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110-658: Pope Benedict XV ( Latin : Benedictus XV ; Italian : Benedetto XV ), born Giacomo Paolo Giovanni Battista della Chiesa ( Italian: [ˈdʒaːkomo ˈpaːolo dʒoˈvanni batˈtista della ˈkjɛːza] ; 21 November 1854 – 22 January 1922), was head of the Catholic Church from 1914 until his death in January 1922. His pontificate was largely overshadowed by World War I and its political, social, and humanitarian consequences in Europe. Between 1846 and 1903,

220-473: A Cardinal-Secretary to run these bodies on a day-to-day basis. Due to the enduring Roman Question , after the announcement of his election to the papacy by the Cardinal Protodeacon , Benedict XV, following in the footsteps of his two most recent predecessors, did not appear on the balcony of St. Peter's basilica overlooking St. Peter's Square to grant the urbi et orbi blessing. Benedict XV

330-688: A Frenchman. The Belgian Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier , known as a brave patriot during German occupation but also famous for his anti-German propaganda, was said to have been favored by Benedict XV for his enmity to the German cause. After the war, Benedict also allegedly praised the Treaty of Versailles , which humiliated the Germans. These allegations were rejected by the Vatican's Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri , who wrote on 4 March 1916 that

440-477: A bicycle ( birota ), a cigarette ( fistula nicotiana ), a computer ( instrumentum computatorium ), a cowboy ( armentarius ), a motel ( deversorium autocineticum ), shampoo ( capitilavium ), a strike ( operistitium ), a terrorist ( tromocrates ), a trademark ( ergasterii nota ), an unemployed person ( invite otiosus ), a waltz ( chorea Vindobonensis ), and even a miniskirt ( tunicula minima ) and hot pants ( brevissimae bracae femineae ). Some 600 such terms extracted from

550-458: A delegation from Bologna visited him to ask for della Chiesa's promotion to the College of Cardinals, he jokingly replied by making fun of his own family name, Sarto (meaning "tailor"), for he said, "Sorry, but a Sarto has not been found yet to make the cardinal's robe." Cardinal Rampolla died on 16 December 1913. On 25 May 1914, della Chiesa was created a cardinal , becoming Cardinal-Priest of

660-635: A gold tassel sash". Benedict XV's pontificate was dominated by World War I , which he termed, along with its turbulent aftermath, "the suicide of Europe." Benedict's first encyclical extended a heartfelt plea for an end to hostilities. His early call for a general Christmas truce in 1914 was ignored, although informal truces were organized. Late in the war, in May–October 1917, the apparitions of Our Lady of Fatima occurred in Fatima, Portugal , apparitions that would be declared "worthy of belief" in 1930 during

770-598: A letter to the President imploring him to visit the pope after learning that Wilson was to go to Europe. Not long after, Wilson confirmed the visit and went to meet the pope accompanied by the Pontifical North American College rector Charles O'Hearn. Benedict XV took Wilson by the hand and led him into the study for their meeting, with the pope later presenting Wilson with a gift: a mosaic of Saint Peter . The interpreter had to be present for

880-736: A modern language, but the authoritative text, published in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , is usually in Latin. Some texts may be published initially in a modern language and be later revised, according to a Latin version (or "editio typica"), after this Latin version is published. For example, the Catechism of the Catholic Church was drafted and published, in 1992, in French. The Latin text appeared five years later, in 1997, and

990-796: A part of the Jesuit's Gregorian Consortium in Rome (along with the Gregorian University and the Biblicum ). In 1921, France re-established diplomatic relations with the Vatican. The end of the war caused the revolutionary development, which Benedict XV had foreseen in his first encyclical. With the Russian Revolution , the Vatican was faced with a new, so far unknown, situation. The relations with Russia changed drastically for

1100-569: A personal letter to Sultan Mehmed V , who was also Caliph of Islam. It had no success "as over a million Armenians died, either killed outright by the Turks or from maltreatment or starvation". At the time, the anti-Vatican resentment, combined with Italian diplomatic moves to isolate the Vatican in light of the unresolved Roman Question, contributed to the exclusion of the Vatican from the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (although it

1210-465: A proclamation of a secular republic. In Bologna itself, citizens and the Catholic Church opposed such developments successfully. The Socialists overwhelmingly won the following regional elections with great majorities. As World War I approached, the question was hotly discussed in Italy as to which side to be on. Officially, Italy was still in an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary . However, in

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1320-404: A pronunciation based on a fairly literal interpretation of Latin spelling. For example, in a radical break from the traditional system, a word such as ⟨ viridiarium ⟩ 'orchard' now had to be read aloud precisely as it was spelled rather than */verdʒjær/ (later spelled as Old French vergier ). The Carolingian reforms soon brought the new Church Latin from France to other lands where Romance

1430-479: A second reason. The Baltic states and Poland gained their independence from Russia after World War I , thus enabling a relatively free Church life in those former Russia-controlled countries. Estonia was the first country to look for Vatican ties. On 11 April 1919, Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri informed the Estonian authorities that the Vatican would agree to have diplomatic relations. A concordat

1540-595: A surgence of the Italian People's Party under Luigi Sturzo . Anti-Catholic politicians were gradually replaced by persons who were neutral or even sympathetic to the Catholic Church. King Victor Emmanuel III himself gave signals of his desire for better relations, when, for example, he sent personal condolences to the Pontiff on the death of his brother. Benedict XV, along with most traditional Catholics of his time, opposed voting rights for women in principle, on

