This is an accepted version of this page
118-654: Pope Liberius (310 – 24 September 366) was the bishop of Rome from 17 May 352 until his death. According to the Catalogus Liberianus , he was consecrated on 22 May as the successor to Julius I . He is not mentioned as a saint in the Roman Martyrology . That makes him the earliest pontiff not to be venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church and, along with Anastasius II , one of only two popes to be omitted from Catholic sainthood in
236-431: A university degree in institutions of higher education . According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class , and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salaries". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of
354-506: A Catholic viewpoint, the primacy of the bishop of Rome is largely derived from his role as the apostolic successor to Saint Peter , to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus, who gave Peter the Keys of Heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing", naming him as the "rock" upon which the Church would be built. While his office is called the papacy , the jurisdiction of the episcopal see
472-438: A Coptic Orthodox priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party remained dominant. After the 2018 Sudanese revolution , one Copt ( Raja Nicola Issa Abdul-Masseh ) was appointed in 2019 to the 11-member Transitional Sovereignty Council , which was convened as part of plan to transition Sudan to democracy. However, a military coup in 2019 , led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo , dissolved
590-510: A council might be called at Aquileia with reference to the affairs of Athanasius of Alexandria , but his messenger Vincentius of Capua was compelled by the emperor at a conciliabulum held in Arles to subscribe against his will to a condemnation of the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria . Constantius was sympathetic to the Arians , and when he could not persuade Liberius to his point of view sent
708-805: A coup d'état against King Farouk , which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser 's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed. In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment , relatively higher wealth index, and
826-683: A few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: Both sides agree that this canonical taxis was recognised by all in the era of the undivided Church. Further, they agree that Rome, as the Church that "presides in love" according to
944-636: A layman as Pope Leo VIII . John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX travelled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage . With his long journey, he restored
1062-516: A native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants. Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid , Atbara , Dongola , Khartoum , Omdurman , Port Sudan , and Wad Medani . Many Sudanese Copts have advanced educations. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam , resulting in their emigration and decrease in number. Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in
1180-479: A passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile! According to the same book, Clement of Rome was ordained by Saint Peter as the bishop of Rome. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp
1298-502: A stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically; many Copts were accountants , and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the Egyptian banks . A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 26% of Egyptian Christians obtain
SECTION 10
#17327799786371416-590: A structure before Rome. In Rome, there were over time at various junctures rival claimants to be the rightful bishop, though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary Pope Victor I and listed them. Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, but not necessarily monarchical bishops. Documents of
1534-602: Is a saint whose feast is celebrated on 27 August. In Coptic Christianity , the Departure of St Liberius the Bishop of Rome is commemorated on 4 Pi Kogi Enavot . The Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome is sometimes referred to as the Liberian Basilica. Bishop of Rome The pope ( Latin : papa , from Ancient Greek : πάππας , romanized : páppas , lit. 'father')
1652-416: Is addressed to Pope Cornelius , and affirmed his unique authority in the early Christian Church. Cornelius [the Bishop of Rome] was made bishop by the choice of God and of His Christ, by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy, by the votes of the people who were present, and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men. And he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when
1770-574: Is called the Holy See . It is the Holy See that is the sovereign entity under international law headquartered in the distinctively independent Vatican City, a city-state which forms a geographical enclave within the conurbation of Rome , established by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 between Fascist Italy and the Holy See to ensure its temporal and spiritual independence. The Holy See
1888-438: Is recognized by its adherence at various levels to international organizations and by means of its diplomatic relations and political accords with many independent states. According to Catholic tradition , the apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in human history . In ancient times,
2006-622: Is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan , the date of the Jewish Passover , a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy ). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus ). The Edict of Milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in
