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158-862: The Pan-African Congress (PAC) is a regular series of meetings which first took place on the back of the Pan-African Conference held in London in 1900. The Pan-African Congress first gained a reputation as a peacemaker for decolonization in Africa and in the West Indies , and made a significant advance for the Pan-African cause. In the beginning, one of the group's major demands was to end colonial rule and racial discrimination. It stood against imperialism and it demanded human rights and equality of economic opportunity. The manifesto given by

316-557: A trade unionist , vice president of the compositors' section of the Printers' Union , and took a leading role in the November 1908 print workers' strike. The strike was broken several weeks later and Garvey was sacked. Henceforth branded a troublemaker, Garvey was unable to find work in the private sector. He then found temporary employment with a government printer. As a result of these experiences, Garvey became increasingly angry at

474-426: A "debt of blood" and that they deserved reparations for slavery and racial violence. He also believed that ensuring a positive future for Africa would be key to helping all Black people around the world. Wilson's Fourteen Points plan gave Du Bois hope that there would be greater opportunities for Black people politically in a future marked by democratic and anti-colonial values . In addition, Du Bois wanted to oppose

632-601: A Liberian Construction Loan. In 1921, Garvey sent a UNIA team to assess the prospects of mass African-American settlement in Liberia. Internally, UNIA experienced various feuds. Garvey pushed out Cyril Briggs and other members of the African Blood Brotherhood from UNIA, wanting to place growing distance between himself and black socialist groups. In the Negro World , Garvey then accused Briggs—who

790-586: A Pan-African Congress. A New York Call writer believed that the U.S. was worried it would be embarrassed by discussions of race relations at the Congress in Paris. Many of the delegates who attended did so on short notice, or by getting through on other types of credentials, such as being journalists. Others, like Gibbs, were already in Europe. Du Bois did not invite Black socialists or working class leaders to

948-753: A banquet in Liberty Hall, at which Garvey gave out honors to various supporters, including such titles as the Order of the Nile and the Order of Ethiopia. UNIA established growing links with the Liberian government, hoping to secure land in the West African nation on which it could settle African-American migrants. Liberia was in heavy debt, with UNIA launching a fundraising campaign to raise $ 2 million towards

1106-646: A domestic servant. In early 1913 he was employed as a messenger and handyman for the African Times and Orient Review , a magazine based in Fleet Street that was edited by Dusé Mohamed Ali . The magazine advocated Ethiopianism and home rule for British-ruled Egypt. In 1914, Mohamed Ali began employing Garvey's services as a writer for the magazine. Garvey also took several evening classes in law at Birkbeck College in Bloomsbury . He planned

1264-535: A free state, emphasizing the importance of a shared African heritage. Because of American support, however, Liberia did not want to agitate against the United States. Helen Noble Curtis gave a speech called "The Use of African Troops in Europe" which described many racist experiences Black soldiers fighting in WWI encountered in hospitals and other institutions. Curtis pleaded for the world to recognize that justice

1422-566: A full view of actual nature of the speeches and implied criticism of the United States' racial problems that did not take place at the conference. Instead, he focused on "black solidarity" over reporting other content of the discussions. One conference attendee, the French Africanist Maurice Delafosse , wrote that the French government was largely tolerant of the ideas expressed at the Congress. Harry F. Worley ,

1580-597: A group of uniformed men who would attend UNIA parades; a secret service was formed from Legion members, providing Garvey with intelligence about group members. The formation of the Legion further concerned the Bureau of Investigation, who sent their first full-time black agent, James Wormley Jones , to infiltrate UNIA. In January 1920, Garvey incorporated the Negro Factories League , through which he opened

1738-591: A magnificent repast had been served we were conducted through the extensive grounds which surround the palace.... Through the kindness of Mr. Clark, a member of Parliament, we were invited to tea on Wednesday, at 5 o'clock, on the Terrace of Parliament. After the tea the male members of our party were admitted to the House of Commons , which is considered quite an honor; indeed, the visit to the House of Parliament and tea on

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1896-579: A major ceremonial celebration in Liberty Hall, attended by 3000 UNIA members. Jacques was Ashwood's maid of honor . After the wedding, Garvey moved into Ashwood's apartment. The newlyweds embarked on a two-week honeymoon in Canada, accompanied by a small UNIA retinue, including Jacques. There, Garvey spoke at two mass meetings in Montreal and three in Toronto . Returning to Harlem, the couple's marriage

2054-464: A mass organization. To promote his views to a wide audience, Garvey took to shouting slogans from a megaphone as he was driven through Harlem in a Cadillac . There were tensions between UNIA and the NAACP and the latter's supporters accused Garvey of stymieing their efforts at bringing about racial integration in the U.S. Garvey was dismissive of the NAACP leader W. E. B. Du Bois , and in one issue of

2212-487: A medical student at Edinburgh University , on pseudo-scientific racism. Discussions followed the presentation of the papers, and on the last day George James Christian, a law student from Dominica , led a discussion on the subject "Organized Plunder and Human Progress Have Made Our Race Their Battlefield", saying that in the past "Africans had been kidnapped from their land, and in South Africa and Rhodesia slavery

2370-412: A movement that would politically unify black people of African descent across the world. To the cultured mind the bulk of our [i.e. black] people are contemptible[…] Go into the country parts of Jamaica and you will see there villainy and vice of the worst kind, immorality, obeah and all kinds of dirty things[…] Kingston and its environs are so infested with the uncouth and vulgar of our people that we of

2528-622: A pan-African conference. Booker T. Washington , who had been travelling in the UK in the summer of 1899, wrote in a letter to African-American newspapers: "In connection with the assembling of so many Negroes in London from different parts of the world, a very important movement has just been put upon foot. It is known as the Pan-African Conference. Representatives from Africa, the West Indian Islands and other parts of

2686-728: A philosophy was created as early as the late 1700s, seen through the movements of abolition in both the United States and Britain. British writers and former slaves, Ottobah Cugoano and Olaudah Equiano created the foundations for Pan Africanism in English literature. French speakers , like Léopold Sédar Senghor , created the idea of Négritude . These ideas refuted the inferiority of Black people. Pan Africanists believed that both slavery and colonialism were built on negative attitudes towards people of African descent, which in turn, contributed to racism. African Americans were especially frustrated with their slow progress towards racial equality in

2844-664: A pretentious social climber and being annoyed at his claim to be part of the "cultured class" of Jamaican society. Many also felt that he was unnecessarily derogatory when describing black Jamaicans, with letters of complaint being sent into the Daily Chronicle after it published one of Garvey's speeches in which he referred to many of his people as "uncouth and vulgar". One complainant, a Dr Leo Pink, related that "the Jamaican Negro can not be reformed by abuse". After unsubstantiated allegations began circling that Garvey

3002-593: A race feeling and problem." In 1901, Marcus was apprenticed to his godfather , a local printer. In 1904, the printer opened another branch at Port Maria , where Garvey began to work, traveling from Saint Ann's Bay each morning. In 1905 he moved to Kingston, where he boarded in Smith Village , a working-class neighbourhood. In the city, he secured work with the printing division of the P.A. Benjamin Manufacturing Company. He rose quickly through

3160-629: A representative of the NAACP at the same time the Paris Peace Conference was taking place at the end of WWI. Many majority groups, including Black people in Europe and Africa, felt that the creation of a League of Nations would lead to positive outcomes for them politically and socially. Du Bois wrote to President Wilson and asked to be a delegate for the Peace Conference to speak on behalf of Black people. Du Bois knew that

