592-530: Is called God, the Word, the Son, and Jesus Christ did exist at that time, when all things were created by him. Therefore, the prophet Micah says, "His goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting" ( Micah 5:2 ). And the apostle: " He has neither beginning of days, nor end of life" ( Hebrews 7:3 ). He therefore is that true, eternal, and almighty God, whom we invoke, worship and serve. John Calvin maintained there

2736-475: Is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, and can be found in apocalyptic thought and among the rabbis of Paul's time, but Paul was most influenced by Jewish-Hellenistic wisdom literature, where " 'Wisdom' is extolled as something existing before the world and already working in creation. According to Witherington, Paul "subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh[,] founding

2880-416: Is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning. Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation" Christology. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship. The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology"

3024-718: Is particularly clear in every age" as an excellent writer at the Council of Ephesus says. The breviary of the Byzantine Churches states: "Glorious definer of the Orthodox Faith   ... sacred chief of divine dogmas, unstained by error   ... true reprover of heresy   ... foundation of bishops, pillar of the Orthodox faith, teacher of religion.   ... Thou didst adorn the divine see of Peter, and since from this divine Rock, thou didst immovably defend

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3168-561: Is questionable whether any exclusively Greek monasteries were established. However, by 678, there were four Byzantine monasteries: San Saba , Domus Ariscia , SS. Andreas and Lucia , and Aquas Salvias . Constantine IV alludes to these four monasteries in a letter to Pope Donus ; Ekonomou suggests there were at least two more Byzantine monasteries in Rome: the Boetiana and St. Erasmus on Caelian Hill . Greek monastics brought with them (in

3312-405: Is the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus , enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation . Due to the influence of Gustaf Aulèn 's (1879–1978) Christus Victor (1931), the various theories or paradigmata of atonement are often grouped as "classical paradigm", "objective paradigm", and

3456-524: Is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead", thereby raising him to "divine status". According to the "evolutionary model" or evolutionary theories, the Christological understanding of Jesus developed over time, as witnessed in the Gospels, with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, or else adopted as God's Son, when he

3600-979: The Basilica of San Vitale (527–548, spanning the change of rule) and Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (549), but no sharp transition of style is detectable from those produced under the Ostrogothic Kingdom or the Western Emperors of the preceding decades. Greek Pope John VII was "by far the most outstanding patron of the Byzantine iconographic style", commissioning innumerable works from "traveling Greek craftsmen". Four churches in Rome have mosaics of saints near where their relics were held; these all show an abandonment of classical illusionism for large-eyed figures floating in space. They are San Lorenzo fuori le Mura (580s), Sant'Agnese fuori le mura (625–638), Santo Stefano Rotondo (640s), and

3744-542: The Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies. But it also broke apart the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the fifth century, and unquestionably established the primacy of Rome in the East over those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. This was reaffirmed in 519, when

3888-619: The First Council of Constantinople in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was homoousios (of the same being) as the Father. The Nicene Creed declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus. After the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos and the second Person of the Trinity were being used interchangeably. In 431,

4032-518: The First Council of Ephesus was initially called to address the views of Nestorius on Mariology , but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the Theotokos title for Mary and later contradicted Proclus during a sermon in Constantinople . Pope Celestine I (who

4176-548: The Historical Jesus claimed to be divine and was the origin of high Christology. The study of the various Christologies of the Apostolic Age is based on early Christian documents. The oldest Christian sources are the writings of Paul . The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence and the identification of Christ as Kyrios . Both notions already existed before him in

4320-528: The Lateran Council of 649 , to which all the bishops of the West were invited. The Council met in the basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome . It was attended by 105 bishops (chiefly from Italy , Sicily , and Sardinia , with some from Africa and other quarters). Over five sessions or secretarii from 5 to 31 October 649, resulting in twenty canons , the Council censured Monothelitism, its authors, and

4464-591: The Lateran patriarchate and the Byzantine court speaks of Martin's preeminence. It was as a deacon that he was elected to the papal throne after the pope died (13 May 649). When Martin I was elected pope, the capital of the erstwhile Roman Empire was Constantinople . It sat amidst the eastern domains, where the most influential Church leader was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople who

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4608-575: The New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human, and since the early days of Christianity, theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures, at times resulting in ecumenical councils, and schisms. Some historical christological doctrines gained broad support: Influential Christologies which were broadly condemned as heretical are: Various church councils , mainly in

4752-616: The Roman Forum only three weeks after Boniface III's consecration, and in 609 by iussio authorized the conversion of the Pantheon into a Christian church, the first pagan Roman temple so converted. Boniface III himself attempted to outdo Phocas's efforts to Christianize the site, collecting twenty-four cartloads of martyr bones from the Catacombs of Rome to enshrine in the temple. A 610 synod ruled that monks could be full members of

4896-739: The Vandal persecutions in North Africa and the Laurentian schism accumulated in significant numbers in the early sixth century; a similar phenomenon occurred with the inhabitants of the eastern territories later re-conquered by the Byzantines. Greeks accounted for nearly the entire medical community of Rome and a Greek school of medicine was established during this time. Most Greek inhabitants of Rome during this period, however, would have been members of monastic religious communities, although it

5040-479: The hypostatic union ) versus dyophysitism (coexisting natures after the hypostatic union) versus monophysitism (only one nature) versus Nestorianism (two hypostases). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted Mia Physis ('but being made one', κατὰ φύσιν ) – Council of Ephesus, Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius, i.e. 'one nature of the Word of God incarnate' ( μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη , mía phýsis toû theoû lógou sesarkōménē ). In 451,