2124-469: Is the bishop of Rome and the visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church . He is also known as the supreme pontiff , Roman pontiff , or sovereign pontiff . From the eighth century until 1870, the pope was the sovereign or head of state of the Papal States , and since 1929 of the much smaller Vatican City state. The reigning pope is Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 . From
2242-522: Is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen. The major contributions that the See of Alexandria has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was presided over by St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria , along with Saint Hosius of Córdoba . In addition,
2360-685: Is the variety of Greek spoken in Egypt from antiquity until the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Egyptian Greek adopted many loanwords from Egyptian language ; there was a great deal of intracommunity bilingualism in Egypt. The following is an example of Egyptian Greek language, used in the Coptic Church : ⲇⲟⲝⲁ ⲡⲁⲧⲣⲓ ⲕⲉ ⲩⲓⲱ: ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲅⲓⲱ ⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁⲧⲓ: ⲕⲉ ⲛⲩⲛ ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲓ̀ ⲕⲉ ⲓⲥ ⲧⲟⲩⲥ ⲉⲱⲛⲁⲥ ⲧⲱⲛ ⲉ̀ⲱ̀ⲛⲱⲛ ⲁ̀ⲙⲏⲛ Δόξα Πατρὶ κὲ Υἱῷ κὲ Ἁγίῳ Πνεύματι, κὲ νῦν κὲ ἀῒ κὲ ἰς τοὺς ἐῶνας τῶν ἐώνων. Ἀμήν. Glory to
2478-624: The Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint Pachomius , although in a stricter form. Coptic Christians practice male circumcision as a rite of passage. The Faiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the Hellenized Middle East. By the time of Roman emperor Caracalla in the 2nd century AD, ethnic Egyptians could be distinguished from Egyptian Greeks only by their speech. Egyptian Greek
SECTION 20
#17327799786372596-579: The Church in Rome . The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa. The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest school of its kind in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar Pantanaeus , the school became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras , Clement , Didymus , and Origen ,
2714-876: The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , an Oriental Orthodox Church . The smaller Coptic Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Church , in communion with the Holy See of Rome ; others belong to the Evangelical Church of Egypt . The Copts played a central role in the Arab Renaissance as well as the modernization of Egypt and the Arab world as a whole; they also contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as pan-Arabism , good governance, educational reform , and democracy ", and they have historically flourished in business affairs. While Coptic Christians speak
2832-597: The Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire, with the name "Catholic Christians" reserved for those who accepted that faith. While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church, and the patriarch of Constantinople , the capital, wielded much power, in the Western Roman Empire , the bishops of Rome were able to consolidate
2950-677: The Libyan population . Originally referring to all Egyptians, the term Copt became synonymous with native Christians in light of Egypt's Islamization and Arabization after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 639–646 AD. Copts have historically spoken the Coptic language , a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that was spoken in late antiquity . Following the Muslim conquest,
3068-647: The Middle Ages , popes struggled with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon . The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of the Kingdom of France , alienating France's enemies, such as the Kingdom of England . The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the Treasury of Merit built up by
3186-646: The New Testament writings found in Oxyrhynchus , in Middle Egypt , which date around 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into Coptic (then known as Egyptian ). By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the Church of Alexandria was recognized as one of Christendom 's four apostolic sees, second in honor only to
3304-554: The Tusculan Papacy . The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII , held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran Palace . Emperor Otto I had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected
3422-681: The approaching end of the world . Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch of Ravenna , the Byzantine emperor 's representative in the Italian Peninsula . These humiliations, the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests , and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards , made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V . He appealed to
3540-420: The cardinals , who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope's. Conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century with Jean Gerson as its leading spokesman. The failure of Conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after
3658-567: The kꜣ ("double" spirit) of Ptah " (compare Akkadian ḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ ), the name of the temple complex of the god Ptah at Memphis (and a synecdoche for the city of Memphis and the region around it). The term Aigýptios in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to
Pope Liberius - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-813: The medical doctors , 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians. A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate , spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, Forbes estimated the family's net worth at $ 36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged
3894-608: The non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as Protestants (known in Arabic as Evangelicals ), Roman Catholics and Eastern Rite Catholics , and other Orthodox congregations. The term Coptic remains exclusive however to
