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95-437: Perfection is a state, variously, of completeness, flawlessness, or supreme excellence. The term is used to designate a range of diverse, if often kindred, concepts . These have historically been addressed in a number of discrete disciplines , notably mathematics , physics , chemistry , ethics , aesthetics , ontology , and theology . The form of the word long fluctuated in various languages. The English language had

190-434: A res publica as long as it continued to use Latin as its official language. Rome acquired imperial character de facto from the 130s BC with the acquisition of Cisalpine Gaul , Illyria , Greece and Hispania , and definitely with the addition of Iudaea , Asia Minor and Gaul during the 1st century BC. At the time of the empire's maximal extension during the reign of Trajan (AD 117), Rome controlled

285-529: A society , the second perfection subsumes the first, in accordance with the "order of the universe" (" ordo universi "). The social perfection is binding on man, whereas personal perfection is only becoming to him. Theses on perfection persist within the Church to the present day. The first condition for perfection is the desire of it. Also necessary is grace — but God gives grace to those who desire perfection and strive for it. Another condition for perfection

380-449: A body observed in nature. A perfectly black body would be one that absorbed completely, radiation falling upon it — that is, a body with a coefficient of absorption equal to unity. A crystal is perfect when its physically equivalent walls are equally developed; it has a perfect structure when it answers the requirements of spatial symmetry and is free of structural defects, dislocation, lacunae and other flaws. A perfect fluid

475-547: A discourse by St. Augustine , De perfectione iustitiae hominis . They begin already with the Old Testament : "Thou shalt be perfect with the Lord thy God." ( Deuteronomy 18:13.) Elsewhere, synonyms for "perfection" are "undefiled", "without rebuke", "without blemish", "blameless", "holy", "righteous", "unblamable", "unreprovable". Augustine explains that not only that man is properly termed perfect and without blemish who

570-422: A number is neither 3 nor 7 nor 10, but 6, for 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. But there are more numbers that show this property, such as 28, which = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. It became customary to call such numbers "perfect." Euclid gave a formula for (even) "perfect" numbers: where p and 2 − 1 are prime numbers . Euclid had listed the first four perfect numbers: 6; 28; 496; and 8128. A manuscript of 1456 gave

665-472: A pair; thus, for example, dignitaries were called " perfectissime ", just as they are now called "excellency." Nevertheless, these two expression of high regard differ fundamentally: " excellentia " is a distinction among many, and implies comparison; while " perfectio " involves no comparison, and if something is deemed perfect, then it is deemed so in itself, without comparison to other things. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , who thought much about perfection and held

760-422: A perfect number, and in addition for some reason he associated the number 7 with the concept of " eternity ." The Middle Ages , however, championed the perfection of 6: Augustine and Alcuin wrote that God had created the world in 6 days because that was the perfect number. The Greek mathematicians had regarded as perfect that number which equals the sum of its divisors that are smaller than itself. Such

855-488: A precursor in the 16th-century writer Joseph Juste Scaliger , and they in turn referred to the ancient philosopher Empedocles . Their argument, as given by the first two, was that if the world were perfect, it could not improve and so would lack "true perfection", which depends on progress. To Aristotle , "perfect" meant "complete" ("nothing to add or subtract"). To Empedocles, according to Vanini, perfection depends on incompleteness (" perfectio propter imperfectionem "), since

950-761: A result of the crisis of the third century . During Late antiquity Christianity became increasingly popular, finally ousting the Roman imperial cult with the Theodosian decrees of 393. Successive invasions of Germanic tribes finalized the weakening of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century, while the Eastern Roman Empire persisted throughout the Middle Ages , in a state called Romania by its citizens, and designated

1045-712: A return of the Catholic concept; and also, heroic attempts to attain perfection through contemplation and mortification . This was the age of Ignatius Loyola and the founding of the Jesuit Order ; of St. Teresa of Ávila (1515–82) and St. John of the Cross (1542–91), and the 1593 founding of the Barefoot Carmelites . This was the culminating point in the history of the Christian idea of perfection; at