1650-553: A village priest or provincial monsignore . Della Chiesa entered the Almo Collegio Capranica and was there in Rome when, in 1878, Pope Pius IX died and was followed by Pope Leo XIII . The new pope received the students of the Capranica in private audience only a few days after his coronation. Shortly thereafter, della Chiesa was ordained a priest by Cardinal Raffaele Monaco La Valletta on 21 December 1878 at

1760-531: A vowel is generally pronounced /tsi/ (unless preceded by ⟨s⟩ , ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t⟩ ). Such speakers pronounce consonantal ⟨v⟩ (not written as ⟨u⟩ ) as /v/ as in English, not as Classical /w/ . Like in Classical Latin, double consonants are pronounced with gemination . The distinction in Classical Latin between long and short vowels

1870-531: Is ignored, and instead of the ' macron ' or ' apex ', lines to mark the long vowel, an acute accent is used for stress. The first syllable of two-syllable words is stressed; in longer words, an acute accent is placed over the stressed vowel: adorémus 'let us adore'; Dómini 'of the Lord'. The complete text of the Bible in Latin, the revised Vulgate, appears at Nova Vulgata – Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio. New Advent gives

1980-526: Is not wholly oriented towards reconciliation. Prophetically, the Pope wrote that "if almost everywhere the war somehow ended and some peace pacts were signed, the germs of ancient grudges still remain. No peace has value if hatred and enmities are not put down together by means of a reconciliation based on mutual charity". The pope was also disturbed by the communist revolution in Russia. He reacted with horror to

2090-533: Is now the main university premises, was designed by the architect Bartolomeo Bianco , and began to be used in 1640. After the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, a special committee reorganized the various courses of study, dividing them in higher education (Canon Law, Philosophy, Civil Law, Theology, Logic and Metaphysics, Physics) and primary education (courses in Rhetoric, Reading and Writing). After

2200-406: The koine Greek , while adapting the meanings of some Latin words to those of the koine Greek originals, which are sometimes themselves translations of Hebrew originals. At first there was no distinction between Latin and the actual Romance vernacular, the former being just the traditional written form of the latter. For instance, in ninth-century Spain ⟨ saeculum ⟩ was simply

2310-473: The titulus Santi Quattro Coronati , which before him was occupied by Pietro Respighi . When the new cardinal tried to return to Bologna after the consistory in Rome, an unrelated socialist, anti-monarchic and anti-Catholic uprising began to take place in Central Italy. This was accompanied by a general strike, the looting and destruction of churches, telephone connections and railway buildings, and

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2420-1188: The Ave Maria , and the Credo in Latin." In the Anglican Church , the Book of Common Prayer was published in Latin, alongside English. John Wesley , the founder of the Methodist churches , "used Latin text in doctrinal writings", as Martin Luther and John Calvin did in their era. In the training of Protestant clergy in Württemberg , as well as in the Rhineland , universities instructed divinity students in Latin and their examinations were conducted in this language. The University of Montauban, under Reformed auspices, required that seminarians complete two theses, with one being in Latin; thus Reformed ministers were "Latinist by training", comparable to Catholic seminarians. Ecclesiastical Latin continues to be

2530-616: The Code of Canon Law , which was released on 27 May, the creation of which he had prepared with Eugenio Pacelli (the future Pope Pius XII ) and Pietro Gasparri during the pontificate of Pope Pius X . The new Code of Canon Law is considered to have stimulated religious life and activities throughout the Church. He named Gasparri to be his Cardinal Secretary of State and personally consecrated Nuncio Pacelli on 13 May 1917 as Archbishop. World War I caused great damage to Catholic missions throughout

2640-578: The Irish Republic that saw to the end of the Irish War of Independence . Negotiations were conducted in London , however, there was a rise in tension during the negotiations over separate telegrams sent to Benedict XV by both King George V and Éamon de Valera . The telegram sent by de Valera took issue with the language that George V used in his message to the pope and responded to simply clarify

2750-798: The Lateran basilica . From 1878 until 1883 he studied at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy in Rome. It was there, on every Thursday, that students were required to defend a research paper, to which cardinals and high members of the Roman Curia were invited. Mariano Rampolla , then Secretary for Oriental Affairs of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith , took note of him and furthered his entry in

2860-733: The Latin Church , as well as the Western Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church . It is occasionally used in Anglican Church and Lutheran Church liturgies as well. Today, ecclesiastical Latin is primarily used in official documents of the Catholic Church, in the Tridentine Mass , and it is still learned by clergy. The Ecclesiastical Latin that is used in theological works, liturgical rites and dogmatic proclamations varies in style: syntactically simple in

2970-452: The League of Nations as a secular organization that was not built on Christian values. On the other hand, he also condemned European nationalism that was rampant in the 1920s and asked for "European Unification" in his 1920 encyclical Pacem Dei Munus Pulcherrimum , "peace, a beautiful gift of God". Similarly, Benedict XV extolled the virtues of peace, denouncing the fragility of a peace that