4012-587: The persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches, forced conversion to Islam , and heavy taxes for those who refused to convert. During the Ottoman period, Copts were classified alongside other Oriental Orthodox and Nestorian peoples under the Armenian millet . Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes, had lower access to political power, and were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under
4130-473: The unification of Italy . In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state , guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule. In 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. The Primacy of St. Peter ,
4248-585: The "Old St. Peter's Basilica" on the location of St. Peter's tomb, as held and given to him by Rome's Christian community, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero , although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. Although open to historical debate, first-century Christian communities may have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as guides of their local churches. Gradually, episcopal sees were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such
4366-732: The 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation . Various Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). It came to a close when the Council of Constance , at the high point of Concilliarism, decided among the papal claimants. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern emperor tried to force
4484-545: The 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south . As of 2010, the Coptic Church in Sudan was officially registered with the government, and exempt from property tax. In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named
4602-420: The 1st century and early second century indicate that the bishop of Rome had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, as even a letter from the bishop, or patriarch, of Antioch acknowledged the bishop of Rome as "a first among equals", though the detail of what this meant is unclear. Sources suggest that at first, the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, with
4720-687: The 9th century. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate , Abbasid Caliphate , Fatimid Caliphate , Mamluk Sultanate , and Ottoman Empire ;
4838-465: The Catholic faith, and because he heads the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care , with a vast network of charities. The word pope derives from Ancient Greek πάππας (páppas) 'father'. In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied, especially in the East, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in
Pope Liberius - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-408: The Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles ( apostolic succession ) and the bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter. Scriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include: I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you
5074-678: The Christian religion. The Coptic name for Egyptians , remənkhēmi ( Coptic : ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ), is realized in Fayyumic Coptic as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ lemenkēmi and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ remənkēme in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian rmṯ n kmt , Demotic rmṯ n kmỉ . The Arabic word qibṭ "Copt" has also been connected to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos ( Koinē Greek : Κόπτος , now Qifṭ ; Coptic Kebt and Keft ) in Upper Egypt . This association may have contributed to making "Copt"
5192-684: The Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the Abbey of Cluny , which spread its ideals throughout Europe. This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform , in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including clerical celibacy . This conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as
5310-458: The Church's ordination. Irenaeus of Lyons ( c. 130 – c. 202 AD), a prominent Christian theologian of the second century, provided a list of early popes in his work Against Heresies III . The list covers the period from Saint Peter to Pope Eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 AD. The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul], then, having founded and built up the Church [in Rome], committed into
5428-516: The Donatists (367 A.D) . In the book, Optatus wrote about the position of the bishop of Rome in maintaining the unity of the Church. You cannot deny that you are aware that in the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter; the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head—that is why he is also called Cephas [‘Rock’]—of all the apostles; the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. The Catholic Church teaches that, within
5546-729: The Eastern Church to reunify with the West. First in the Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274) and secondly in the Council of Florence (1431–1449). Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized
5664-783: The Egyptian Copts made to Christianity was the creation and organization of monasticism . Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were Anthony the Great , Paul of Thebes , Macarius the Great , Shenouda the Archimandrite and Pachomius the Cenobite . By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout
5782-558: The Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. St Basil the Great Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca , and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in Asia Minor , visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches . Saint Jerome , who translated the Bible into Latin , came to Egypt while en route to Jerusalem around 400 AD, leaving details of his experiences in his letters. St. Benedict founded