3318-467: A restaurant, and a laundry. He also proposed raising the funds to secure a permanent building as a base for the group. In April, Garvey launched a weekly newspaper, the Negro World , which Edmund David Cronon later noted remained "the personal propaganda organ of its founder". Financially, the Negro World was backed by philanthropists such as Madam C. J. Walker , but six months after its launch

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3476-628: A rival group that met at Old Fellows Temple . He also launched legal proceedings against Bruce and other senior UNIA members, with the court ruling that UNIA's name and membership—now estimated at 600—belonged to Garvey, who resumed control over the organization. UNIA membership grew rapidly in 1918. In June that year it was incorporated , and in July a commercial arm, the African Communities' League, filed for incorporation. Garvey envisioned UNIA establishing an import-and-export business,

3634-657: A sense of pride and self-worth among Africans and the African diaspora amid widespread poverty, discrimination and colonialism. In Jamaica he is recognized as a national hero being the first to be recognized as such. His ideas exerted a considerable influence on such movements as Rastafari , the Nation of Islam and the Black Power Movement . Marcus Mosiah Garvey was born on 17 August 1887 in Saint Ann's Bay ,

3792-835: A series of gatherings subsequently took place — in 1919 in Paris , 1921 in London, 1923 in London, 1927 in New York City , 1945 in Manchester , 1974 in Dar es Salaam and 1994 in Kampala — to address the issues facing Africa as a result of European colonization . A centenary commemorative event was held in London on 25 July 2000, attended by descendants of some of the delegates at the original conference (including Margaret Busby , granddaughter of George Christian, and his great-granddaughter Moira Stuart ), as well as descendants of those at

3950-483: A ship. Many African Americans took great pride in buying company stock, seeing it as an investment in their community's future; Garvey also promised that when the company began turning a profit they would receive significant financial returns on their investment. To advertise this stock, he traveled to Virginia, and then in September 1919 to Chicago, where he was accompanied by seven other UNIA members. In Chicago, he

4108-543: A smaller number than originally intended because British and American governments refused to issue passports to their citizens who had planned on attending. Representatives of the National Equal Rights League including Madam C. J. Walker and William Monroe Trotter were denied passports. It was reported by the U.S. State Department that the French government did not believe the timing was right for

4266-565: A speech of welcome "referring to 'the benefits of self-government' which Britain must confer on 'other races ... as soon as possible'." Speakers over the three days addressed a variety of aspects of racial discrimination. Among the papers delivered were: "Conditions Favouring a High Standard of African Humanity" (C. W. French of St. Kitts ), "The Preservation of Racial Equality" ( Anna H. Jones , from Kansas City, Missouri ), "The Necessary Concord to be Established between Native Races and European Colonists" ( Benito Sylvain , Haitian aide-de-camp to

4424-660: A string of grocery stores, a restaurant, a steam laundry, and publishing house. According to Grant, a personality cult had grown up around Garvey within the UNIA movement; life-size portraits of him hung in the UNIA headquarters and phonographs of his speeches were sold to the membership. In August 1920, UNIA organized the First International Conference of the Negro Peoples in Harlem. This parade

4582-806: A successful lawyer and legislator in the Gold Coast ( Ghana ) where he was a member of the Legislative Council from 1920 to 1940. Richard E. Phipps, the Trinidad barrister, returned home after the conference and emigrated to the Gold Coast in 1911. He remained there until his death around 1926. Williams himself lived in South Africa from 1903 to 1905, and died in Trinidad in 1911." Under the Pan-African Congress banner,

4740-409: A system similar to the colonial system of France. This speech touched on concerns Black intellectuals from Europe and America felt in being compared to the stereotypes of African people as primitive. It also placed significant value on Black people who had been "civilized" by colonizing powers. For Diagne, Germany should give up their colonies not because colonialism was bad, but because German governance

4898-734: A tour of Europe, spending time in Glasgow, Paris, Monte Carlo, Boulogne, and Madrid. Back in London, he wrote an article on Jamaica for the Tourist magazine, and spent time reading in the library of the British Museum . There he discovered Up from Slavery , a book by the African-American entrepreneur and activist Booker T. Washington . Washington's book heavily influenced Garvey. Now almost financially destitute and deciding to return to Jamaica, he unsuccessfully asked both

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5056-634: A town in the British colony of Jamaica . In the context of colonial Jamaican society, which had a colourist social hierarchy, Garvey was considered at the lowest end, being a black child who was of full African descent. However, later genetic research nevertheless revealed that he had ancestors from the Iberian Peninsula . Garvey's paternal great- grandfather had been born into slavery prior to its abolition in Jamaica . His surname, which

5214-504: A white Virginian working for the U.S. State Department in Paris, expressed greater alarm at the "so-called Pan-African Congress": he reported that he had heard that "speeches of the American Negroes were highly inflammatory and condemnatory of the social conditions in the United States". Du Bois sent a letter to Winston Churchill in 1921, where he enclosed the resolutions adopted at this first Congress in 1919. Du Bois also sent

5372-530: Is not separate: it should be the same for all people regardless of skin color. Addie Waites Hunton reminded delegates that it was important to include women in the Pan-African proceedings. The congress eventually adopted several resolutions, especially related to people living under colonialism. They advocated for self-determination of African people except where "existing practices were directly contradictory to best established principles of civilization." It

5530-530: The 1884-5 Congress of Berlin . The formation of the association marked an early stage in the development of the anti-colonialist movement, and was established to encourage the unity of Africans and people of African descent, particularly in territories of the British empire , concerning itself with injustices in Britain's African and Caribbean colonies. In March 1898, the association issued a circular calling for

5688-763: The 1945 World Trade Union Conference , it was switched to August in Manchester. The Conference took place in a building decorated with the flags of the three black nations under self-governance at the time Ethiopia , and Liberia and the Republic of Haiti . The Fifth Congress had a larger profile than the first four PACs. At the end of World War II, around 700 million people lived under imperial rule and were 'subject people', with no freedoms, no parliaments, no democracy, and no trade unions to protect workers. Many felt betrayed after being promised movement towards self-government if they fought for European colonial powers during

5846-784: The Colonial Office and the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines' Protection Society to pay for his journey. After managing to save the funds for a fare, he boarded the SS Trent in June 1914 for a three-week journey across the Atlantic. En route home, Garvey talked with an Afro-Caribbean missionary who had spent time in Basutoland and taken a Basuto wife. Discovering more about colonial Africa from this man, Garvey began to envision

6004-579: The Easter Rising of 1916. The adoption of this name reflected Garvey's fascination with the Irish independence movement . Liberty Hall's dedication ceremony was held in July 1919. During the hunger strike of Terence MacSwiney Garvey supported solidarity strikes in support of MacSwiney and made appeals to the British government on his behalf. Garvey also organized the African Legion,

6162-520: The First World War – only to have such promises later denied so a new militancy had emerged with demands for decolonization as well as condemning imperialism , racial discrimination , and capitalism . Planning began in 1944 after Du Bois corresponded with Amy Jacques Garvey and Harold Moody on an idea for an "African Freedom Charter." This correspondence led to Du Bois calling for a fifth Pan African Congress to be held in London. Du Bois