3080-711: The Polish occupation of Vilnius , a city and archiepiscopal seat, which Lithuania claimed as its own. Polish forces had occupied Vilnius and committed acts of brutality in its Catholic seminary there. This generated several protests by Lithuania to the Holy See. Before all other heads of state, Pope Benedict XV in October 1918 congratulated the Polish people on their independence. In a public letter to Archbishop Aleksander Kakowski of Warsaw , he remembered their loyalty and

3190-482: The Tyrol , an integral part of Austria which was mostly German-speaking, the southern part, the province of Trentino , was exclusively Italian-speaking. The clergy of Bologna was not totally free from nationalistic fervor either. Therefore, in his capacity as Archbishop, on the outbreak of World War I , della Chiesa made a speech on the Church's position and duties, emphasizing the need for neutrality , promoting peace and

3300-616: The University of Genoa , which after the unification of Italy was largely dominated by anti-Catholic and anti-clerical politics. With his doctorate in Law and at legal age, he again asked his father for permission to study for the priesthood, which was now reluctantly granted. He insisted, however, that his son conduct his theological studies in Rome , not in Genoa , so that he would not end up as

3410-783: The Vulgate Bible , hieratic (very restrained) in the Roman Canon of the Mass , terse and technical in Thomas Aquinas 's Summa Theologica , and Ciceronian (syntactically complex) in Pope John Paul II 's encyclical letter Fides et Ratio . The use of Latin in the Church started in the late fourth century with the split of the Roman Empire after Emperor Theodosius in 395. Before this split, Greek

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3520-635: The Western Roman Empire . The loss of Greek in the Western half of the Roman Empire, and the loss of Latin in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire were not immediate, but changed the culture of language as well as the development of the Church. What especially differentiates Ecclesiastical Latin from Classical Latin is the consequences of its use as a language for translating, since it has borrowed and assimilated constructions and vocabulary from

3630-460: The traditional English pronunciation of Latin , which has now been largely abandoned for reading Latin texts. Within the Catholic Church and in certain Protestant churches, such as the Anglican Church , a pronunciation based on modern Italian phonology , known as Italianate Latin , has become common since the late 19th century. Ecclesiastical Latin is the language of liturgical rites in

3740-652: The 50th anniversary of the apparition. The unexpected death of his friend, supporter and mentor Rampolla on 16 December 1913 was a major blow to della Chiesa, who was one of the beneficiaries of his will. It was a custom that the Archbishop of Bologna would be made a cardinal in one of the coming consistories . In Bologna this was surely expected of della Chiesa as well, since, in previous years, either cardinals were named as archbishops, or archbishops as cardinals soon thereafter. Pius X did not follow this tradition and left della Chiesa waiting for almost seven years. When

3850-636: The Bolshevik advance against Warsaw during the Polish–Soviet War , he asked for worldwide public prayers for Poland. Nuncio Ratti was the only foreign diplomat to stay in the Polish capital. On 11 June 1921, he wrote to the Polish episcopate, warning against political misuses of spiritual power, urging again for peaceful coexistence with neighbouring peoples, stating that "love of country has its limits in justice and obligations". He sent nuncio Ratti to Silesia to act against potential political agitations of

3960-423: The Catholic Church had experienced two of its longest pontificates in history up to that point. Together Pius IX and Leo XIII ruled for a total of 57 years. In 1914, the College of Cardinals chose della Chiesa at the relatively young age of 59 at the outbreak of World War I, which he labeled " the suicide of civilized Europe ". The war and its consequences were the main focus of Benedict XV. He immediately declared

4070-653: The Catholic Pope was neutral on paper only, strongly favoring the allies instead. Benedict was said to have prompted Austria-Hungary to go to war in order to weaken the German war machine. Also, allegedly, the Papal Nuncio in Paris explained in a meeting of the Institut Catholique , "to fight against France is to fight against God", and the Pope was said to have exclaimed that he was sorry not to be

4180-638: The Catholic clergy. Ratti, a scholar, intended to work for Poland and build bridges to the Soviet Union , hoping even to shed his blood for Russia. Pope Benedict XV needed him as a diplomat and not as a martyr and forbade any trip into the USSR even though he was the official papal delegate to Russia. However, he continued his contacts with Russia. This did not generate much sympathy for him within Poland at

4290-883: The French text was corrected to match the Latin version, which is regarded as the official text. The Latin-language department of the Vatican Secretariat of State (formerly the Secretaria brevium ad principes et epistolarum latinarum ) is charged with the preparation in Latin of papal and curial documents. Sometimes, the official text is published in a modern language, e.g., the well-known edict Tra le sollecitudini (1903) by Pope Pius X (in Italian) and Mit brennender Sorge (1937) by Pope Pius XI (in German). There are not many differences between Classical Latin and Church Latin. One can understand Church Latin knowing

4400-469: The Holy Office, and his alignment with the policies of Pius X, other cardinals such as Andrea Carlo Ferrari and Désiré-Joseph Mercier believed that the new pope needed to focus not on Modernism and doctrinal debates, but rather, a softer focus after the somewhat harsh reign of Pius X. To that end, those cardinals turned towards electing the liberal Archbishop of Pisa Pietro Maffi . Della Chiesa, on

4510-412: The Holy See in 1933, is the allegation that Benedict XV, in a private interview with Count George Noble Plunkett in mid-April 1916, imparted an Apostolic blessing to the Irish Republic just two weeks before the Easter Rising . The fact that the Pope is purported to have done so was widely accepted by Republicans , though categorically denied later by L'Osservatore Romano in 1933. Additionally, it