5900-426: The Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa , Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid . In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in
6018-455: The Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called " Coptic Evangelical Church ", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans. The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria , died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros
SECTION 50
#17327799786376136-408: The Father, to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, both now and always, and unto the ages of ages. Amen. According to Walker, early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies
6254-405: The Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800) as emperor, he established the precedent that, in Western Europe, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope. The low point of the papacy was 867–1049. This period includes the Saeculum obscurum , the Crescentii era, and
6372-583: The Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, Aigýptios ( Αἰγύπτιος ). The Greek term for Egypt, Aígyptos ( Ancient Greek : Αἴγυπτος ), itself derives from the Egyptian language , but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in Mycenaean Greek as a 3 -ku-pi-ti-jo (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form probably comes from Middle Egyptian ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, Egyptological pronunciation Hut-ka-Ptah ), literally "estate/palace of
6490-401: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Henry I of England , known as the Investiture controversy , was only resolved in 1122, by the Concordat of Worms , in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law . Since
6608-410: The Name of the Father: and the Son: and the Holy Spirit: One God: Amen Our Father Who art in heaven: hallowed be Thy name: Thy kingdom come: Thy will be done On earth as it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our trespasses: as we forgive those who trespass against us And lead us not into temptation: but deliver us from evil one In Christ Jesus our Lord For Thine
6726-455: The Roman Empire, beginning the Peace of the Church . In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism , declaring trinitarianism dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the Sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially Liberius , who was exiled to Berea by Constantius II for his Trinitarian faith, Damasus I , and several other bishops. In 380,
6844-412: The Roman See was "officially" occupied by Felix, a year passed before Liberius was sent to Rome. It was the emperor's intention that Liberius should govern the Church jointly with Felix, but on the arrival of Liberius, Felix was expelled by the Roman people. Neither Liberius nor Felix took part in the Council of Rimini (359). The return of the Pope from exile was met with joy from the Roman people but it
6962-399: The Romans , and according to tradition Paul was martyred there. During the 1st century of the Church ( c. 30–130 ), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. The church there, at the end of the century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. There are
7080-560: The West to the bishop of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo I (440–461), a reservation made official only in the 11th century. The earliest record of the use of the title of 'pope' was in regard to the by-then-deceased patriarch of Alexandria , Heraclas (232–248). The earliest recorded use of the title "pope" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to the 7th century Roman Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . The Catholic Church teaches that
7198-483: The accumulation of human capital. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism , which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by Orientalism . Today, members of
SECTION 60
#17327799786377316-458: The acknowledgement of the bishop of Rome as an influential figure within the Church, with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to Rome's teachings and decisions. Such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform Catholic theology and practice. In his letters, Cyprian of Carthage ( c. 210 – 258 AD) recognized the bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter in his Letter 55 (c. 251 AD), which
7434-421: The area of modern Egypt and Sudan , and predominantly follow the Orthodox Church in Alexandria . They are the largest Christian denomination in Egypt and the Middle East , as well as in Sudan and Libya . Copts account for roughly 5–15 percent of the population of Egypt ; Copts in Sudan account for 1 percent of the Sudanese population , and Copts in Libya similarly account for 1 percent of
7552-435: The authority of the church in Rome. In this work, Tertullian said that the Church in Rome has the authority of the Apostles because of its apostolic foundation. Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures
7670-407: The beginning of the 7th century, Islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern Mediterranean , and represented a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos , asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine–Seljuq wars . Urban, at the council of Clermont , called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain
7788-509: The bishops who had signed and then withdrew their adherence. In 366, Liberius gave a favourable reception to a deputation of the Eastern episcopate, and admitted into his communion the more moderate of the old Arian party. He died on 24 September 366. Some historians have postulated that Liberius resigned the papacy in 365, in order to make sense of the pontificate of Felix II, who has since been regarded as an antipope . Pope Pius IX noted in his 1863 encyclical Quartus supra that Liberius
7906-430: The civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule. Gaafar Nimeiry 's introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims. After