6320-572: The Gold Coast completely denounced the entire 1921 Congress. The Belgian press targeted Garvey and links to the UNIA and the Congress due to "fears of disruption in the Congo." This led to fears among businesses and the government in Brussels that the Congress would be a radical event that would advocate for the overthrow of colonial rule. Panda Farnana even tried suing the newspaper, L'Avenir Colonial Belge , to court for "having smeared and discredited

6478-507: The House of Commons , where he was impressed by the politician David Lloyd George . He also visited Speakers' Corner in Hyde Park and began making speeches there. There were only a few thousand black people in London at the time, and they were often viewed as exotic; most worked as labourers. Garvey initially gained piecemeal work labouring in the city's docks. In August 1912, his sister Indiana joined him in London, where she worked as

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6636-693: The International Council of Women , the Pan-African Congress was unable to send delegates to the Peace Conference, nor were members permitted to serve on commissions. Delegates to the Pan African Congress had no "official status" among world governments or organizations. Diagne was able to get official permission for the Congress to take place in Paris by persuading Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of its importance. Dates were set for February 12 and 13 to coincide with

6794-428: The Limón Province owned by the United Fruit Company (UFC). Shortly after his arrival, the area experienced strikes and unrest in opposition to the UFC's attempts to cut its workers' wages. Although as a timekeeper he was responsible for overseeing the manual workers, he became increasingly angered at how they were treated. In the spring of 1911 he launched a bilingual newspaper, Nation / La Nación , which criticized

6952-545: The Negro World called him a "reactionary under [the] pay of white men". Du Bois generally tried to ignore Garvey, regarding him as a demagogue , but at the same time wanted to learn all he could about Garvey's movement. In 1921, Garvey twice reached out to Du Bois, asking him to contribute to UNIA publications, but the offer was rebuffed. Their relationship became acrimonious; in 1923, Du Bois described Garvey as "a little fat black man, ugly but with intelligent eyes and big head". By 1924, historian Colin Grant has suggested,

7110-428: The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League , commonly abbreviated as UNIA. Adopting the motto of "One Aim. One God. One Destiny", it declared its commitment to "establish a brotherhood among the black race, to promote a spirit of race pride, to reclaim the fallen and to assist in civilising the backward tribes of Africa." Initially, it had only few members. Many Jamaicans were critical of

7268-441: The Westwood Training College for Women . She joined UNIA and rented a better premises for them to use as their headquarters, secured using her father's credit. She and Garvey embarked on a relationship, which was opposed by her parents. In 1915 they secretly became engaged. When she suspended the engagement, he threatened to commit suicide, at which she resumed it. I was openly hated and persecuted by some of these colored men of

7426-426: The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom were key fundraisers for the meeting. The Circle for Peace and Foreign Relations of New York City was also one of the sponsors of the 4th PAC. Beatrice Morrow Cannady , Dora Cole Norman , Dorothy R. Peterson , and Jessie Redmon were all active in planning for the 4th PAC. The Grace Congregational Church served as planning headquarters. The opening meeting

7584-484: The Yarmouth was sold for scrap metal, bringing the Black Star Line less than a hundredth of its original purchase price. The worn-out steamboat Shady Side was abandoned on the mud flats at Fort Lee, New Jersey in the fall of 1922, when the Black Star Line collapsed. In 1921, Garvey traveled to the Caribbean aboard a Black Star Line ship, the newly-acquired Antonio Maceo . While in Jamaica, he criticized its inhabitants as being backward and claimed that "Negroes are

7742-533: The 1945 5th Pan-African Congress in Manchester (such as George Padmore 's daughter Blyden Cowart, and Samia Nkrumah , daughter of Kwame Nkrumah). Marcus Garvey Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr. ONH (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940) was a Jamaican political activist. He was the founder and first President-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL, commonly known as UNIA), through which he declared himself Provisional President of Africa. Garvey

7900-556: The Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), although there was some crossover in membership of the two groups. The NAACP and UNIA differed in their approach; while the NAACP was a multi-racial organization which promoted racial integration, UNIA had a black-only membership policy. The NAACP focused its attention on what it termed the " talented tenth " of the African-American population, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers, whereas UNIA included many poorer people and Afro-Caribbean migrants in its ranks, seeking to project an image of itself as

8058-408: The American delegates supporting radical and revolutionary ideas. The London meeting took place in Methodist Central Hall, Westminster and the Paris meeting happened at the Salles des Ingènieurs. The Brussels sessions were hosted at the Palais Mondial . The Congress met on August 28 and 29 at the Central Hall with around 113 people in attendance and 41 delegates. The press in the British colony of

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8216-409: The Americas, which would be black-owned, black-staffed, and utilized by black patrons. He thought that the project could be launched by raising $ 2 million from African-American donors, publicly declaring that any black person who did not buy stock in the company "will be worse than a traitor to the cause of struggling Ethiopia". Garvey incorporated the company and then sought about trying to purchase

8374-661: The Committee on the Address), the document contained the phrase "The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the colour-line ", which Du Bois would use three years later in the "Forethought" of his book The Souls of Black Folk (1903). In September, the delegates petitioned Queen Victoria through the British government to look into the treatment of Africans in South Africa and Rhodesia, including specified acts of injustice perpetrated by whites there, namely: The response eventually received by Sylvester Williams on 17 January 1901 stated: "Sir. I am directed by Mr Secretary [Joseph] Chamberlain to state that he has received

8532-413: The Congress in the weeks prior to the event. Black people in the United States "generally approved of the actions of Du Bois as reported in the newspapers." Paul Otlet , a Belgian peace activist, wrote an article in La Patrie Belge proposing that European powers return German colonies to African people. When Du Bois wrote about the Congress in the Crisis and in his reports to the NAACP, he did not give

8690-432: The Congress were middle-class and moderate. Nevertheless, Du Bois was able to create the idea of a Pan African Marxism during the event. The first speech of the Congress was by Diagne, who said that assimilated Black people from America, Britain and France "were far more advanced than indigenous and 'inherently backwards' Africans. In this capacity, he felt that African countries held by Germany should be transferred to

8848-408: The Congress. Eventually, the Congress took place between February 19 and 21 at the Grand Hotel . There was greater representation from African countries at the First Pan-African Congress than there had been at the 1900 Pan-African Conference . Africa had twelve delegates with three from Liberia . There were 21 delegates representing Caribbean countries and 16 delegates from the U.S. Delegates to

9006-415: The Egyptian Sudan, British East Africa, former German East Africa; French Senegal, the French Congo and Madagascar; Belgian Congo; Portuguese St. Thomé, Angola and Mozambique; Liberia; Abyssinia; Haiti; British Jamaica and Grenada; French Martinique and Guadeloupe; British Guiana; the United States of America, Negroes resident in England, France, Belgium and Portugal, and fraternal visitors from India, Morocco,

9164-408: The Ethiopian emperor), "The Negro Problem in America" ( Anna J. Cooper , from Washington), "The Progress of our People" (John E. Quinlan of St. Lucia ) and "Africa, the Sphinx of History, in the Light of Unsolved Problems" (D. E. Tobias from the USA). Other topics included Richard Phipps' complaint of discrimination against black people in the Trinidadian civil service and an attack by William Meyer,

9322-437: The Fifth-Congress. The British press scarcely mentioned the conference. However, Picture Post covered the 5th Pan African Congress in an article by war reporter Hilde Marchant titled "Africa Speaks in Manchester", published on 10 November 1945. Picture Post was also responsible for sending John Deakin to photograph the event. This conference shifted the discussion about Pan-Africanism to focus more on African leaders and