5184-702: The papal library , which was established by Pope Agapetus I circa 535 (moved by future Pope Gregory I to his monastery on Caelian Hill and later the Lateran). The papal library contained only a very few texts in the year 600, but boasted shelves of codices (primarily in Greek) by 650. Moreover, the staff of the papal chancery was thoroughly bilingual by mid-century, with its "administrative apparatus" run by Greeks. Until recently, scholars believed that papal texts were written in Latin and then translated into Greek; however,

5328-423: The salvation from what would otherwise be the consequences of sin . The earliest Christian writings gave several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man , Son of God , Messiah , and Kyrios , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. These terms centered around two opposing themes, namely "Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God ", versus adoptionism – that Jesus

5472-414: The veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy". The Franciscan piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas , are called "scholastic Christology". In the 13th century , Thomas Aquinas provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved

5616-533: The " cosmic Christology " later developed in the Gospel of John, elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." Paul writes that Christ came to draw all back to God: "Through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven" (Colossians 1:20); in

5760-535: The "subjective paradigm": Other theories are the "embracement theory" and the "shared atonement" theory. The earliest christological reflections were shaped by both the Jewish background of the earliest Christians, and by the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean in which they operated. The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man , Son of God , Messiah , and Kyrios , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. According to Matt Stefon and Hans J. Hillerbrand: Until

5904-579: The 4th and 5th centuries, resolved most of these controversies, making the doctrine of the Trinity orthodox in nearly all branches of Christianity. Among them, only the Dyophysite doctrine was recognized as true and not heretical, belonging to the Christian orthodoxy and deposit of faith . In Christian theology , atonement is the method by which human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ 's sacrificial suffering and death . Atonement

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6048-571: The Arabs. After Constans II was murdered in Sicily by Mezezius , Vitalian refused to support Mezezius's usurpation of the throne, gaining the favor of Constans II's son and successor, Constantine IV . Constantine IV returned the favor by refusing to support the striking of Vitalian's name from the diptychs of Byzantine churches and depriving Ravenna of autocephalous status, returning it to papal jurisdiction. Nonetheless, Vitalian's successors Adeodatus II

6192-609: The Byzantine court. Martin, unabashed, hastened to publish the Lateran Council decrees in an encyclical . Constans responded by getting his exarch in Italy to arrest the pope should he persist, and to send him as a prisoner to Constantinople. Martin was also accused by Constans of unauthorised contact and collaboration with the Muslims of the Rashidun Caliphate —allegations which he remained unable to convince

6336-527: The Christology that would characterize the Christian empire. A Greek pope excommunicating the Patriarch no doubt proved a "distressing spectacle" for the emperors intent upon restoring religious unity. Theodore's boldness attests to: Theodore's successor, Pope Martin I insisted on being consecrated immediately without waiting for imperial approval, and was (after a delay due to the revolt of Olympius,

6480-467: The Church, so now thou art glorified with him.” Christology In Christianity , Christology is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus . Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would be in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers or in the prophesied Kingdom of God , and in

6624-526: The Council of Chalcedon affirmed dyophysitism . The Oriental Orthodox rejected this and subsequent councils and continued to consider themselves as miaphysite according to the faith put forth at the Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus . The council also confirmed the Theotokos title and excommunicated Nestorius. The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly influential, and marked a key turning point in

6768-540: The East did, but as synonymous with the Roman Church". Pope Agatho , a Greek Sicilian, started "a nearly unbroken succession of Eastern pontiffs spanning the next three quarters of a century". The Third Council of Constantinople and the Greek Popes ushered in "a new era in relations between the eastern and western parts of the empire". During the pontificate of Pope Benedict II (684–685), Constantine IV waived

6912-545: The East was inexorably insinuating itself into the city on the Tiber. Even Gregory would succumb, perhaps unwittingly, to the lux orientis [...] Once the political bonds had been reformed, both Rome and the Papacy would quickly begin to experience, even before the sixth century came to a close, its influence in other ways as well." Ekonomou views the Byzantine influence as organic rather than "an intentional or systematic program" by

7056-473: The East". For example, he organized a series of liturgical processions in Rome to "assuage the wrath of God and relieve the city's suffering" from the plague which killed his predecessor, which greatly resembled Byzantine liturgical processions which Gregory I would have witnessed as apocrisiarius . Gregory I's mariology also comports with several Byzantine influences. However, it as after the death of Gregory I that Eastern influence became for more apparent and

7200-536: The Eastern Chalcedonians accepted the Formula of Hormisdas , anathematizing all of their own Eastern Chalcedonian hierarchy, who died out of communion with Rome from 482 to 519. The Second Council of Constantinople in 553 interpreted the decrees of Chalcedon, and further explained the relationship of the two natures of Jesus. It also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of

7344-645: The Egyptian desert and the Syrian caves". The Byzantine period saw the disappearance of most remnants of classical style from mosaics in Italy , although the process of this transition is hard to follow, not least because there are even fewer surviving mosaics from the period in the Greek-speaking world than in Italy. The magnificent sequence of mosaics in Ravenna continued under the Exarchate, with those in

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7488-535: The Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works. Christologies that can be gleaned from the three synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his parables , and his miracles . The Gospel of John provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity. The first 14 verses of the Gospel of John are devoted to the divinity of Jesus as the Logos , usually translated as "Word", along with his pre-existence, and they emphasize