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1140-643: A series of conflicts of the 4th and 3rd centuries, the Samnite Wars , Latin War , and Pyrrhic War . Roman victory in the Punic Wars and Macedonian Wars established Rome as a super-regional power by the 2nd century BC, followed by the acquisition of Greece and Asia Minor . This tremendous increase of power was accompanied by economic instability and social unrest, resulting in the Catiline conspiracy ,

1235-465: A third is two; a half — three; two-thirds ( Greek : dimoiron ) is four; five-sixths ( pentamoiron ) is five; six is the perfect whole. The ancients also considered 6 a perfect number because the human foot constituted one-sixth the height of a man, hence the number 6 determined the height of the human body. Thus both numbers, 6 and 10, were credited with perfection, both on purely mathematical grounds and on grounds of their relevance in nature. Belief in

1330-504: A twofold perfection: when a thing is perfect in itself — as he put it, in its substance ; and when it perfectly serves its purpose . The variants on the concept of perfection would have been quite of a piece for two thousand years, had they not been confused with other, kindred concepts. The chief of these was the concept of that which is the best: in Latin, " excellentia " ("excellence"). In antiquity , " excellentia " and " perfectio " made

1425-456: Is already perfect, but also he who strives unreservedly after perfection. This is a broader concept, of approximate perfection, resembling that used in the exact sciences . The first ancient and Christian perfection was not very remote from modern self-perfection . St. Ambrose in fact wrote about degrees of perfection (" gradus piae perfectionis "). Along with the idea of perfection, Holy Scripture conveyed doubt as to whether perfection

1520-512: Is constancy of striving and effort. Augustine says: "He who stops, regresses." And effort is necessary in things not only great but also in the smallest; the Gospel according to St. Luke says: "He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much." An aid in approaching perfection is an awareness of God 's perfection and of one's own imperfection. The 14th century saw, with

1615-417: Is merely historic in nature, used for the sake of tradition. These peculiar numbers had received the name on account of their analogy to the construction of man, who was held to be nature 's most perfect creation, and above all on account of their own peculiar regularity. Thus, they had been so named on the same grounds as perfect objects in nature, and perfectly proportioned edifices and statues created by man;

1710-415: Is one that is incompressible and non-viscous — this, again, is an ideal fluid that does not exist in nature. A perfect gas is one whose molecules do not interact with each other and which have no volume of their own. Such a gas is fictitious , just as are perfectly solid, perfectly rigid, perfectly plastic and perfectly black bodies. They are termed "perfect" in the strict (non-metaphorical) sense of

1805-468: Is to be found only in heaven. As early as the 5th century CE, two distinct views on perfection had arisen within the Church: that it was attainable by man on earth by his own powers; and, that it may come to pass only by special divine grace . The first view, which was championed by Pelagius , was condemned in 417 CE; the second view, which was championed by St. Augustine, prevailed at the very beginning of

1900-561: The Byzantine Empire by later historians. Hellenistic philosophy was succeeded by continued development of Platonism and Epicureanism , with Neoplatonism in due course influencing the theology of the Christian Church Fathers . Many writers have attempted to name a specific date for the symbolic "end" of antiquity, with the most prominent dates being the deposing of the last Western Roman Emperor in 476,

1995-615: The Byzantine Papacy . The Eastern Roman empire's capital city Constantinople remained the only unconquered large urban site of the original Roman empire, as well as being the largest city in Europe. Yet many classical books, sculptures, and technologies survived there along with classical Roman cuisine and scholarly traditions, well into the Middle Ages, when much of it was "rediscovered" by visiting Western crusaders. Indeed,

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2090-524: The Catholic Church in particular maintained Latin language, culture, and literacy for centuries; to this day the popes are termed Pontifex Maximus which during the classical period was a title belonging to the emperor, and the ideal of Christendom continued the legacy of a united European civilization even after its political unity had ended. The political idea of an Emperor in the West to match