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4620-434: The Holy See is completely impartial and does not favor the allied side. This was even more important, so Gasparri noted, after the diplomatic representatives of Germany and Austria-Hungary to the Vatican were expelled from Rome by Italian authorities. However, considering all this, German Protestants rejected any "Papal Peace", calling it insulting. French politician Georges Clemenceau , a fierce anti-clerical, claimed to regard

4730-818: The Latin of classical texts, as the main differences between the two are in pronunciation and spelling, as well as vocabulary. In many countries, those who speak Latin for liturgical or other ecclesiastical purposes use the pronunciation that has become traditional in Rome by giving the letters the value they have in modern Italian but without distinguishing between open and close ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ . ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ coalesce with ⟨e⟩ . ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ before ⟨ae⟩ , ⟨oe⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨y⟩ and ⟨i⟩ are pronounced /t͡ʃ/ (English ⟨ch⟩ ) and /d͡ʒ/ (English ⟨j⟩ ), respectively. ⟨ti⟩ before

4840-561: The Royal Naval School and the Royal School of Economic Studies, that in 1936, were absorbed by the Royal University of Genoa, becoming the Faculties of Engineering and Economics respectively. In the late 20th century, the university expanded rapidly, with new regional campuses. In 1996, some departments were established in Savona within a remodeled Army Barrack area. That campus hosts the Department of Engineering and also courses in Business. New laboratories have been made in Simulation, Logistics & Industrial Engineering, among others. As of

4950-454: The University of Genoa has high-ranking positions among the European universities in multiple computer science fields: In the academic year 21/22, the university has a student population around 39,766. Of these, 33,920 are students entrolled in bachelor's and master's degree courses; 3,328 are students enrolled in doctorate, master's or specialisation school courses. Finally, 2,518 are students enrolled in other courses. The number of freshmen

5060-425: The Vatican initiative as anti-French. Benedict made many unsuccessful attempts to negotiate peace, but these pleas for a negotiated peace made him unpopular, even in Catholic countries like Italy, among many supporters of the war who were determined to accept nothing less than total victory. On 1 August 1917, Benedict issued a seven-point peace plan stating that: Great Britain reacted favorably though popular opinion

5170-431: The Vatican. Almost a third of it concerned missing persons. Some 40,000 people had asked for help in the repatriation of sick POWs and 50,000 letters were sent from families to their loved ones who were POWs. Both during and after the war, Benedict was primarily concerned about the fate of the children, on whose behalf he issued an encyclical. In 1916 he appealed to the people and clergy of the United States to help him feed

5280-403: The academic year 2012-2013, the university is headed by a rector and it was divided into 5 schools, comprising a total of 23 departments (one of which is inter-school): The University of Genoa shares a branch campus of Florida International University in Miami, Florida , United States , in Genoa. The two universities mutually host students of either university's School of Architecture. In

5390-457: The acronym UniGe ( Italian : Università di Genova ), is a public research university . It is one of the largest universities in Italy and it is located in the city of Genoa , on the Italian Riviera in the Liguria region of northwestern Italy. The original university was founded in 1481. The University of Genoa is organized in several independent campuses located in different city areas: Of great historical and artistic interest are

5500-417: The anti-clerical Republican government of France, and canonized the French national heroine Saint Joan of Arc . In the mission territories of the Third World , he emphasized the necessity of training native priests to quickly replace the European missionaries, and founded the Pontifical Oriental Institute and the Coptic College in the Vatican. Pius XI would entrust the "Orientale" to the Jesuits and make it

5610-429: The book appear on a page of the Vatican website. The Latinitas Foundation was superseded by the Pontifical Academy for Latin ( Latin : Pontificia Academia Latinitatis ) in 2012. Latin remains an oft-used language of the Holy See and the Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church. Until the 1960s and still later in Roman colleges like the Gregorian, Catholic priests studied theology using Latin textbooks and

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5720-447: The buildings in Via Balbi and in particular: the main university premises (via Balbi, 5) designed by the architect Bartolomeo Bianco and built in 1640, Palazzo Balbi Cattaneo (via Balbi, 2), and Palazzo Balbi Senarega (via Balbi, 4). Also of major historical interest is the complex of Albergo dei Poveri (piazza Emanuele Brignole). The university's botanical garden , the Orto Botanico dell'Università di Genova , occupies one hectare in

5830-402: The cardinals, hence, deep suspicion in many cardinals of their European colleagues. During the conclave, Cardinal Domenico Serafini and his faction had enough votes to ensure that della Chiesa was not elected, particularly since the eighth ballot had della Chiesa with a majority, though below the two-thirds needed for election. While Serafini was considered " papabile " due to his position at

5940-535: The city center, just above the university's main building. University of Genoa also has a number of regional campuses in Savona , Imperia , Ventimiglia and La Spezia . In particular, Near Ventimiglia, the University of Genoa operates the Hanbury Botanical Garden , a Protected Area and candidate for UNESCO World Heritage status within the "Mediterranean Alps" project. In the 13th century in Genoa there were already Colleges which conferred degrees in law , theology , medicine and arts . The College of Theology