7632-458: The Gothic invasions of 408–410. Although the immigrating monastics were relatively small in number, their influence was immense: It was regarded as mandatory of a pope-elect to seek the confirmation of his appointment from Constantinople before consecration , often resulting in extremely lengthy delays (Sabinian: 6 months; Boniface III: 1 year; Boniface IV: 10 months; Boniface V: 13 months), due to

7776-423: The Latin language made a liturgical resurgence—officially replacing Greek—between 660 and 682; Greek again re-emerged during the papacy of Pope Agatho and his successors. By the beginning of the eighth century, bilingual liturgies were common place, with Greek taking precedence. Thus, Greek literary customs found their way into the entire liturgical calendar, particularly papal rituals. This period laid

7920-486: The Papacy suffer the sort of embarrassment that had resulted from Honorius's linguistic carelessness". Theodore took the nearly unprecedented measure of appointing Stephen of Dor as apostolic vicar to Palestine, with the intent of deposing the Monothelite bishop successors of Sergius of Joppa . Theodore's deposition of Patriarch Pyrrhus ensured that "Rome and Constantinople were now in schism and at open war" over

8064-559: The Pope as "Emperor of the Greeks" as opposed to that of the Romans. The Byzantine Papacy was composed of the following popes and antipopes . Of the thirteen popes from 678 to 752, only Benedict II and Gregory II were native Romans; all the rest were Greek-speaking , from Greece, Syria, or Byzantine Sicily. Many popes of this period had previously served as papal apocrisiarii (equivalent of

8208-550: The Roman Church had bowed to imperial commands, and had elected a new pope", Pope Eugenius I . According to Ekonomou , "the Romans were as prepared to forget Pope Martin as Constans II was relieved to see him removed to the remote northern shores of the Black Sea". Thirty years later, the Sixth Ecumenical Council would vindicate the council's condemnation of Monothelitism, but not before the synod "ushered in

8352-446: The Roman uneasiness of electing a successor while Martin I lived and the Byzantine desire to punish Rome for the council caused the immediate sede vacante to last fourteen months, the next seven popes were more agreeable to Constantinople, and approved without delay, but Pope Benedict II was impelled to wait a year in 684, whereafter the Emperor consented to delegate the approval to the exarch of Ravenna . The exarch, who, invariably,

8496-478: The Son of God by his resurrection from the dead", which sounds like an adoptionistic Christology, where Jesus was a human being who was "adopted" after his death. Different views would be debated for centuries by Christians and finally settled on the idea that he was both fully human and fully divine by the middle of the 5th century in the Council of Ephesus . Paul's thoughts on Jesus' teachings, versus his nature and being, are more defined, in that Paul believed Jesus

8640-470: The St Venantius Chapel remains an important early example of a martyrium : a shrine specifically commissioned to venerate relics brought from afar. With regard to the martyr cult, such structures represented the pinnacle of devotional building. They often became sites of pilgrimage. Martin acted as apocrisiarius or legate ('nuncio') at Constantinople from the earliest years of Theodore I (642–49). He sent him as ambassador to Constantinople, seat of

8784-508: The West at this period. Rome experienced a "short cultural efflorescence" in the early sixth century as a result of the translation of Greek works—"both sacred and profane"—into Latin, with the rise of an intellectual class fluent in both languages. Because traditional Classical education in Rome had declined "nearly to the point of extinction", even learned Latin scholars could not read such works in their original Greek and were forced to rely on translation. Many such texts appeared in

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8928-426: The West, but there is little or no direct evidence of this. Pope Martin I Pope Martin I ( Latin : Martinus I , Greek : Πάπας Μαρτῖνος ; between 590 and 600 – 16 September 655), also known as Martin the Confessor , was the bishop of Rome from 21 July 649 to his death 16 September 655. He had served as Pope Theodore I 's ambassador to Constantinople , and was elected to succeed him as pope . He

9072-450: The West. Sergius I would have objected to the approval of all eighty-five Apostolic Canons (rather than only the first fifty), various liberalizations of the issue of clerical celibacy , various prohibitions on blood as food , and the depiction of Christ as a lamb. Justinian II first sent a magistrate to arrest John of Portus and another papal counselor as a warning, and then dispatched his infamous protopatharios Zacharias to arrest

9216-405: The adoption of Byzantine practices accelerated. Sergius I incorporated the Syrian custom of singing the Agnus Dei and elaborate processions with Greek chants into the Roman liturgy. The "more learned and sophisticated theological interests" of the Greek popes also added a new "doctrinal edge" to the claims of the primacy of the Roman Pontiff , "sharpened and fixed" by various confrontations with

9360-440: The army as security on those payments. Popes of this period explicitly recognized imperial sovereignty over Rome and sometimes dated their personal correspondence in the regnal years of the Byzantine Emperor. However, this political unity did not also extend to theological and doctrinal questions. Justinian II's initial acts appeared to continue the rapprochement initiated under Constans II and Constantine IV. However, reconciliation

9504-550: The brightness of His glory" ( Hebrews 1:3 ), equal unto him in all things. He is the Son of God, not only from the time that He assumed our nature, but from all eternity, as these testimonies, when compared together, teach us. Moses says that God created the world; and John saith that "all things were made by that Word" ( John 1:3 ), which he calls God. And the apostle says that God made the worlds by His Son ( Hebrews 1:2 ); likewise, that "God created all things by Jesus Christ" ( Ephesians 3:9 ). Therefore, it must needs follow, that he who