2185-628: The Gospel and the Christian theologians it was charity , or love. St. Paul wrote ( Epistle to the Colossians , 3:14): "And above all these things put on charity, which is the bond of perfectness". St. Gregory wrote that perfection will be realized only after the fulfillment of history — only "then will the world be beautiful and perfect." Still, everyone should make his own approach to perfection — to holiness . Discourses in moral theology and asceticism were generous with advice on how this

2280-534: The Metaphysics , he distinguishes three meanings of the term, or rather three shades of one meaning, but in any case three different concepts. That is perfect: The first of these concepts is fairly well subsumed within the second. Between those two and the third, however, there arises a duality in concept. This duality was expressed by Thomas Aquinas , in the Summa Theologica , when he distinguished

2375-578: The Muslim conquests of the 7th century finalized the irreversible loss of all the largest Eastern Roman imperial cities besides the capital itself. The emperor Heraclius in Constantinople , who reigned during this period, conducted his court in Greek, not Latin, though Greek had always been an administrative language of the eastern Roman regions. Eastern-Western associations weakened with the ending of

2470-607: The Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, resulting the integration of Latins and Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, though settlements on the Palatine Hill may date back to the 10th century BC. According to legend, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus . As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and

2565-648: The Scotists , a shift in interest from moral to ontological perfection; the 15th century, particularly during the Italian Renaissance , a shift to artistic perfection. The first half of the 16th century saw John Calvin 's complete conditioning of man's perfection on the grace of God . The second half of the 16th century brought the Counter-Reformation , the Council of Trent , and

2660-508: The Slovak " dokonaly " and " dokonalost "; the Polish " doskonały " and " doskonałość ". The genealogy of the concept of "perfection" reaches back beyond Latin, to Greek . The Greek equivalent of the Latin " perfectus " was " teleos ". The latter Greek expression generally had concrete referents, such as a perfect physician or flutist, a perfect comedy or a perfect social system. Hence

2755-780: The Social War and the First Triumvirate , and finally the transformation to the Roman Empire during the latter half of the 1st century BC. The precise end of the Republic is disputed by modern historians; Roman citizens of the time did not recognize that the Republic had ceased to exist. The early Julio-Claudian Emperors maintained that the res publica still existed, albeit protected by their extraordinary powers, and would eventually return to its earlier Republican form. The Roman state continued to term itself

2850-465: The ancient Greeks , together with some influences from the ancient Near East , was the basis of art, philosophy, society, and education in the Mediterranean and Near East until the Roman imperial period . The Romans preserved, imitated, and spread this culture throughout Europe, until they were able to compete with it. This Greco-Roman cultural foundation has been immensely influential on

2945-588: The classical orders of architecture. The philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas was derived largely from that of Aristotle , despite the intervening change in religion from Hellenic Polytheism to Christianity . Greek and Roman authorities such as Hippocrates and Galen formed the basis of the practice of medicine even longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy. In the French theater , playwrights such as Molière and Racine wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to

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3040-620: The red-figure style , developed by the Andokides Painter in about 530 BC. Greek colonisation refers to the expansion of Archaic Greeks , particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BC , across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea . The Etruscans had established political control in the region by the late 7th-century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power in

3135-479: The "perfection" of certain numbers survived antiquity , but this quality came to be ascribed to other numbers as well. The perfection of the number 3 actually became proverbial : " omne trinum perfectum " ( Latin : all threes are perfect ). Another number, 7, found a devotee in the 6th-century Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great), who favored it on grounds similar to those of the Greek mathematicians who had seen 6 as

3230-484: The 18th and 19th centuries. The earliest period of classical antiquity occurs during a time of gradual resurgence of historical sources after the Late Bronze Age collapse . The 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely protohistorical , with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing during the first half of the 8th century. The legendary poet Homer is usually assumed to have lived during

3325-441: The 1980s – 1110. As the result of development and specialising of terminological studies, some of the branches of terminology science – such as typological terminology science, semasiological terminology science, terminological derivatology, comparative terminology science, terminography, functional terminology science, cognitive terminology science, historical terminology science and some branch terminology sciences – have gained