9480-501: The First Pan-African Conference opened on Monday, 23 July 1900, in London's Westminster Town Hall , Bishop Alexander Walters in his opening address, "The Trials and Tribulations of the Coloured Race in America", noted that "for the first time in history black people had gathered from all parts of the globe to discuss and improve the condition of their race, to assert their rights and organize so that they might take an equal place among nations." The Bishop of London, Mandell Creighton , gave

9638-505: The French group would not be sending delegates. However, in one of the reports he published in The Crisis , Du Bois drew on words spoken by Ida Gibbs Hunt and Rayford Logan to imply that the French Committee had sent delegates. As long-time African-American residents of France, Hunt and Logan had traveled independently to the meeting, and Hunt and Béton were perturbed that Du Bois had implied they represented France. Black French people, including Béton and Gratien Candace who resigned from

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9796-445: The NAACP on the future of Africa. At the event, there was wide support for Du Bois to discuss Pan African issues in Paris during the Peace Conference. Speakers at the New York meeting included William Henry Sheppard , Horace Kallen , and James Weldon Johnson . In February 1919, the first Pan-African Congress was organized quickly in Paris by W. E. B. Du Bois , Ida Gibbs Hunt , Edmund Fredericks and Blaise Diagne . Diagne served as

9954-399: The Negro peoples of the world in commercial trade and in fraternities. — The Negro World From 56 West 135th, UNIA also began selling shares for a new business, the Black Star Line . Seeking to challenge white domination of the maritime industry, the Black Star Line based its name on the White Star Line . Garvey envisioned a shipping and passenger line traveling between Africa and

10112-399: The Pan-African Conference discussed the need to preserve Black cultural identity and for the rights of indigenous people to be recognized by colonizers . W. E. B. Du Bois was one of thirty attendees at this conference where he described "the color line " as one of the most important issues of the 20th century. Du Bois' inclusion at the 1900 conference marked him as a developing leader in

10270-503: The Pan-African Congress included the political and economic demands of the Congress for a new world context of international cooperation and the need to address the issues facing Africa as a result of European colonization of most of the continent. Congresses have taken place in 1919 in Paris; 1921 in Brussels , London and Paris; 1923 in Lisbon and London; 1927 in New York City; 1945 in Manchester ; 1974 in Dar es Salaam ; 1994 in Kampala ; and 2014 in Johannesburg . Pan Africanism as

10428-426: The Pan-African Congress." The smear campaign made many in Brussels see the meeting as a "gathering of dangerous agitators who, like their leader Marcus Garvey, were bent on freeing Africa from European rule." However, Garvey saw the Congress as little more than a joke and sharply criticized it and Du Bois loudly and publicly. In 1923, the Third Pan-African Congress was held in London and in Lisbon . Helen Noble Curtis

10586-401: The Pan-African movement. During World War I , African American soldiers fought bravely overseas and people like Du Bois felt that they should not face racial violence when they return to the United States. Black soldiers also faced discrimination in Europe at the hands of the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during the fighting. Du Bois described the fighting done by Black Americans as

10744-418: The Philippines and Annam." There was an Indian revolutionary who took part, Shapurji Saklatvala , and a journalist from the Gold Coast named W. F. Hutchinson who spoke. This session of the Congress was the most focused for change of all the meetings thus far. At the London session, resolutions were adopted, later restated by Du Bois in his "Manifesto To the League of Nations": If we are coming to recognize that

10902-414: The Queen's commands to inform you that the Memorial of the Pan-African Conference requesting the situation of the native races in South Africa, has been laid before Her Majesty, and that she was graciously pleased to command him to return an answer to it on behalf of her government. 2. Mr. Chamberlain accordingly desires to assure the members of the Pan-African Conference that, it settling the lines on which

11060-520: The Terrace was the crowning honor of the series. Great credit is due our genial secretary, Mr. H. Sylvester Williams, for these social functions. Miss Catherine Impey , of London, said she was glad to come in contact with the class of Negroes that composed the Pan-African Conference, and wished that the best and most cultured would visit England and meet her citizens of noble birth, that the adverse opinion which had been created against them in some quarters of late by their enemies might be changed." After

11218-570: The U.S. lecturing, he returned to New York City. In May 1917, Garvey launched a New York branch of UNIA. He declared membership open to anyone "of Negro blood and African ancestry" who could pay the 25 cents a month membership fee. He joined many other speakers who made speeches on the street, standing on step-ladders; he often did so at Speakers' Corner on 135th Street . In his speeches, he sought to reach across to both Afro-Caribbean migrants like himself and native African Americans . Through this, he began to associate with Hubert Harrison , who

11376-709: The U.S., including the Negro Factories Corporation and Negro World newspaper. In 1919, he became President of the Black Star Line shipping and passenger company, designed to forge a link between North America and Africa and facilitate African-American migration to Liberia . In 1923 Garvey was convicted of mail fraud for selling the company's stock and he was imprisoned in the United States Penitentiary, Atlanta for nearly two years. Many commentators have argued that

11534-600: The U.S., many African Americans who had served in the military refused to return to their more subservient role in society and throughout 1919 there were various racial clashes throughout the country. The government feared that African Americans would be encouraged toward revolutionary behavior following the October Revolution in Russia, and in this context, military intelligence ordered Major Walter Loving to investigate Garvey. Loving's report concluded that Garvey

11692-521: The UNIA in 1914. In 1916, he moved to the United States and established a UNIA branch in New York City 's Harlem district. Emphasising unity between Africans and the African diaspora , he campaigned for an end to European colonial rule in Africa and advocated the political unification of the continent. He envisioned a unified Africa as a one-party state , governed by himself, that would enact laws to ensure black racial purity. Although he never visited

11850-647: The UNIA in increasing financial difficulty, he relocated to London in 1935, where his anti-socialist stance distanced him from many of the city's black activists. He died there in 1940, and in 1964 his body was returned to Jamaica for reburial in Kingston's National Heroes Park . Garvey was a controversial figure. Some in the African diasporic community regarded him as a pretentious demagogue and they were highly critical of his collaboration with white supremacists , his violent rhetoric and his prejudice against mixed-race people and Jews. He received praise for encouraging

12008-539: The United States and the imperial European nations to "acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent" and to respect the integrity and independence of "the free Negro States of Abyssinia , Liberia , Haiti , etc." Signed by Walters (President of the Pan-African Association), the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown (Vice-President), Williams (General Secretary) and Du Bois (Chairman of

12166-801: The United States. Trinidadian lawyer, Henry Sylvester Williams created the African Association in 1897 to encourage a sense of Pan African unity in the British Colonies . The African Association published the discrimination and injustices faced by people in the African diaspora . The African Association's work led to the First Pan-African Conference held in London in 1900. The conference, which brought together people who were against racism and colonialism, attracted international attention, though it did not lead to political action on these issues. Attendees of

12324-698: The West Indies the right to self-government and demanding political and other rights for African Americans. On 24 September 1897, Henry Sylvester Williams had been instrumental in founding in London the African Association (not to be confused with the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa ), in response to the European partition of Africa that followed

12482-599: The actions of the UFC and upset many of the dominant strata of Costa Rican society in Limón. His coverage of a local fire, in which he questioned the motives of the fire brigade, resulted in him being brought in for police questioning. After his printing press broke, he was unable to replace the faulty part and terminated the newspaper. Garvey then travelled through Central America , undertaking casual work as he made his way through Honduras, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. While in