9648-456: The center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries. The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the Kyrios title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of Kyrios included the pre-existence of Christ , for they believed if Christ

9792-679: The chapel of San Venanzio in the Lateran Basilica (c. 640) Illuminated manuscripts show similar developments, but it is difficult to see specifically Byzantine elements in the emerging medieval style of St Augustine Gospels of c. 595, the earliest Latin Gospel book , which very probably passed through the hands of Gregory I. The earliest estimates for the date of the frescos at Castelseprio in northern Italy, which undoubtedly show strong Byzantine influence, would put them into this period, but most scholars now date them much later. There has been much speculation, in respect of Castelseprio and other works, about Greek artists escaping from iconoclasm to

9936-463: The christological debates. It is the last council which many Lutherans , Anglicans and other Protestants consider ecumenical. The Council of Chalcedon fully promulgated the Western dyophysite understanding put forth by Pope Leo I of Rome of the hypostatic union , the proposition that Christ has one human nature ( physis ) and one divine nature (physis) , each distinct and complete, and united with neither confusion nor division. Most of

10080-497: The citizens of Rome petitioned Justinian to recall Narses (who captured Rome in 552), declaring that they would rather still be ruled by the Goths . Anti-Byzantine sentiment could also be found throughout the Italian peninsula, and reception of Greek theology in Latin circles was more mixed. The continuing power of appointment of the Byzantine emperor can be seen in the legend of Pope Gregory I writing to Constantinople, asking them to refuse his election. Pope Boniface III issued

10224-405: The clergy, a decision that would massively increase the hordes of Greek monks about to flee to Rome as the Slavs conquered much of the Balkan coast. At this time Salona in Dalmatia , Prima Justiniana in Illyricum , peninsular Greece, Peloponnesus , and Crete were under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Rome, and Constantinople was one of "the last places to which one could turn for refuge in

10368-437: The cosmic significance of Christ, e.g.: "All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made." In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus. Following the Apostolic Age , from the second century onwards, a number of controversies developed about how the human and divine are related within

10512-403: The deity of Christ. The article places emphasis on the eternal generation of the Son and the eternal divine nature of Christ as Creator. We believe that Jesus Christ, according to his divine nature, is the only begotten Son of God, begotten from eternity, not made nor created (for then He should be a creature), but co-essential and co-eternal with the Father, "the express image of His person, and

10656-583: The delicate formalism of the paintings of Santa Maria Antiqua, or the Byzantine-style icon of the Virgin now in the church of Santa Francesca Romana. The worship of the Roman Church itself was being transformed by Eastern influence. Santa Maria in Cosmedin was given to Greek monks fleeing the iconoclastic persecution, and was built on a Greek plan with three apses and a templon barrier, introduced to

10800-461: The difficulty of travel, the Byzantine bureaucracy , and the whims of the emperors. Disputes were often theological; for example, Severinus was not consecrated for 20 months after his election due to his refusal to accept monothelitism , dying only months after he finally received permission to be consecrated in 640. When Greek Pope Theodore attempted to excommunicate two Patriarchs of Constantinople for supporting monothelitism, imperial troops looted

10944-580: The distress of the inhabitants, and redeem captives seized during the invasion of the Sclaveni . As the ruined churches could not be rebuilt, the relics of some of the more important Dalmatian saints were brought to Rome. John, himself from Dalmatia, then had them venerated by building the Chapel of St Venantius at the Lateran Baptistery . As Mackie suggests in her article, referenced above,

11088-531: The early Christian communities, and Paul deepened them and used them for preaching in the Hellenistic communities. What exactly Paul believed about the nature of Jesus cannot be determined decisively. In Philippians 2 , Paul states that Jesus was preexistent and came to Earth "by taking the form of a servant, being made in human likeness". This sounds like an incarnation Christology. In Romans 1:4, however, Paul states that Jesus "was declared with power to be

11232-521: The early seventh century". Another wave of monastic refugees, bringing with them various Christological controversies , arrived in Rome as the Sassanid Empire ravaged the eastern Byzantine possessions. The following Muslim conquests of the seventh century in effect reversed the "avalanche of ascetics to the East" and the " brain drain of ascetic emigrations to the Holy Land" that followed

11376-453: The economic life of Rome. Persons from all portions of the Byzantine empire were able to follow traditional trade routes to Rome, making the city truly "cosmopolitan" in its composition. Greek speaking prelates also become common in Rome at this time, concentrated around a ring of churches on Palatine Hill , dedicated to Eastern Saints: Cosmas and Damian, Sergius and Bacchus, Hadrian, Quiricius and Giulitta, and Cyrus and John. Greek influence

11520-500: The emperor. Eastern monastics, if not Byzantine society at large, in the fourth and fifth centuries came to regard Rome as "not just another patriarch" but as a unique source of doctrinal authority. According to Ekonomou, the Dialogues "best reflect the impact that the East exercised on Rome and the Papacy in the late sixth century" as they "gave Italy holy men who were part of an unmistakable hagiographical tradition whose roots lay in

11664-518: The emperors became increasingly pressed by the Muslim conquests . According to Ekonomou: Although antagonism about the expense of Byzantine domination had long persisted within Italy, the political rupture was set in motion in earnest in 726 by the iconoclasm of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian . The exarch was lynched while trying to enforce the iconoclastic edict and Pope Gregory II saw iconoclasm as