8024-428: The consensus among scholars being that by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters, whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another. Some say that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later." In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on
8142-418: The controversial doctrinal basis of the pope's authority, continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate Protestants from Rome. The writings of several Early Church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of Rome, providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early Christian era. These sources attest to
8260-409: The defence of human rights. Over time, the papacy accrued broad secular and political influence , eventually rivalling those of territorial rulers. In recent centuries, the temporal authority of the papacy has declined and the office is now largely focused on religious matters. By contrast, papal claims of spiritual authority have been increasingly firmly expressed over time, culminating in 1870 with
8378-539: The early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century. As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam , and intermarry with the native Sudanese population. The Anglo-Egyptian invasion in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and
8496-515: The episcopal see in Rome can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. The writings of Irenaeus , a Church Father who wrote around 180 AD, reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organized" the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. The Church of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians (which is traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome c. 96 ) about
8614-592: The established church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. Pope Gregory I ( c. 540–604 ) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles , potent relics , demons , angels , ghosts, and
8732-441: The father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies . However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects: science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille , wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. Another major contribution
8850-609: The first 500 years of church history. Liberius is mentioned in the Greek Menology, the Eastern equivalent to the martyrologies of the Western Church and a measure of sainthood prior to the institution of the formal Western processes of canonization . The first recorded act of Liberius was, after a synod had been held at Rome , to write to Emperor Constantius II , then in quarters at Arles (353–354), asking that
8968-578: The forged letters and testimonies of Arians, Semi-arians and Luciferians, concede Pope Liberius repented later for having signed the Arian Creed at Sirmium, but that he ever signed is highly doubtful on the basis of a critical examination of the original sources. After the death of the Emperor Constantius in 361, Liberius annulled the decrees of that assembly but, with the concurrence of bishops Athanasius and Hilary of Poitiers , retained
9086-425: The gates of hell shall not prevail against it! Matthew 16:18. The successor of Peter was Linus, and his successors in unbroken continuity were these:— Clement, Anacletus, Evaristus... Eusebius ( c. 260/265 – 339) mentions Linus as Saint Peter's successor and Clement as the third bishop of Rome in his book Church History . As recorded by Eusebius, Clement worked with Saint Paul as his "co-laborer". As to
9204-461: The hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus ; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric. ... To this Clement there succeeded Eviristus . Alexander followed Evaristus; then, sixth from the apostles, Sixtus was appointed; after him, Telephorus , who
9322-546: The imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of hijab dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers , the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout
9440-483: The increasingly assertive European nation states , the popes focused on spiritual issues. In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals. Later the same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed
9558-525: The influence and power they already possessed. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Nicene Christianity; Clovis I , king of the Franks , was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the Visigoths , later abandoned Arianism in favour of
9676-412: The keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven. Coptic Christianity Copts ( Coptic : ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ , romanized: niremənkhēmi ; Arabic : الْقِبْط , romanized : al-qibṭ ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to Northeast Africa who have primarily inhabited
9794-798: The latter being the direct descendent of the Ancient Egyptian language. For instance, the Lord's Prayer in the Coptic Church is recited in the native Coptic language as follows: Ϧⲉⲛ ⲫ̀ⲣⲁⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫ̀ⲓⲱⲧ: ⲛⲉⲙ ⲡ̀ϣⲏⲣⲓ: ⲛⲉⲙ Ⲡⲓⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁ ⲉⲑⲟⲩⲁⲃ: ⲟⲩⲛⲟⲩϯ ⲛ̀ⲟⲩⲱⲧ: Ⲁⲙⲏⲛ Ϫⲉ ⲡⲉⲛⲓⲱⲧ ⲉⲧϧⲉⲛ ⲛⲓⲫⲏⲟⲩⲓ: ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥⲧⲟⲩⲃⲟ ⲛ̀ϫⲉ ⲡⲉⲕⲣⲁⲛ: ⲙⲁⲣⲉⲥⲓ ⲛ̀ϫⲉ ⲧⲉⲕⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ: ⲡⲉⲧⲉϩⲛⲁⲕ ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥϣⲱⲡⲓ Ⲙ̀ⲫⲣⲏϯ ϧⲉⲛ ⲧ̀ⲫⲉ ⲛⲉⲙ ϩⲓϫⲉⲛ ⲡⲓⲕⲁϩⲓ ⲡⲉⲛⲱⲓⲕ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ⲣⲁⲥϯ ⲙⲏⲓϥ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫⲟⲟⲩ Ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲭⲁ ⲛⲏⲉⲧⲉⲣⲟⲛ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲉ̀ⲃⲟⲗ: ⲙ̀ⲫ̀ⲣⲏϯ ϩⲱⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲛⲭⲱ ⲉ̀ⲃⲟⲗ ⲛ̀ⲛⲏⲉⲧⲉ ⲟⲩⲟⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲁⲛ ⲉⲣⲱⲟⲩ Ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲙ̀ⲡⲉⲣⲉⲛⲧⲉⲛ ⲉϧⲟⲩⲛ ⲉ̀ⲡⲓⲣⲁⲥⲙⲟⲥ: ⲁⲗⲗⲁ ⲛⲁϩⲙⲉⲛ ⲉⲃⲟⲗϩⲁ ⲡⲓⲡⲉⲧϩⲱⲟⲩ Ϧⲉⲛ Ⲡⲭ̅ⲥ̅ Ⲓⲏ̅ⲥ̅ Ⲡⲉⲛⲟ̅ⲥ̅ Ϫⲉ ⲑⲱⲕ ⲧⲉ ϯⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ ⲛⲉⲙ ϯϫⲟⲙ ⲛⲉⲙ ⲡⲓⲱⲟⲩ ϣⲁ ⲉⲛⲉϩ. Ⲁⲙⲏⲛ. In