12640-457: The administration of the conquered territories is to be conducted, Her Majesty's Government will not overlook the interests and welfare of the native races. Days later, Victoria responded more personally, instructing her private secretary, Arthur Bigge , to write, which he did on 21 January — the day before the Queen died. Although the specific injustices in South Africa continued for some time,

12798-616: The amelioration of colonial conditions, the Manchester meeting was dominated by delegates from Africa and Africans working or studying in Britain." Adejumobi notes that "the new leadership attracted the support of workers, trade unionists, and a growing radical sector of the African student population. With fewer African American participants, delegates consisted mainly of an emerging crop of African intellectual and political leaders, who soon won fame, notoriety, and power in their various colonized countries." Among attendees were Hastings Banda , Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta who would go on to be

12956-451: The birthday of Abraham Lincoln . Funding for the event came from the NAACP and American fraternal organizations . Mary White Ovington and James Weldon Johnson raised money through solicitations of prominent NAACP supporters. Despite the funding received, the conference took place on a very small budget. Once the event had permission, American officials in Paris, such as Tasker H. Bliss and George Louis Beer became alarmed. Beer, who

13114-408: The case against Garvey was not proven. UNIA grew rapidly and in just over 18 months it had branches in 25 U.S. states, as well as divisions in the West Indies, Central America, and West Africa. The exact membership is not known, although Garvey—who often exaggerated numbers—claimed that by June 1919 it had two million members. It remained smaller than the better established National Association for

13272-756: The city, hoping to make a career as a public speaker, although at his first public speech he was heckled and fell off the stage. From New York City, he embarked on a U.S. speaking tour, crossing 38 states. At stopovers on his journey he listened to preachers from the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Black Baptist churches. While in Alabama, he visited the Tuskegee Institute and met with its new leader, Robert Russa Moton . After six months traveling across

13430-437: The claim that she had used "fraud and concealment" to induce the marriage. She launched a counter-claim for desertion, requesting $ 75 a week alimony. The court rejected this sum, instead ordering Garvey to pay her $ 12 a week. It refused to grant him the divorce. The court proceedings continued for two years. Now separated, Garvey moved into a 129th Street apartment with Jacques and Henrietta Vinton Davis , an arrangement that at

13588-537: The coastguard for further repairs. Garvey planned to obtain and launch a second ship by February 1920, with the Black Star Line putting down a $ 10,000 (~$ 115,240 in 2023) deposit on a paddle ship called the SS Shady Side . In July 1920, Garvey sacked both the Black Star Line's secretary, Edward D. Smith-Green , and its captain, Joshua Cockburn; the latter was accused of corruption. In early 1922,

13746-441: The company ranks, becoming their first Afro-Jamaican foreman. His sister and mother, by this point estranged from his father, moved to join him in the city. In January 1907, Kingston was hit by an earthquake that reduced much of the city to rubble. He, his mother, and his sister were left to sleep in the open for several months. In March 1908, his mother died. While in Kingston, Garvey converted to Catholicism . Garvey became

13904-475: The conference brought them to the attention of the world. The conference was reported in major British newspapers, including The Times and the Westminster Gazette , which commented that it "marks the initiation of a remarkable movement in history: the negro is at last awake to the potentialities of his future" and quoted Williams as saying: "Our object now is to secure throughout the world

14062-840: The conference ended, Williams set up branches of the Pan-African Association in Jamaica , Trinidad and the USA. He also launched a short-lived journal, The Pan-African , in October 1901. Although plans for the association to meet every two years failed, the 1900 conference encouraged the development of the Pan-African Congress . As Professor Tony Martin noted, "At least three of the Caribbean delegates later emigrated to Africa. George Christian of Dominica became

14220-568: The congress were given by H. H. Philips, Rayford Logan , and Y. Hikada on politics in Africa. Committees were formed during the event, including the creation of a resolution committee headed by Bellegarde, Cannady, Du Bois, Hunton, and Reverdy C. Ransom . The Fourth Pan-African Congress was held in New York City adopted resolutions that were similar to the Third Pan-African Congress meetings. Resolutions called for

14378-407: The congress, were worried the event would have "radical tendencies." According to Du Bois, an earlier plan to hold the 4th Congress in the West Indies , specifically Port-au-Prince , in 1925 did not pan out due to transportation and other issues. Instead, the Congress was held in New York City in 1927. Women played a significant role in this congress. Addie Whiteman Dickerson , Addie Hunton and

14536-804: The continent, he was committed to the Back-to-Africa movement , arguing that part of the diaspora should migrate there. Garveyist ideas became increasingly popular and the UNIA grew in membership. His black separatist views—and his relationship with white racists like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the interest of advancing their shared goal of racial separatism —caused a division between Garvey and other prominent African-American civil rights activists such as W. E. B. Du Bois who promoted racial integration . Believing that black people needed to be financially independent from white-dominated societies, Garvey launched various businesses in

14694-422: The court ordered Garvey to provide a printed retraction. In October 1919, George Tyler, a part-time vendor of the Negro World , entered the UNIA office and told Garvey that Kilroe "had sent him" and tried to assassinate Garvey. Garvey was shot at four times with a .38-calibre revolver, and received two bullets in his right leg and scalp but survived. Tyler was soon apprehended but committed suicide by leaping from

14852-708: The cultured class feel positively ashamed to move about. Well, this society [UNIA] has set itself the task to go among the people[…] and raise them to the standard of civilised approval. — Garvey, from a 1915 Collegiate Hall speech published in the Daily Chronicle Garvey arrived back in Jamaica in July 1914. There, he saw his article for Tourist republished in The Gleaner . He began earning money selling greeting and condolence cards which he had imported from Britain, before later switching to selling tombstones. Also in July 1914, Garvey launched

15010-454: The established population. With fellow Club member Wilfred Domingo he published a pamphlet expressing the group's ideas, The Struggling Mass . In early 1910, Garvey began publishing a magazine, Garvey's Watchman —its name a reference to George William Gordon 's The Watchman —although it only lasted three issues. He claimed it had a circulation of 3000, although this was likely an exaggeration. Garvey also enrolled in elocution lessons with

15168-563: The event were angered by this, believing it wrong that an Afro-Jamaican, rather than a native African, was taking this role. Many outside the movement ridiculed Garvey for giving himself this title. The conference then elected other members of the African government-in-exile, resulting in the production of a "Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World" which condemned European colonial rule across Africa. In August 1921, UNIA held

15326-439: The fate of some African colonies were going to be discussed at the Peace Conference. He hoped that having a conference of Black representatives from around the world would be heard by the European powers and the European public. He wanted to lobby the governments attending the Peace Conference to ensure better treatment for people of color around the world. Du Bois believed that he could "exert some positive political influence on

15484-603: The first presidents of their newly independent countries. Commentators estimate that 87–90 delegates were in attendance at the Congress, representing some 50 organisations, with a total of 200 audience members present. While Nnamdi Azikiwe did not attend the conference, he is on the record saying how important it was for the momentum of independence movement at the time. Delegates Fifth Pan-African Congress include: Fraternal delegates, observers and other attendees include: Other Attendees include: Raphael Armattoe , Kojo Botsio , Cecil Belfield Clarke and Dudley Thompson . Among