11808-420: The emperors or exarchs, who focused more on political control and taxation than cultural influence. The schola Graeca (also called the ripa Graeca or "Greek bank") refers to the segment of the Tiber's bank "heavily populated by Easterners, including Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians". The Byzantine quarter quickly became the economic center of Imperial Rome during this period (marked by Santa Maria in Cosmedin,

11952-513: The empire in its eastern half. Albeit where the pope was based, Rome was by now second fiddle – economically, militarily and politically – to Constantinople. However, the eastern half of the Empire was suffering its own turbulence due to Arab expansion , Jerusalem's conquest in 637, and theological disputes having polarised Christians (the major religion of the empire). Being placed, for so much of Theodore's papacy, in charge of diplomacy between

12096-494: The endorsement of noted scholars Dale C. Allison Jr. , Chris Tilling, Tucker Ferda, and Christine Jacobi. From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils . The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of

12240-470: The evidence regarding the proceedings of the Lateran Council of 649 reveals exactly the opposite to be the case. Despite the conquest, the decline of the knowledge of the Greek language continued almost unchecked, and translators remained in short supply throughout Gregory I's papacy. Only at the end of the sixth century did knowledge of the Greek language (and the corresponding supply of Greek texts) undergo

12384-411: The exarch of Ravenna ) abducted by imperial troops to Constantinople, found guilty of treason, and exiled to Crimea where he died in 655. Although Martin I's main crime was the promotion of the Lateran Council of 649 , the council itself was a "manifestly Byzantine affair" by virtue of its participants and doctrinal influences (particularly its reliance on florilegia ). The council's ecumenical status

12528-614: The fall of the exarchate in 751 were uniformly "imperial in character" in that they still harbored "allegiance to the ideal of the Christian Roman Empire" and harbored no sovereign political ambitions for the Italian peninsula. Indeed, rather than capitalize on any anti-Byzantine sentiments in Italy, Sergius I himself attempted to quell the entire controversy. In 705 the restored Justinian II sought to compromise with Pope John VII (in office 705–707) asking him to enumerate

12672-484: The famous Martin who long ago won great praise for this See, commends faithfulness and fortitude to Us by his strengthening and defense of the truth and by the endurance of labors and pains. He was driven from his See and from the City, stripped of his rule, his rank, and his entire fortune. As soon as he arrived in any peaceful place, he was forced to move. Despite his advanced age and an illness which prevented his walking, he

12816-464: The first Eastern pope of the Byzantine papacy). Boniface III was able to obtain an imperial proclamation declaring Rome as "the head of all the churches" (reaffirming Justinian I's naming the pope "the first among all the priests"), a decree Phocas intended as much to humiliate the Patriarch of Constantinople as exalt the pope. Phocas had a gilded statue of himself erected on a monumental column in

12960-433: The groundwork for Western mariology , built closely after the cult of Theotokos ("Mother of God") in the East, where Mary was regarded as the special protector of Constantinople. Many features of the papal court originated during this period, modeled after similar Byzantine court rituals. For example, the papal office of the vestararius imitated the protovestiarios of the Byzantine court, with both responsible for

13104-420: The human aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the miracles, parables, etc.) and move towards his divinity and the mystery of incarnation. A basic Christological teaching is that the person of Jesus Christ is both human and divine. The human and divine natures of Jesus Christ apparently ( prosopic ) form a duality, as they coexist within one person ( hypostasis ). There are no direct discussions in

13248-464: The idea of the pre-existence of Christ as the Logos ('the Word'), as expressed in the prologue to the Gospel of John . These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity. According to Pannenberg, Christology from above "was far more common in the ancient Church, beginning with Ignatius of Antioch and the second century Apologists." The term Christology from below or low Christology refers to approaches that begin with

13392-546: The idea. John Hick , writing in 1993, mentioned changes in New Testament studies, citing "broad agreement" that scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God, quoting as examples Michael Ramsey (1980), C. F. D. Moule (1977), James Dunn (1980), Brian Hebblethwaite (1985) and David Brown (1985). Larry Hurtado , who argues that the followers of Jesus within a very short period developed an exceedingly high level of devotional reverence to Jesus, at

13536-427: The influence of Gentile Christians, who brought their pagan Hellenistic traditions to the early Christian communities, introducing divine honours to Jesus. According to Casey and Dunn, this "high Christology" developed after the time of Paul, at the end of the first century CE when the Gospel of John was written. Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested, and

13680-493: The infuriated imperial authorities to drop. The arrest orders could not be carried out for more than three years. On 17 June 653, Martin was arrested in the Lateran , along with Maximus the Confessor . He was hurried out of Rome and conveyed first to Naxos, Greece , and subsequently to Constantinople, where he arrived on 17 September 653. He was saved from execution by the pleas of Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople , who

13824-404: The late seventh century) the institution of monasteria diaconia , dedicating to serving the indigent of the city. At the end of the sixth century Easterners remained a minority of the Roman clergy, although they were doubtlessly admitted into it (as determined by the names subscribing to synodical proceedings). Although they constituted less than one percent of the hierarchy at the beginning of

13968-672: The latest in a series of imperial heresies . In 731, his successor, Pope Gregory III organized a synod in Rome (attended by the Archbishop of Ravenna ), which declared iconoclasm punishable by excommunication . When the exarch donated six columns of onyx to the shrine of St. Peter in thanks for the pope's assistance in his release from the Lombards, Gregory III defiantly had the material crafted into icons. Leo III responded in 732/33 by confiscating all papal patrimonies in south Italy and Sicily, together constituting most papal income at