6050-422: The correct way to spell [sjeɡlo] , meaning 'century'. The writer would not have actually read it aloud as /sɛkulum/ any more than an English speaker today would pronounce ⟨knight⟩ as */knɪxt/ . The spoken version of Ecclesiastical Latin was created later during the Carolingian Renaissance . The English scholar Alcuin , tasked by Charlemagne with improving the standards of Latin writing in France, prescribed

6160-431: The demise of Imperial Russia , Austria-Hungary, and Germany. Large food shipments, and information about and contacts with POWs, were to be the first steps for a better understanding of the papacy in Europe. Regarding the Versailles Peace Conference , the Vatican believed that the economic conditions imposed on Germany were too harsh and threatened the European economic stability as a whole. Cardinal Gasparri believed that

6270-456: The diplomatic service of the Vatican in 1882, where he was employed by Rampolla as a secretary and in January 1883 accompanied nuncio Rampolla to Madrid . Just after Leo XIII 's death in 1903, Rampolla tried to make della Chiesa the secretary of the conclave, but the Sacred College elected Rafael Merry del Val , a conservative young prelate, the first sign that Rampolla would not be the next Pope. When Cardinal Rampolla had to leave his post with

6380-414: The easing of suffering. Following the death of Pius X , the resulting conclave opened at the end of August 1914. The war would clearly be the dominant issue of the new pontificate, so the cardinals' priority was to choose a man with great diplomatic experience. Thus on 3 September 1914, della Chiesa, despite having been a cardinal only three months, was elected pope, taking the name of Benedict XV. He chose

6490-507: The election of his opponent Pope Pius X , and was succeeded by Merry del Val, della Chiesa was retained in his post. Della Chiesa's association with Rampolla, the architect of Pope Leo XIII 's (1878–1903) foreign policy, made his position in the Secretariat of State under the new pontificate somewhat uncomfortable. Italian papers announced that on 15 April 1907 the papal nuncio Aristide Rinaldini in Madrid would be replaced by della Chiesa, who had worked there before. Pius X , chuckling over

6600-534: The entire Bible, in the Douay version, verse by verse, accompanied by the Vulgate Latin of each verse. In 1976, the Latinitas Foundation ( Opus Fundatum Latinitas in Latin) was established by Pope Paul VI to promote the study and use of Latin. Its headquarters are in Vatican City . The foundation publishes an eponymous quarterly in Latin. The foundation also published a 15,000-word Italian-Latin Lexicon Recentis Latinitatis ( Dictionary of Recent Latin ), which provides Latin coinages for modern concepts, such as

6710-451: The episcopal consecration from Pope Pius X himself. The Pope donated his own episcopal ring and crosier to the new bishop and spent much time with the della Chiesa family on the following day. On 23 February 1908, della Chiesa took possession of his new diocese, which included 700,000 persons, 750 priests, as well as 19 male and 78 female religious institutes . In the episcopal seminary, some 25 teachers educated 120 students preparing for

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6820-405: The establishment of the French Empire , which absorbed the Republic of Genoa, higher education was subdivided into different special schools: Law, Medicine, Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Commerce, Language and Literature, Chemistry. The University of Genoa was affiliated to the Imperial University of Paris . It was reinstated as a separate university in 1812. [1] After the fall of Napoleon,

6930-519: The existence and freedom of the Church. To deal with these and related issues, Benedict engaged in what he knew best, a large scale diplomatic offensive to secure the rights of the faithful in all countries. Leo XIII already had agreed to the participation of Catholics in local but not national politics. Relations with Italy improved as well under Benedict XV, who de facto reversed the stiff anti-Italian policy of his predecessors by allowing Catholics to participate in national elections as well. This led to

7040-530: The field of international diplomacy Pope Benedict also tried to bring about peace through Christian faith, as he published a special prayer in 1915 to be spoken by Catholics throughout the world. Almost from the beginning of the war, November 1914, Benedict negotiated with the warring parties about an exchange of wounded and other prisoners of war who were unable to continue fighting. Tens of thousands of such prisoners were exchanged through his intervention. On 15 January 1915, he proposed an exchange of civilians from

7150-438: The grounds that it would take them out of their "natural sphere". However, he was pragmatic and recognized female suffrage could be a "social necessity in some countries...in order to counter the generally subversive views of the socialists with the supposedly conservative votes of women", believing that women would help support traditional Catholic positions if granted suffrage. Benedict XV also attempted to improve relations with

7260-419: The journalist's knowledge, commented, "Unfortunately, the paper forgot to mention whom I nominated as the next Archbishop of Bologna ." The Vatican had supposedly "gone so far as to make out the papers naming him the papal nuncio, but [della Chiesa] refused to accept them". On 18 December 1907, in the presence of his family, the diplomatic corps, numerous bishops and cardinals, and his friend Rampolla, he received

7370-431: The language of instruction in many seminaries was also Latin, which was seen as the language of the Church Fathers. The use of Latin in pedagogy and in theological research, however, has since declined. Nevertheless, canon law requires for seminary formation to provide for a thorough training in Latin, though "the use of Latin in seminaries and pontifical universities has now dwindled to the point of extinction." Latin

7480-445: The many efforts of the Holy See to assist them. He expressed his hopes that Poland would again take its place in the family of nations and continue its history as an educated Christian nation. In March 1919, he nominated 10 new bishops and, soon after, Achille Ratti , who was already in Warsaw as his representative, as papal nuncio . He repeatedly cautioned Polish authorities against persecuting Lithuanian and Ruthenian clergy. During