15642-643: The foundation of the Pan-African Federation (PAF) in Manchester in 1945, the Fifth Pan-African Congress was held at the Chorlton-on-Medlock Town Hall , Manchester, United Kingdom, between the 15 and 21 October 1945. Although forming a part of a larger Pan-African movement at the beginning of the century, this event was organised by people in Manchester, and they brought in the people from all over

15800-453: The great modern problem is to correct maladjustment in the distribution of wealth, it must be remembered that the basic maladjustment is in the outrageously unjust distribution of world income between the dominant and suppressed peoples; in the rape of land and raw material, and the monopoly of technique and culture. And in this crime white labor is particeps criminis with white capital. Unconsciously and consciously, carelessly and deliberately,

15958-631: The group on the war effort; Garvey endorsed Blackden's calls for more Jamaicans to sign up to fight for the Empire on the Western Front . The group also sponsored musical and literary evenings as well as a February 1915 elocution contest, at which Garvey took first prize. In August 1914, Garvey attended a meeting of the Queen Street Baptist Literary and Debating Society, where he met Amy Ashwood , recently graduated from

16116-483: The group's prominent use of the term " Negro ", a term which was often employed as an insult: Garvey, however, embraced the term in reference to black people of African descent. Garvey became UNIA's president and travelling commissioner; it was initially based out of his hotel room in Orange Street, Kingston. It portrayed itself not as a political organization but as a charitable club, focused on work to help

16274-612: The idea of Pan-Africanism because they advocated equal rights inside the French citizenship and thought the London Manifesto declaration too dangerously extreme. American Helen Noble Curtis acted as the sole representative for Liberia during this conference. In 1920, Du Bois secured 3,000 dollars from the NAACP for the creation of a "Pan-African fund". He planned to have more African representatives at this event. Paul Panda Farnana introduced Du Bois to colonial leaders in Brussels. Imperial and colonial powers were worried about

16432-648: The inequalities present in Jamaican society. Garvey involved himself with the National Club, Jamaica's first nationalist organization, becoming its first assistant secretary in April 1910. The group campaigned to remove the Governor of Jamaica , Sydney Olivier , from office, and to end the migration of Indian " coolies ", or indentured workers, to Jamaica, as they were seen as a source of economic competition by

16590-511: The influence of the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and Marcus Garvey on any potential proceedings. The U.S. saw Garvy and the UNIA as linked to " Moscow " and Black separatism and Du Bois wanted to avoid that connection. Of all groups that were trying to have a voice during the end of WWI, Du Bois believed he could have "positive political influence." In December 1918, Du Bois went to France as

16748-676: The island who did not want to be classified as Negroes but as white. — Garvey, on how he was received in Jamaica Garvey attracted financial contributions from many prominent patrons, including the Mayor of Kingston and the Governor of Jamaica, William Manning . By appealing directly to Jamaica's white elite, Garvey had skipped the brown middle-classes, comprising those who were classified as mulattos , quadroons , and octoroons . They were generally hostile to Garvey, regarding him as

16906-641: The issues addressed at the conference were: Women played an important role in the Fifth Congress. Amy Ashwood Garvey chaired the opening session and Alma La Badie , a Jamaican member of the Universal Negro Improvement Association , spoke about child welfare. Women also supported in behind-the-scenes roles, organising many of the social and other events outside the main sessions. Historians Marika Sherwood and Hakim Adi have specifically written about women involved in

17064-586: The kinks out of your mind, instead of out of your hair". By the end of its first year, the circulation of Negro World was nearing 10,000; copies circulated not only in the U.S., but also in the Caribbean, Central, and South America. Several British West Indian islands banned the publication. Garvey appointed his old friend Domingo, who had also arrived in New York City, as the newspaper's editor. However, Domingo's socialist views alarmed Garvey, who feared that they would imperil UNIA. Garvey had Domingo brought before UNIA's nine-person executive committee, where

17222-410: The latter was accused of writing editorials professing ideas at odds with UNIA's message. Domingo resigned several months later; he and Garvey henceforth became enemies. In September 1918, Amy Ashwood sailed from Panama to be with Garvey, arriving in New York City in October. In November, she became General Secretary of UNIA. At UNIA gatherings, she was responsible for reciting black-authored poetry, as

17380-406: The liberation of various colonized countries, including Haiti, China, and Egypt. A call for working class solidarity across racial lines was also included, but no plans for how to accomplish this were made. There were 208 delegates from the United States and 10 different foreign countries. Africa was represented by delegates from the Gold Coast , Liberia , Nigeria , and Sierra Leone . Following

17538-540: The month of May of the said year, in order to take steps to influence public opinion on existing proceedings and conditions affecting the welfare of the natives in various parts of Africa, the West Indies and the United States.' The resolution is signed by Mr H. Mason Joseph, President, and Mr H. Sylvester Williams as Honourable Secretary. The Honourable Secretary will be pleased to hear from representative natives who are desirous of attending at an early date. He may be addressed, Common Room, Grey's (sic) Inn, London, W.C." When

17696-447: The next Pan-African Congress and that this could be a continuing discussion. Du Bois also hoped for the creation of a world organization, the Pan-African Association. It was reported that there was little news coverage of the Congress in the French press, but one newspaper in Paris called Du Bois a "disciple of Garvey." West African colonies under British rule barely reported on the event. However, European press did run information about

17854-527: The next UNIA meeting. People continued buying stock regardless and by September 1919, the Black Star Line company had accumulated $ 50,000 (~$ 656,660 in 2023) by selling stock. It could thus afford a thirty-year old tramp ship , the SS Yarmouth . The ship was formally launched in a ceremony on the Hudson River on 31 October. The company had been unable to find enough trained black seamen to staff

18012-544: The people of Africa as "primary agents of change in the anti-colonial and anti-imperial struggles." Du Bois attempted to enlist the NAACP into further support for Pan-Africanism and aid to Africa, but the results were tepid. Du Bois continued to work towards the creation of a Pan-African movement in the United States throughout 1946. Due to the Red Scare , the NAACP stepped back from its support of Pan Africanism. The sixth Pan-African Congress, also known as "Sixth-PAC or 6PAC,"

18170-543: The poor and to ultimately establish a vocational training college modelled on Washington's Tuskegee Institute in Alabama . Garvey wrote to Washington and received a brief, if encouraging reply; Washington died shortly after. UNIA officially expressed its loyalty to the British Empire, King George V , and the British effort in the ongoing First World War . In April 1915 Brigadier General L. S. Blackden lectured to

18328-596: The port of Colón in Panama, he set up a new newspaper, La Prensa ("The Press"). In 1911, he became seriously ill with a bacterial infection and decided to return to Kingston. He then decided to travel to London, the heart of the British Empire , in the hope of advancing his informal education. In the spring of 1912 he sailed to England. Renting a room along Borough High Street in South London, he visited

18486-503: The power-brokers and decision-makers during the Paris Peace Conference." However, Du Bois was one of many individuals representing various other advocacy groups who also wanted to have a voice at the Peace Conference. Since he was not given permission to speak at the Peace Conference, he decided to create a separate meeting to take place at the same time. A mass meeting in New York City was held on January 19, 1919, by

18644-668: The president of the Congress with Du Bois the secretary and Gibbs the assistant secretary. Du Bois created a list of groups he wanted to attend to the congress which included countries who had Black citizens, but he also wanted representatives from other countries as well. Du Bois wanted to petition the Versailles Peace Conference held in Paris at that time to make a case for African colonies to become self-ruling. The Pan-African Congress proposed that Germany should be required to turn over its colonies to an international organization rather than other colonial powers. Unlike