14112-489: The major branches of Western Christianity ( Roman Catholicism , Anglicanism , Lutheranism , and Reformed ), Church of the East , Eastern Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches ( Syrian Orthodoxy , Coptic Orthodoxy , Ethiopian Orthodoxy , and Armenian Apostolicism ) reject it. Although

14256-475: The major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism . Christology (from the Greek Χριστός , Khristós and -λογία , -logia ), literally 'the understanding of Christ', is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus Christ . It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and

14400-484: The management of finances and the wardrobe. Western Christendom during this period "absorbed Constantinopolitan liturgical customs and practices into its forms of worship and intercession". Maximus the Confessor , who was carried under heavy imperial guard from Rome to Constantinople in 654, typifies the theological development of Eastern monasticism in Rome vis-a-vis conflicts with the Byzantine emperors. Maximus and his fellow Graeco-Palestinian future Pope Theodore I led

14544-484: The middle of the 2nd century, such terms emphasized two themes: that of Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God and that of Jesus as a creature elected and "adopted" by God. The first theme makes use of concepts drawn from Classical antiquity, whereas the second relies on concepts characteristic of ancient Jewish thought. The second theme subsequently became the basis of "adoptionist Christology" (see adoptionism ), which viewed Jesus' baptism as

14688-519: The modern nuncio ) in Constantinople . The series of popes from John V to Zachary (685–752) is sometimes referred to as the "Byzantine captivity" because only one pope of this period, Gregory II, was not of "Eastern" extraction. According to Duffy, by the end of the 7th century, "Greek-speakers dominated the clerical culture of Rome, providing its theological brains, its administrative talent, and much of its visual, musical, and liturgical culture". Ekonomou argues that "after four decades of Byzantine rule,

14832-537: The next ten years, reconciliation increased the power of papacy: the church of Ravenna abandoned its claim to independent status (formerly endorsed by Constans II), imperial taxation was lessened, and the right of papal confirmation was delegated from Constantinople to the Exarch of Ravenna . It was during this period that the papacy began "thinking of the Universal Church not as the sum of individual churches as

14976-400: The oldest Christology. The other early Christology is "high Christology", which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come", and from where he appeared on earth . According to Bousset, this "high Christology" developed at the time of Paul's writing, under

15120-409: The papacy had been "cast out of the empire". Pope Zachary , in 741, was the last pope to announce his election to a Byzantine ruler or seek their approval. Within 50 years (Christmas 800), the papacy recognised Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor . This can be seen as symbolic of the papacy turning away from the declining Byzantium towards the new power of Carolingian Francia . Byzantium suffered

15264-604: The papal chair during this period. Rome under the Greek popes constituted a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions, reflected in art as well as liturgy. After his invasion of Italy during the Gothic War (535–554) , Emperor Justinian I forced the Goth-appointed Pope Silverius to abdicate and installed Pope Vigilius , a former apocrisiarius to Constantinople, in his place; Justinian next appointed Pope Pelagius I , holding only

15408-510: The papal treasury in the Lateran Palace , arrested and exiled the papal aristocracy at the imperial court, and desecrated the altar of the papal residence in Constantinople. Theodore was Greek-Palestinian, the son of the bishop of Jerusalem , chosen for his ability to combat various heresies originating from the East in his native tongue. As a result of Theodore's ability to debate his adversaries in their own language, "never again would

15552-449: The period of Rome's "Greek intermezzo '". According to Ekonomou, the inhabitants of both East and West had "grown weary of the decades of religious warfare", and the arrest of Martin I did much to dissipate the "religious fever of the empire's Italian subjects". Rapprochement within the empire was viewed as critical to combating the growing Lombard and Arab threat and thus no pope "referred again to Martin I" for seventy-five years. Although

15696-405: The person of Jesus. As of the second century, a number of different and opposing approaches developed among various groups. In contrast to prevailing monoprosopic views on the Person of Christ, alternative dyoprosopic notions were also promoted by some theologians, but such views were rejected by the ecumenical councils . For example, Arianism did not endorse divinity, Ebionism argued Jesus

15840-539: The point, it was without the customary imperial ratification that Martin had himself consecrated . In the previous year, the emperor had published the Typos of Constans . This document defended the heretical Monothelite thesis, which watered down the Catholic faith by claiming that Christ had not in fact had a human will. To silence this, and the confusion it caused, Pope Martin convened, within his first three months,

15984-622: The pope himself. Justinian II attempted to apprehend Sergius I as his predecessor had done with Martin I, underestimating the resentment against imperial authority among those in power in Italy, and the Italian-born troops from Ravenna and the Duchy of the Pentapolis mutinied in favor of Sergius I upon their arrival in Rome. Not long after, Justinian II was deposed in a coup (695). However, the thirteen revolts in Italy and Sicily that preceded

16128-604: The practice of saying Allelueia in Mass except during the fifty days between Easter and Pentecost; in a letter, Gregory I acknowledged the development, but claimed it originated in Jerusalem and reached Rome not through Constantinople but through Jerome and Pope Damasus. Similarly, Gregory I claimed an "ancient origin" for allowing subdeacons to participate in mass without tunics (a practice common in Constantinople). Gregory

16272-517: The relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation . " Ontological Christology" analyzes the nature or being of Jesus Christ. "Functional Christology" analyzes the works of Jesus Christ, while " soteriological Christology" analyzes the " salvific " standpoints of Christology. Several approaches can be distinguished within Christology. The term Christology from above or high Christology refers to approaches that include aspects of divinity, such as Lord and Son of God, and