9912-674: The leadership of worldwide Church. James the Just , known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honoured as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his Epistle to
10030-575: The most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria Athanasius , who played the major role in the formulation of the Nicene Creed , recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the Patriarch of Alexandria with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of Easter to the rest of the Christian churches. The Council of Constantinople (381 AD)
10148-591: The name of Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father: to those who are united, both according to the flesh and spirit, to every one of His commandments; Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD), in his Letter 53, wrote a list of 38 popes from Saint Peter to Siricius. The order of this list differs from the lists of Irenaeus and the Annuario Pontificio . Augustine's list claims that Linus was succeeded by Clement and Clement
10266-808: The old Christian territories, especially Jerusalem. With the East–West Schism , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed . Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna , and driving into Greek Italy. In
10384-478: The overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the elected government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary. In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways
10502-400: The pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or "college" with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. Thus is derived another title by which the pope is known, that of "supreme pontiff". The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as
10620-483: The persecution of Christians in Rome as the "struggles in our time" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, "first, the greatest and most just columns", the "good apostles" Peter and Paul. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement; in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans, he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, such as Emperor Constantine's erection of
10738-440: The phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium. In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what
10856-545: The pope as the antichrist . Popes instituted a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims. Gradually forced to give up secular power to
10974-564: The pope to a prison in Beroea. At the end of an exile of more than two years in Thrace , after which it seems he may have temporarily relented, or been set up to appear to have relented – partially evidenced by three letters, quite possibly forgeries, ascribed to Liberius, the emperor recalled him under extreme pressure from the Roman population who refused to recognize his puppet, Felix II . As
11092-463: The popes helped spread Christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages , they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs. In addition to the expansion of Christian faith and doctrine , modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue , charitable work , and
11210-611: The population. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church: its founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body has been out of communion with the Roman Catholic Church since the 5th century AD. According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced to present day Egypt by St. Mark in Alexandria , shortly after the ascension of Christ and during
11328-412: The position of Fabian , that is to say, the position of Peter and the office of the bishop's chair, was vacant. But the position once has been filled by the will of God and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all, if anyone wants to be made bishop after that, it has to be done outside the church; if a man does not uphold the unity of the Church's unity, it is not possible for him to have
11446-538: The prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe. From the 7th century, it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy. This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life. To combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting
11564-414: The proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra —literally "from the chair (of Saint Peter) "—to issue a formal definition of faith or morals. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence of his position on both 1.3 billion Catholics and those outside
11682-567: The reign of the Roman emperor Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that St. Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. Within half a century of St. Mark's arrival Christianity had spread throughout Egypt. This is clear from a fragment of the Gospel of John , written in Coptic and found in Upper Egypt that can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and
11800-547: The rest of his followers, Paul testifies that Crescens was sent to Gaul; but Linus, whom he mentions in the Second Epistle to Timothy as his companion at Rome, was Peter’s successor in the episcopate of the church there, as has already been shown. Clement also, who was appointed third bishop of the church at Rome, was, as Paul testifies, his co-laborer and fellow-soldier. Tertullian ( c. 155 – c. 220 AD) wrote in his work " The Prescription Against Heretics " about
11918-566: The rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV , 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha , in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs. Some Copts participated in
12036-456: The saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences , reducing one's time in purgatory . The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences. Popes also contended with