18802-414: The radical journalist Joseph Robert Love , coming to regard him as a mentor. With Garvey's enhanced skill at speaking in a Standard English manner, he entered several public-speaking competitions. Economic hardship in Jamaica led to growing emigration from the island. In mid-1910, Garvey travelled to Costa Rica , where an uncle had secured him employment as a timekeeper on a large banana plantation in

18960-626: The resolutions to Beer and Edward M. House who served as advisors to President Wilson. Among the delegates were: In 1921, the Second Pan-African Congress met in several sessions in London, Brussels and Paris, during August (28, 29, and 31) and September (2, 3, 5 and 6). As W. E. B. Du Bois reported in The Crisis in November that year, represented at this congress were "26 different groups of people of Negro descent: namely, British Nigeria, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone;

19118-593: The same facilities and privileges for the black as the white man enjoys." Du Bois recorded in his report, "On Monday, the 23d of July, the conference was invited to a five o'clock tea given by the Reform Cobden Club of London in honor of the delegates, at its headquarters in the St. Ermin Hotel , one of the most elegant in the city. Several members of Parliament and other notables were present. A splendid repast

19276-488: The ship, so its initial chief engineer and chief officer were white. The ship's first assignment was to sail to Cuba and then to Jamaica, before returning to New York. After that first voyage, the Yarmouth was found to contain many problems and the Black Star Line had to pay $ 11,000 for repairs. On its second voyage, again to the Caribbean, it hit bad weather shortly after departure and had to be towed back to New York by

19434-440: The support of the journalist John Edward Bruce , agreeing to step down from the group's presidency in favor of Bruce. Bruce then wrote to Dusé Mohamed Ali to learn more about Garvey's past. Mohamed Ali responded with a negative assessment of Garvey, suggesting that he simply used UNIA as a money-making scheme. Bruce read this letter to a UNIA meeting and put pressure on Garvey's position. Garvey then resigned from UNIA, establishing

19592-482: The third-tier of the Harlem jail; it was never revealed why he tried to kill Garvey. Garvey soon recovered from his wounds; five days later he gave a public speech in Philadelphia . After the assassination attempt, Garvey hired a bodyguard, Marcellus Strong. Shortly after the incident, Garvey proposed marriage to Amy Ashwood and she accepted. On Christmas Day , they had a private Catholic wedding , followed by

19750-486: The time could have caused some social controversy. He was later joined there by his sister Indiana and her husband, Alfred Peart. Ashwood, meanwhile, went on to become a lyricist and musical director for musicals amid the Harlem Renaissance . Black Star Line was organized for the industrial, commercial and economic development of the race to carry out the program of U.N.I.A., that is to have ships to link up

19908-875: The trade union conference. There was a much greater representation of African delegates and attendees from Continental Africa at this conference. Marika Sherwood notes that "There were also eleven listed 'fraternal delegates', from Cypriot, Somali , Indian and Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) organisations, as well as the Women's International League and two British political parties, the Common Wealth Party and Independent Labour Party". Historian Saheed Adejumobi writes in The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945   that "while previous Pan-African congresses had been controlled largely by black middle-class British and American intellectuals who had emphasized

20066-563: The trial was politically motivated; Garvey blamed Jewish people , claiming that they were prejudiced against him because of his links to the KKK. After his sentence was commuted by U.S. president Calvin Coolidge , he was deported to Jamaica in 1927. Settling in Kingston with his wife Amy Jacques , Garvey established the People's Political Party in 1929, briefly serving as a city councillor . With

20224-612: The two hated each other. UNIA established a restaurant and ice cream parlor at 56 West 135th Street, and also launched a millinery store selling hats. With an increased income coming in through UNIA, Garvey moved to a new residence at 238 West 131st Street; in 1919, a young middle-class Jamaican migrant, Amy Jacques , became his personal secretary. UNIA also obtained a partly-constructed church building at 114 West 138 Street in Harlem, which Garvey named "Liberty Hall" after its namesake in Dublin , Ireland, which had been established during

20382-470: The vast power of the white labor vote in modern democracies has been cajoled and flattered into imperialistic schemes to enslave and debauch black, brown and yellow labor. The only dissenting voices were these of Blaise Diagne and Gratien Candace , French politicians of African and Guadeloupean descent, who represented Senegal and Guadeloupe in the French Chamber of Deputies . They soon abandoned

20540-596: The widespread ignorance which is prevalent in England about the treatment of native races under European and American rule, the African Association, which consists of members of the race resident in England and which has been in existence for nearly two years, have resolved during the Paris Exposition of 1900 (which many representatives of the race may be visiting) to hold a conference in London in

20698-409: The wishes of people of color; their delegates nevertheless were unable to secure the travel documentation. At Garvey's prompting, UNIA sent a young Haitian, Eliezer Cadet , as its delegate to the conference. Despite these efforts, the political leaders who met in Paris largely ignored the perspectives of non-European peoples, instead reaffirming their support for continued European colonial rule. In

20856-423: The world, asked me to meet them a few days ago with a view to making a preliminary program for this conference, and we had a most interesting meeting. It is surprising to see the strong intellectual mould which many of these Africans and West Indians possess. The object and character of the Pan-African Conference is best told in the words of the resolution, which was adopted at the meeting referred to, viz: 'In view of

21014-568: The world." While the previous four congresses had involved predominantly members of the African diaspora, including those in the United Kingdom, Afro-Caribbeans and Afro-Americans ." the fifth included more representatives from the African continent. It was the wish of the West African Students' Union that the event be hosted in Liberia and not in Europe, however having originally been scheduled in Paris to coincide with

21172-508: Was "no room for a diasporan political consciousness because they saw the French Third Republic 's empire as the best current opportunity for the realization of black rights within their constituencies." Adherence to a "benevolent" nation was seen as a practical approach to helping improve the lives of Black people they represented. Liberian delegate, Charles D. B. King , spoke about the importance of developing his country as

21330-542: Was a "very able young man" who was disseminating "clever propaganda". The Bureau of Investigation's J. Edgar Hoover decided that Garvey was politically subversive and should be deported from the U.S., adding his name to the list of those to be targeted in the forthcoming Palmer Raids . To ratify the deportation, the Bureau of Investigation presented Garvey's name to the Labor Department under Louis F. Post , however Post's department refused to do so, stating that

21488-660: Was an important planner of the Lisbon event, which was smaller than the others. The London Congress was held at Denison House. This meeting also repeated the demands such as self-rule, the problems in the Diaspora and the African-European relationship. The following was addressed at the meeting: Before the Congress met in London, Isaac Béton of the French Committee wrote a letter to Du Bois, telling him that

21646-570: Was arrested and fined for violating the Blue Sky Laws which banned the sale of stock in the city without a license. With growing quantities of money coming in, a three-man auditing committee was established, which found that UNIA's funds were poorly recorded and that the company's books were not balanced. This was followed by a breakdown in trust between the directors of the Black Star Line, with Garvey discharging two of them, Richard E. Warner and Edgar M. Grey, and publicly humiliating them at

21804-631: Was attended by Gabriel Johnson, the Mayor of Monrovia in Liberia. As part of it, an estimated 25,000 people assembled in Madison Square Gardens . At the conference, UNIA delegates declared Garvey to be the Provisional President of Africa, charged with heading a government-in-exile that could take power in the continent when European colonial rule ended via decolonization . Some of the West Africans attending