16416-434: The remainder of the elections under Byzantine rule were without serious issue. During the pontificate of John V (685–686), the Emperor substantially lessened the taxation burden on papal patrimonies in Sicily and Calabria , also eliminating the surtax on grains and other imperial taxes. Justinian II during the reign of Conon also decreased taxes on the patrimonies of Bruttium and Lucania , releasing those conscripted into

16560-475: The requirement of imperial approval for consecration as pope, recognizing the sea change in the demographics of the city and its clergy. Benedict II's successor Pope John V was elected "by the general population", returning to the "ancient practice". The ten Greek successors of Agatho were likely the intended result of Constantine IV's concession. The deaths of Pope John V and (even more so) Pope Conon resulted in contested elections, but following Pope Sergius I

16704-469: The same epistle, he writes that "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation" (Colossians 1:15). The synoptic Gospels date from after the writings of Paul. They provide episodes from the life of Jesus and some of his works, but the authors of the New Testament show little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life, and as in John 21:25 ,

16848-487: The same time rejects the view that Jesus made a claim to messiahship or divinity to his disciples during his life as "naive and ahistorical". According to Gerd Lüdemann , the broad consensus among modern New Testament scholars is that the proclamation of the divinity of Jesus was a development within the earliest Christian communities. N. T. Wright points out that arguments over the claims of Jesus regarding divinity have been passed over by more recent scholarship, which sees

16992-478: The seventh century, the percentage of Easterners was higher for the priesthood. In contrast, a 679 synod convoked by Agatho was predominantly eastern (more than half of the bishops and two-thirds of the priests). These monastics "brought with them from the East an unbroken legacy of learning that, though shattered almost beyond recognition in the West, Byzantium had preserved in nearly pristine form from ancient times". Non-monks also emigrated to Rome, as can be seen in

17136-426: The skyrocketing popularity of names like Sisinnes , Georgios, Thalassios , and Sergius (and, to a lesser extent: Gregorios , Ioannes , Paschalis, Stephanos , and Theodoros ). Ekonomou cites the appearance of these names, along with the disappearance of Probus, Faustus , Venantius, and Importunus as evidence of the "radical transformation in the ethnic composition of the city". Byzantine traders came to dominate

17280-545: The soul, and other topics. The Third Council of Constantinople in 681 declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites , with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. The Second Council of Nicaea was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports

17424-477: The specific canons of the Council he found problematic and to confirm the rest; however, John VII took no action. In 710 Justinian II ordered Pope Constantine (in office 708–715) to appear in Constantinople by imperial mandate. Pope Constantine, a Syrian, left for Constantinople in 710 with thirteen clerics, eleven of them fellow Easterners. Crossing paths with Constantine in Naples was exarch John III Rizocopo , who

17568-410: The start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul. Some 'Early High Christology' proponents scholars argue that this "high Christology" may go back to Jesus himself. There is a controversy regarding whether Jesus himself claimed to be divine. In Honest to God , then- Bishop of Woolwich , John A. T. Robinson , questioned

17712-591: The story of Christ   [...] on the story of divine Wisdom". The title Kyrios for Jesus is central to the development of New Testament Christology. In the Septuagint it translates the Tetragrammaton , the holy Name of God. As such, it closely links Jesus with God – in the same way a verse such as Matthew 28:19, "The Name (singular) of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Kyrios

17856-449: The time. He further removed the bishoprics of Thessalonica , Corinth , Syracuse , Reggio , Nicopolis , Athens , and Patras from papal jurisdiction, instead subjecting them to the Patriarch of Constantinople. This was in effect an act of triage : it strengthened the imperial grip on the southern empire, but all but guaranteed the eventual destruction of the exarchate of Ravenna, which finally occurred at Lombard hands in 751. In effect,

18000-687: The trial and exile of Pope Martin I was translated into Latin in Rome in the ninth century by Anastasius Bibliothecarius . Since the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar , the memorial of Saint Martin I, which earlier versions of the calendar place on 12 November, is on 13 April, celebrated as the formal anniversary of his death. In the Byzantine-rite Churches, his feast day is 14 April (27 April New Style ). Pope Pius VII made an honourable reference to Martin in his 1800 encyclical Diu satis : Indeed,

18144-569: The writings via which Monothelitism had spread and caused rifts within the Catholic Church. This condemnation embraced not only the latest emperor's Typos but also the Ecthesis (the exposition of faith of Patriarch Sergius I of Constantinople , for which Emperor Heraclius had stood sponsor). Imperial interference in matters theological had been soundly rejected. Condemnation of all Monothelite writings provoked an angry reaction from

18288-474: Was a Greek from the court of Constantinople, had the power to approve papal consecration from the time of Honorius I. Emperor Constans II , the abductor of Martin I, resided himself in Rome for a period during the reign of Pope Vitalian . Vitalian's name was entered on the diptychs of the churches in Byzantium—the only name of a pope so entered since the pontificate of Honorius I (d. 638). Vitalian himself

18432-598: Was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to Cyril of Alexandria , who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the Theotokos , i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus. The First Council of Ephesus debated miaphysitism (two natures united as one after