12154-512: The same dialects and are culturally similar to other Egyptians, they strongly oppose Arab identity and associate it with Islam and Islamism . In Egypt, Copts have a relatively higher educational attainment , a relatively higher wealth index , and a stronger representation in white-collar job types , but limited representation in military and security agencies. The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Christians and Muslims . The English language adopted
12272-473: The settled form of the name. In the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term qubṭ in the historical sense. The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 5 to 20 percent of
12390-752: The term Monophysites as erroneous and referred to themselves as Miaphysites . The majority of the Egyptians belonged to the Miaphysite branch, which led to their persecution by the Byzantines in Egypt . In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs who faced off with the Byzantine army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least
12508-499: The treatment of the Coptic Christians who refused to convert ranged from relative tolerance to open persecution . Historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances". Persecution is significantly involved in the Copts' ethnic identity due to historic and current conflicts. Most Copts adhere to
12626-413: The visible head of the Church, and the Catholic Church's dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter, in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. Some historians argue against the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, noting that
12744-456: The will of Him that wills all things which are according to the love of Jesus Christ our God, which also presides in the place of the region of the Romans, worthy of God, worthy of honour, worthy of the highest happiness, worthy of praise, worthy of obtaining her every desire, worthy of being deemed holy, and which presides over love, is named from Christ, and from the Father, which I also salute in
12862-576: The word Copt in the 17th century from Neo-Latin Coptus, Cophtus , which derives from the Arabic collective qubṭ / qibṭ قبط "the Copts" with nisba adjective qubṭī, qibṭī قبطى , plural aqbāṭ أقباط ; Also quftī, qiftī (where the Arabic / f / reflects the historical Coptic / p / ) an Arabisation of the Coptic word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ aiguption ( Bohairic ) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ kuptaion ( Sahidic ). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of
12980-446: Was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations. Victor J. Katz notes that "research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities". Modern day Copts use predominantly Arabic and Coptic,
13098-545: Was also met with criticism. The writer Philostorgius says that the Pope Liberius was restored to papacy only after he signed the Second Creed of Sirmium, and although Sozomen claimed that this story was a lie, Hilary of Poitiers reacted by writing concerning the pope: "I know not whether it was with greater impiety that you exiled him than that you restored him" (Contra Const., II). Some of those writers who accept
13216-716: Was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in Cairo 's St Mark's Cathedral . In Ethiopia the Orthodox Tewahedo Church was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church until 1959 when it was granted its own patriarch by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa Cyril VI . Sudan has
13334-600: Was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam , but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country. Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and
13452-671: Was falsely accused by the Arians and he had refused to condemn Athanasius of Alexandria . However, Athanasius said that Pope Liberius condemned him after the Emperor Constantius II threatened to kill the Pope. In his 1920 encyclical Principi Apostolorum Petro , Pope Benedict XV noted that Pope Liberius went fearlessly into exile in defence of the orthodox faith. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Liberius
13570-426: Was gloriously martyred; then Hyginus ; after him, Pius ; then after him, Anicetus . Soter having succeeded Anicetus, Eleutherius does now, in the twelfth place from the apostles, hold the inheritance of the episcopate. Ignatius of Antioch (died c. 108/140 AD) wrote in his " Epistle to the Romans" that the church in Rome is "the church that presides over love". ...the Church which is beloved and enlightened by
13688-513: Was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. Optatus the bishop of Milevis in Numidia (today's Algeria) and a contemporary of the Donatist schism , presents a detailed analysis of the origins, beliefs, and practices of the Donatists, as well as the events and debates surrounding the schism, in his book The Schism of
13806-590: Was presided over by Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria , while the Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was presided over by Cyril of Alexandria . In 451 AD, following the Council of Chalcedon , the Church of Alexandria was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as Chalcedonians or Melkites . Those who did not abide by the council's terms were labeled non-Chalcedonians or Monophysites and later Jacobites after Jacob Baradaeus . The non-Chalcedonians , however, rejected
13924-411: Was succeeded by Anacletus as in the list of Eusebius , while the other two lists switch the positions of Clement and Anacletus. For if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account, with how much more certainty and benefit to the Church do we reckon back till we reach Peter himself, to whom, as bearing in a figure the whole Church, the Lord said: Upon this rock will I build my Church, and
#636363