21962-409: Was being revived in the form of forced labour." The conference culminated in the conversion of the African Association (formed by Sylvester Williams in 1897) into the Pan-African Association , and the implementation of a unanimously adopted "Address to the Nations of the World", sent to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression. The address implored

22120-445: Was diverting UNIA funds to pay for his own personal expenses, the group's support began to decline. He became increasingly aware of how UNIA had failed to thrive in Jamaica and decided to migrate to the United States, sailing there aboard the SS Tallac in March 1916. Arriving in the United States, Garvey initially lodged with a Jamaican expatriate family living in Harlem , a largely black area of New York City. He began lecturing in

22278-423: Was felt that Africa should be granted home rule and Africans should take part in governing their countries as fast as their development permits until at some specified time in the future. Resolutions were sent to the press in France, Britain and the United States. The Congress recommended the creation of a multi-lingual, international publication, the Black Review . It was also expected that delegates would plan for

22436-754: Was held at St. Mark's Methodist Church and the Headquarters remained at the Grace Congregational Church. There were about 208 delegates from the United States and other countries. Low attendance from British and French colonies was due to government travel restrictions. William Pickens gave a speech on the importance of worker solidarity during the opening session. Other speakers at the opening session included Chief Nana Amoah , Reginald G. Barrow , Dantès Bellegarde , James Francis Jenkins , H. K. Rakhit, Adolph Sixto , and T. Augustus Toote . Later speeches were given by W. Tete Ansa , Helen Noble Curtis , Du Bois, Leo William Hansbury , Leslie Pinckney Hill , Georges Sylvain , and Charles H. Wesley . The final speeches of

22594-448: Was hosted in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania in June 1974. This was the first time the event took place in Africa. The event was originally proposed by Pauulu Kamarakafego to challenge neocolonialism and apartheid . First Pan-African Conference Du Bois played a leading role, drafting a letter ("Address to the Nations of the World") to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism , to grant colonies in Africa and

22752-430: Was however reckless with his money and over the course of his life lost most of the land he owned to meet payments. Malchus had a book collection and was self-educated; he also served as an occasional layman at a local Wesleyan church. Malchus was an intolerant and punitive father and husband; he never had a close relationship with his son. Up to the age of 14, Garvey attended a local church school; further education

22910-411: Was ideologically a black nationalist and Pan-Africanist . His ideas came to be known as Garveyism . Garvey was born into a moderately prosperous Afro-Jamaican family in Saint Ann's Bay and was apprenticed into the print trade as a teenager. Working in Kingston , he got involved in trade unionism before living briefly in Costa Rica , Panama , and England . On returning to Jamaica, he founded

23068-429: Was not good. After Diagne's speech, Portuguese representative Alfredo Andrade , praised French democracy and its inclusion of Black people in government. Other representatives to the Pan-African Congress also praised France for having Black representation in politics and good relations with Black people anecdotally . Andrade, Diagne, Gratien Candace , Achille René-Boisneuf , and Joseph Lagrosillière all felt that there

23226-541: Was of Irish origin, had been inherited from his family's former enslavers. His father, Malchus Garvey, was a stonemason; his mother, Sarah Richards, was a domestic servant and the daughter of peasant farmers. Malchus had had two previous wives before Sarah, having six children between them. Sarah bore him four additional children, of whom Marcus was the youngest, although two died in infancy. Because of his profession, Malchus' family were wealthier than many of their peasant neighbours; they were petite bourgeoise . Malchus

23384-399: Was of mixed heritage—of being a white man posing as a black man. Briggs successfully sued Garvey for criminal libel. This was not the only time he faced this charge; in July 1919 Garvey had been arrested for comments in the Negro World about Edwin P. Kilroe , the Assistant District Attorney in the District Attorney's office of the County of New York. When this case eventually came to court,

23542-405: Was promoting ideas of black self-reliance and racial separatism. In June, Garvey shared a stage with Harrison at the inaugural meeting of the latter's Liberty League of Negro-Americans. Through his appearance here and at other events organized by Harrison, Garvey attracted growing public attention. After the U.S. entered the First World War in April 1917, Garvey initially signed up to fight but

23700-430: Was pursuing a special appeal for donations to keep it afloat. Various journalists took Garvey to court for his failure to pay them for their contributions, a fact much publicized by rival publications; at the time, there were over 400 black-run newspapers and magazines in the U.S. Unlike many of these, Garvey refused to feature adverts for skin-lightening and hair-straightening products, urging black people to "take

23858-411: Was ruled physically unfit to do so. He later became an opponent of African-American involvement in the conflict, following Harrison in accusing it of being a "white man's war". In the wake of the East St. Louis Race Riots in May to July 1917, in which white mobs targeted black people, Garvey began calling for armed self-defense. He produced a pamphlet, The Conspiracy of the East St Louis Riots , which

24016-471: Was served, and for two hours the delegates were delightfully entertained by the members and friends of the club. At 5 o'clock on Tuesday a tea was given in our honor by the late Dr. Creighton, Lord Bishop of London, at his stately palace at Fulham , which has been occupied by the Bishops of London since the fifteenth century. On our arrival at the palace we found his Lordship and one or two other Bishops, with their wives and daughters, waiting to greet us. After

24174-441: Was soon strained. Ashwood complained of Garvey's growing closeness with Jacques. Garvey was upset by his inability to control his wife, particularly her drinking and her socializing with other men. She was pregnant, although the child was possibly not his; she did not inform him of this, and the pregnancy ended in miscarriage. Three months into the marriage, Garvey sought an annulment, on the basis of Ashwood's alleged adultery and

24332-429: Was the actress Henrietta Vinton Davis , who had also joined the movement. After the First World War ended, President Woodrow Wilson declared his intention to present a 14-point plan for world peace at the forthcoming Paris Peace Conference . Garvey joined various African Americans in forming the International League for Darker People , a group which sought to lobby Wilson and the conference to give greater respect to

24490-412: Was the chief colonial expert working for the U.S., believed that Black people could not govern themselves. A series of telegrams described as "urgent" and "confidential" began to pass between the United States Department of State and American officials in Paris. The French government even later stated that Clemenceau had never approved of the Congress. There were 57 delegates representing 15 countries,

24648-422: Was unaffordable for the family. When not in school, Garvey worked on his maternal uncle's tenant farm. He had friends, with whom he once broke the windows of a church, resulting in his arrest. Some of his friends were white, although he found that as they grew older they distanced themselves from him; he later recalled that a close childhood friend was a white girl: "We were two innocent fools who never dreamed of

24806-434: Was unaware that George Padmore had also called for a Pan African Congress to be held after WWII, but once he found out, he was interested in working with Padmore. Additional plans were made with the NAACP, and the congress was tentatively scheduled for Paris at the same time as the World Trade Union Conference. Plans changed again in August 1945, when Du Bois announced that the fifth PAC would be held in England, one week after

24964-495: Was widely distributed; proceeds from its sale went to victims of the riots. The Bureau of Investigation began monitoring him, noting that in speeches he employed more militant language than that used in print; it for instance reported him expressing the view that "for every Negro lynched by whites in the South, Negroes should lynch a white in the North." By the end of 1917, Garvey had attracted many of Harrison's key associates in his Liberty League to join UNIA. Garvey also secured

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