7590-417: The meeting, since the pope was speaking in French, and Wilson only spoke English. The presidential party was presented to the pope, and after presenting his personal physician Admiral Grayson (telling the pope that he "is the man who keeps me well"), the pope said: "Apparently, he has done a splendid job", before offering words to Grayson. The pope blessed the entourage, despite Wilson's slight confusion, after

7700-413: The name because of his devotion to St. Benedict of Nursia , perhaps also in honour of Pope Benedict XIV , who had been an archbishop from Bologna. Upon being elected pope, he was also formally the Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, prefect of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office and prefect of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation . There was, however,

7810-480: The nature between both parties and the reasons that there had been tension between the two. In his letter to George V, the Pope praised the ongoing efforts for peace, saying that "We rejoice at the resumption of the Anglo-Irish negotiations" and that the negotiations would "end the age-long dissention" between both sides. Benedict XV further declared himself "overjoyed with the agreement happily reached in regard to Ireland". A source of contention, despite firm denials by

7920-464: The neutrality of the Holy See and attempted from that perspective to mediate peace in 1916 and 1917. Both sides rejected his initiatives. German Protestants rejected any "Papal Peace" as insulting. The French politician Georges Clemenceau regarded the Vatican initiative as being anti-French. Having failed with diplomatic initiatives, Benedict XV focused on humanitarian efforts to lessen the impacts of

8030-477: The new international system that had emerged. The papacy was faced with the emergence of numerous new states such as Poland , Lithuania , Estonia , Yugoslavia , Czechoslovakia , Finland, and others. Germany , France , Italy, and Austria were impoverished from the war. In addition, the traditional social and cultural European order was threatened by right-wing nationalism and fascism as well as left-wing socialism and communism, all of which potentially threatened

8140-518: The occupied zones, which resulted in 20,000 persons being sent to unoccupied Southern France in one month. In 1916, Benedict managed to hammer out an agreement between both sides by which 29,000 prisoners with lung disease from the gas attacks could be sent into Switzerland. In May 1918, he also negotiated an agreement whereby prisoners on both sides with at least 18 months of captivity and four children at home would also be sent to neutral Switzerland. He succeeded in 1915 in reaching an agreement by which

8250-483: The official language of the Catholic Church. The Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) decreed that the Mass would be translated into vernacular languages. The Church produces liturgical texts in Latin, which provide a single clear point of reference for translations into all other languages. The same holds for the texts of canon law . Pope Benedict XVI gave his unexpected resignation speech in Latin. The Holy See has for some centuries usually drafted documents in

8360-555: The other and was unwilling to accept the terms he proposed. Still, although unsuccessful, his diplomatic efforts during the war are credited with an increase of papal prestige and served as a model in the 20th century for the peace efforts of Pius XII before and during World War II , the policies of Paul VI during the Vietnam War , and the position of John Paul II before and during the Iraq War . In addition to his efforts in

8470-486: The other hand, was wedged between Maffi and Serafini as representing the best and worst of both factions, hence his contention in the balloting. While della Chiesa seemed to secure support from some conservative cardinals, Maffi lagged considerably and hence Serafini was positioned as della Chiesa's main rival. Since Maffi had lagged in the balloting, his supporters decided to counter Serafini and threw their support for della Chiesa, securing his election by only one vote in what

8580-410: The papacy of his successor, Pius XI . The national antagonisms between the warring parties were accentuated by religious differences before the war, with France, Italy and Belgium being largely Catholic. Vatican relations with Great Britain were good, while neither Prussia nor Imperial Germany had any official relations with the Vatican. In Protestant circles of Germany, the notion was popular that

8690-585: The part of the deceased pontiff that there were fewer moderate and progressive cardinals in the Sacred College. However, the cardinals feared that one of the sides in World War I might potentially influence the conclave to elect a pope that would prove amenable to their side and their positions. While the cardinals expressed relief in the abolition of the veto in 1904, there was still a palpable fear that there would be subtle attempts to exert control over

8800-500: The peace conditions and the humiliation of the Germans would likely result in another war as soon as Germany would be militarily in a position to start one. The Vatican also rejected the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, seeing in this step an inevitable and eventual strengthening of Germany. The Vatican also had great reservations about the creation of small successor states which, in the view of Gasparri, were not viable economically and therefore condemned to economic misery. Benedict rejected

8910-520: The poor." A meeting of all priests in a synod had to be postponed at the wish of the Vatican considering ongoing changes in Canon Law . Numerous churches were built or restored. He personally originated a major reform of the educational orientation of the seminary, adding more science courses and classic education to the curriculum . He organized pilgrimages to Marian shrines in Loreto and Lourdes at

9020-532: The pope assured Wilson his blessing did not discriminate those of other faiths, since Wilson was a Presbyterian . Following the declaration of the Irish Republic in 1919, Benedict XV was visited by Seán T. O'Kelly in May 1920, who explained Irish politics and presented a memorandum, hoping for support from the "Sovereign Pontiff". In 1921, a peace agreement was formalized between the British Empire and