18576-615: Was also guardian of Christendom's holiest relics, such as the Crown of thorns and the True Cross . To bring teaching prevalent in Constantinople into line with that elsewhere, and hastening to heal fissures appearing within the Catholic Church , decisiveness distinguished Martin from the start. According to Piero Bargellini, he neither sought nor waited for the Byzantine emperor Constans II's consent to his election. To emphasise

18720-531: Was also keen to distinguish the Latin Kyrie Eleison from the Greek, noting that only Roman clerics (rather than the entire congregation in unison) recited it, and thereafter affixed an additional Christe Eleison . Despite his vehement public statements to the contrary, Gregory I himself was an agent of creeping Byzantine influence. As Ekonomou states, Gregory "not only reflect but was in many ways responsible for Rome's ambivalent attitude toward

18864-421: Was an ordinary mortal, while Gnosticism held docetic views which argued Christ was a spiritual being who only appeared to have a physical body. The resulting tensions led to schisms within the church in the second and third centuries, and ecumenical councils were convened in the fourth and fifth centuries to deal with the issues. Although some of the debates may seem to various modern students to be over

19008-583: Was banished to a remote land and repeatedly threatened with an even more painful exile. Without the assistance offered by the pious generosity of individuals, he would not have had food for himself and his few attendants. Although he was tempted daily in his weakened and lonely state, he never surrendered his integrity. No deceit could trick, no fear perturb, no promises conquer, no difficulties or dangers break him. His enemies could extract from him no sign which would not prove to all that Peter "until this time and forever lives in his successors and exercises judgment as

19152-512: Was concentrated also in the diaconia along the Tiber , an emerging Byzantine quarter of the city, and the churches of San Giorgio in Vellabro and Santa Maria in Cosmedin . According to Duffy, Even the native traditions of Roman religious art were now transformed by Eastern influence, the monumental realism of the Roman style, represented in the apse of SS Cosmas and Damian, being replaced by

19296-462: Was himself gravely ill. Martin hoped that a new pope would not be elected while he lived but the imperial Byzantine government forced the Romans to find a successor. Eugene I was elected on 10 August 654, and Martin apparently acquiesced. After suffering an exhausting imprisonment and reportedly many public indignities, Martin was banished to Cherson , where he arrived on 15 May 655. He died there on 16 September. A selection of documents recording

19440-434: Was human who was "adopted" by God at his baptism, crucifixion, or resurrection. While there was a consensus as of 2007 that the divinity of Christ was a later development, there are scholars now who argue that the historical Jesus claimed to be God. Most scholars now argue that a high Christology existed prior to Paul. Brant Pitre 's argument that Jesus claimed to be divine has been particularly well received, obtaining

19584-519: Was never acknowledged, for the time solidifying the idea that the convening of ecumenical councils was an imperial prerogative. Within four years of the council's adjournment, both Martin I and Maximus the Confessor were arrested and tried in Constantinople for "transgressing the Typos ". According to Eamon Duffy, "one of the worst elements in Martin's suffering was the knowledge that while he still lived

19728-495: Was on his way to Rome where he would execute four high-ranking papal officials who had refused to accompany the pope. While Rome's rejection of the Trullan canons remained, the visit largely healed the rift between pope and emperor. Greek was the language of choice during this period as countless Easterners rose through the ranks of the clergy. According to Ekonomou, between 701 and 750, "Greeks outnumbered Latins by nearly three and

19872-545: Was possibly of Eastern extraction, and certainly nominated Greeks to important sees, including Theodore of Tarsus as Archbishop of Canterbury . Much has been said of Constans II's motives—perhaps to move the imperial capital to Rome or to reconquer large swathes of territory in the mold of Justinian I—but more likely he only intended to achieve limited military victories against the Slavs, Lombards, and Arabs. Vitalian heaped upon Constans II honors and ceremony (including

20016-513: Was resurrected. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his pre-existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. This "evolutionary model" was proposed by proponents of the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule , especially Wilhelm Bousset 's influential Kyrios Christos (1913). This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as

20160-472: Was sent as an atonement for the sins of everyone. The Pauline epistles use Kyrios to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord. Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the Son of God . The Pauline epistles also advanced

20304-603: Was short-lived, and Justinian II convoked the Quinisext Council (692, unattended by Western prelates) which settled upon a variety of decrees "calculated to offend Westerners", the canons of which were sent to Pope Sergius I (in office 687–701) for his signature; Sergius refused and openly flouted the new laws. The key point of contention were the regulations of the Trullan canons , which although primarily targeted at Eastern lapses, conflicted with existing practices in

20448-546: Was struck off the diptychs in the Monothelite East, a policy which did not change for the succeeding Pope Donus until after Donus' death. Constantine IV abandoned the policy of monothelitism and summoned the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, to which Pope Agatho sent a representative. The council returned to the Chalcedonian Creed , condemning Pope Honorius and the proponents of monothelitism. Over

20592-495: Was that Rome would experience its revitalization not by drawing upon its own pitiable resources, but rather through the collaboration of a Greco-Palestinian pope and a Constantinopolitan monk employing a style of theological discourse whose tradition was purely Eastern". As early as the papacy of Gregory I, the churches of Italy and Sicily began "increasingly following Eastern ritualistic forms", which Gregory I himself endeavored to combat and modify. For example, Roman churches adopted

20736-483: Was the only pope when Constantinople controlled the papacy whose election had not awaited imperial mandate. For his strong opposition to Monothelitism , Pope Martin I was arrested by Emperor Constans II , carried off to Constantinople, and ultimately banished to Cherson . He is considered a saint by both the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church , as well as the last pope recognised as

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