9130-613: The preliminary diplomatic negotiations leading to the Balfour Declaration , Pope Benedict gave his support to a Jewish homeland in Palestine to Zionist diplomat Nahum Sokolow on 4 May 1917, describing the return of the Jews to Palestine as "providential; God has willed it." Cardinal James Gibbons helped secure a meeting between the pope and President Woodrow Wilson which took place on 4 January 1919. The cardinal had sent

9240-428: The priesthood. As bishop, he visited all parishes, making a special effort to see the smaller ones in the mountains which could only be accessed on horse-back. He always saw preaching as the main obligation of a bishop. He usually gave two or more sermons a day during his visitations. His emphasis was on cleanliness inside all churches and chapels and on saving money wherever possible, for he said, "Let us save to give to

9350-719: The provisional Government of the Republic appointed a new Committee in charge of higher education, and at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, it was decided that the University of Genoa be entrusted to the Kingdom of Sardinia , enjoying the same privileges as those granted to the University of Turin . The university was closed owing to political disturbances between 1821 and 1823 and again between 1830 and 1835. In 1870, two first technical institutes of higher education were established:

9460-557: The ranking of Italian universities, the University of Genoa is ranked 13th by ARWU, 18th by QS, and 18th by THE. The university is ranked 151–200 in Engineering - Civil and Structural in the QS World University Subject Rankings. Times Higher Education gave the university a rank of 150+ in the Law category in its 2020 list of subjects. According to Microsoft Academic Search 2016 rankings,

9570-613: The start of that month. He was buried in the grottoes of Saint Peter's Basilica . With his diplomatic skills and his openness towards modern society, "he gained respect for himself and the papacy." Giacomo della Chiesa was born prematurely at Pegli , a suburb of Genoa , Italy, the third son and sixth child of Marchese Giuseppe della Chiesa (1821–1892) and his wife Marchesa Giovanna Migliorati (1827–1904). Genealogy findings report that his father's side produced Pope Callixtus II and also claimed descent from Berengar II of Italy and that his maternal family produced Pope Innocent VII . He

9680-881: The starving children in German-occupied Belgium. His aid to children was not limited to Belgium but extended to children in Lithuania, Poland, Lebanon, Montenegro, Syria and Russia. Benedict was particularly appalled at the new military invention of aerial warfare and protested several times against it to no avail. In May and June 1915, the Ottoman Empire waged a genocide against the Armenian Christian minorities in Anatolia . The Vatican attempted to get Germany and Austria-Hungary involved in protesting to its Turkish ally. The Pope himself sent

9790-454: The strongly anti-religious policies adopted by Vladimir Lenin 's government along with the bloodshed and widespread famine which occurred during the subsequent Russian Civil War . He undertook the greatest efforts trying to help the victims of the Russian famine with millions in relief. In the post-war period, Pope Benedict XV was involved in developing the Church administration to deal with

9900-619: The time. He was asked to go. While he tried honestly to show himself as a friend of Poland, Warsaw forced his departure after his neutrality in Silesian voting was questioned by Germans and Poles. Nationalistic Germans objected to a Polish nuncio supervising elections, and Poles were upset because he curtailed agitating clergy. On 20 November, when German Cardinal Adolf Bertram announced a papal ban on all political activities of clergymen, calls for Ratti's expulsion climaxed in Warsaw. As part of

10010-479: The vernacular has predominated since the liturgical reforms that followed the Second Vatican Council: liturgical law for the Latin Church states that Mass may be celebrated either in Latin or another language in which the liturgical texts, translated from Latin, have been legitimately approved. The permission granted for continued use of the Tridentine Mass in its 1962 form authorizes use of

10120-763: The vernacular language in proclaiming the Scripture readings after they are first read in Latin. In historic Protestant churches, such as the Anglican Communion and Lutheran churches , Ecclesiastical Latin is occasionally employed in sung celebrations of the Mass . until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–700 Late Latin 700–1500 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1300– present Neo-Latin 1900– present Contemporary Latin University of Genoa The University of Genoa , known also with

10230-473: The war, such as attending prisoners of war, the exchange of wounded soldiers and food deliveries to needy populations in Europe. After the war, he repaired the difficult relations with France , which re-established relations with the Vatican in 1921. During his pontificate, relations with Italy improved as well, as Benedict XV now permitted Catholic politicians led by Don Luigi Sturzo to participate in national Italian politics. In 1917, Benedict XV promulgated

10340-460: The warring parties promised not to let prisoners of war (POWs) work on Sundays and holidays . Several individuals on both sides were spared the death penalty after his intervention. Hostages were exchanged and corpses repatriated. The Pope founded the Opera dei Prigionieri to assist in distributing information on prisoners. By the end of the war, some 600,000 items of correspondence were processed by

10450-779: The world. Benedict XV revitalized these activities, asking in Maximum illud for Catholics throughout the world to participate. For that, he has been referred to as the "Pope of Missions". His last concern was the emerging persecution of the Catholic Church in Soviet Russia and the famine there after the revolution. Benedict XV was devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary and authorized the Feast of Mary, Mediatrix of all Graces . After seven years in office, Pope Benedict XV died on 22 January 1922 after battling pneumonia since

10560-601: Was crowned in the Sistine Chapel on 6 September 1914, and, also as a form of protest due to the Roman question , there was no ceremony for the formal possession of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran . In the 1914 conclave, the cardinals were divided into two factions: the "reactionaries" and the "conservatives". The decade-long campaign waged against Modernism cast a cloud over the conclave, and also ensured on

10670-686: Was 6,293 and the number of graduating students was 5,257. In 2021, there were 1,307 professors and scientific employees and 1,228 non-scientific employees working for University of Genoa. Since its foundation, the University of Genoa has awarded 46 gold medals to Italian students and 2 gold medals to international students, namely the Israeli student Khor Hoksari in 1993 and the Albanian student Agasi Bledar in 2021. Since 1992, it has awarded 140 honorary degrees and 1 honorary doctorate. The most recent honorary titles granted are: The University of Genoa has

10780-415: Was a protracted conclave. Upon his election, Benedict XV was unable to locate a suitable cassock to wear since the three that were available to him did not appropriately fit his frail form. From a diary that recorded the events of the conclave, "the papal habit that was chosen was the small one, but lacking in some part, and being a little long, it was adapted with clothespin pins, and raised and covered with

10890-477: Was agreed upon in principle a year later in June 1920. It was signed on 30 May 1922. It guaranteed freedom for the Catholic Church, established archdioceses, liberated clergy from military service, allowed the creation of seminaries and Catholic schools, and enshrined church property rights and immunity. The Archbishop swore alliance to Estonia. Relations with Catholic Lithuania were slightly more complicated because of

11000-486: Was alleged that Plunkett pledged the Irish Republic to fidelity to the Holy See, with the Pope formally imparting his blessing on the endeavors of the Irish Republic, prompting the Archbishop of Armagh Michael Logue to send a telegram to the Pope on 30 April 1916 asking for a clarification as to what occurred during the meeting. When L'Osservatore Romano denied these claims in 1933, the paper said that "the news

11110-443: Was also a descendant of Blessed Antonio della Chiesa . His brother, Giovanni Antonio Della Chiesa, married the niece of Cardinal Angelo Jacobini . Due to his premature birth, Giacomo was left with a limp and completed much of his early education at home. His wish to become a priest was rejected early on by his father, who insisted on a legal career for his son. At age 21 he acquired a doctorate in Law on 2 August 1875. He had attended

11220-504: Was also part of a historical pattern of political and diplomatic marginalization of the papacy after the loss of the Papal States). Despite this, he wrote an encyclical pleading for international reconciliation, Pacem, Dei Munus Pulcherrimum. After the war, Benedict focused the Vatican's activities on overcoming famine and misery in Europe and establishing contacts and relations with the many new states which were created because of

11330-648: Was entirely unfounded" and that the actions of Benedict XV were "in open contradiction to the well-known gentleness of the late Pontiff and to his most lively desire for peace and the prevention of any further effusion of blood". Plunkett himself affirmed the truth of the allegations, saying "The fact is that the that the Papal Blessing given the men of 1916 by Pope Benedict has only one witness remaining – myself. Those who profess to refute me have not evidence to support them". Ecclesiastical Latin Its pronunciation

11440-795: Was established officially in 1471 with a papal bull of Sixtus IV (Francesco della Rovere). Some years after dates the promulgation of a Statute of the College of Medicine by the Council of the Elders in 1481. In 1569, by a decree of the Senate of Republic of Genoa , the Colleges were incorporated into the schools run by the Jesuits . The Jesuits settled near the old Church of San Girolamo Del Rosso, and enlarged their premises by buying some land on which to house their College and schools. The building, which

11550-560: Was mixed. President of the United States Woodrow Wilson rejected the plan. Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary were also favorable, but Germany replied ambiguously. Benedict also called for outlawing conscription, a call he repeated in 1921. Some of the proposals eventually were included in Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points call for peace in January 1918. In Europe, each side saw him as biased in favor of

11660-587: Was partly standardized in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance as part of Charlemagne 's educational reforms, and this new letter-by-letter pronunciation, used in France and England, was adopted in Iberia and Italy a couple of centuries afterwards. As time passed, pronunciation diverged depending on the local vernacular language, giving rise to even highly divergent forms such as

11770-581: Was spoken. The use of Latin in the Western Church continued into the Early modern period . One of Martin Luther 's tenets during the Reformation was to have services and religious texts in the common tongue , rather than Latin, a language that at the time, many did not understand. Protestants refrained from using Latin in services, however Protestant clergy had to learn and understand Latin as it

11880-598: Was still spoken in recent international gatherings of Catholic leaders, such as the Second Vatican Council , and it is still used at conclaves to elect a new Pope . The Tenth Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops in 2004 was the most recent to have a Latin-language group for discussions. Although Latin is the traditional liturgical language of the Western (Latin) Church , the liturgical use of

11990-761: Was the language of higher learning and theological thought until the 18th century. After the Reformation , in the Lutheran churches , Latin was retained as the language of the Mass for weekdays, although for the Sunday Sabbath, the Deutsche Messe was to be said. In Geneva , among the Reformed churches , "persons called before the consistory to prove their faith answered by reciting the Paternoster ,

12100-628: Was the primary language of the Church (the New Testament was written in Greek and the Septuagint – a Greek translation of the Hebrew bible – was in widespread use among both Christians and Hellenized Jews ) as well as the language of the eastern half of the Roman Empire . Following the split, early theologians like Jerome translated Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin, the dominant language of

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