3420-514: The 19th century. John Milton and even Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic educations in Latin. Genres like epic poetry, pastoral verse, and the frequent use of characters and themes from Greek mythology affected Western literature greatly. In architecture, there have been several Greek Revivals , which seem more inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek. Washington, DC has many large marble buildings with façades made to look like Greek temples , with columns constructed in

3515-477: The 5th century and became authoritative. Still, the Church did not condemn the writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite , purportedly the first bishop of Athens , voicing a natural possibility for man to rise to perfection, to the contemplation of God. And so, for centuries, two views contended within the Church. Even as, for the ancient philosophers, the essence of perfection had been harmony , so for

3610-552: The 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the interwoven civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known together as the Greco-Roman world , centered on the Mediterranean Basin . It is the period during which ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished and had major influence throughout much of Europe , North Africa , and West Asia . Conventionally, it is often considered to begin with

3705-932: The 8th or 7th century BC, and his lifetime is often considered as the beginning of classical antiquity. During the same period is the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games , in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from ports in Canaan , by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean . Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had established strongholds in Sicily , Italy and Sardinia , which created conflicts of interest with Etruria . A stele found in Kition , Cyprus commemorates

3800-653: The Dark Ages). In pottery, the Archaic period sees the development of the Orientalizing style , which signals a shift from the geometric style of the later Dark Ages and the accumulation of influences derived from Egypt, Phoenicia and Syria . Pottery styles associated with the later part of the Archaic age are the black-figure pottery , which originated in Corinth during the 7th-century BC and its successor,

3895-547: The Eastern Roman capital ( first in 674–78 and then in 717–18 ) severed the economic, cultural, and political links that had traditionally united the classical cultures around the Mediterranean, ending antiquity (see Pirenne Thesis ). The original Roman Senate continued to express decrees into the late 6th century, and the last Eastern Roman emperor to use Latin as the language of his court in Constantinople

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3990-583: The Emperor in the East continued after the Western Roman Empire's collapse; it was revived by the coronation of Charlemagne in 800; the self-described Holy Roman Empire ruled central Europe until 1806. The Renaissance idea that the classical Roman virtues had been lost as a result of medievalism was especially powerful in European politics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Reverence for Roman republicanism

4085-578: The Great in 323 BC. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias , son of Peisistratos . Cleomenes I , king of Sparta, established a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras . The Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BC), concluded by the Peace of Callias ended with not only the liberation of Greece, Macedon , Thrace , and Ionia from Persian rule , but also with

4180-425: The Greek " teleiotes " was not yet so fraught with abstract and superlative associations as would be the Latin " perfectio " or the modern "perfection". To avoid the latter associations, the Greek term has generally been translated as " completeness " rather than "perfection". The oldest definition of "perfection", fairly precise and distinguishing the shades of the concept, goes back to Aristotle . In Book Delta of

4275-495: The Greeks as to which numbers were "perfect" or why. A view that was shared by Plato held that 10 was a perfect number. Mathematicians , including the mathematician-philosopher Pythagoreans , proposed as a perfect number, the number 6. The number 10 was thought perfect because there are 10 fingers to the two hands. The number 6 was believed perfect for being divisible in a special way: a sixth part of that number constitutes unity;

4370-470: The Greeks. Fathers had great power over their children, and husbands over their wives. In fact, the word family, familia in Latin, actually referred to those who were subject to the authority of a male head of household. This included non-related members such as slaves and servants. By marriage, both men and women shared property. Divorce was allowed first during the first century BC and could be done by either man or woman. The Roman Empire began to weaken as

4465-521: The Senate and had Superbus and the monarchy expelled from Rome in 510 BC. After Superbus' expulsion, the Senate in 509 BC voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government . The classical period of Ancient Greece corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, in particular, from the end of the Athenian tyranny in 510 BC to the death of Alexander

4560-664: The Stoics had made perfection a philosophical watchword. Soon it would be transformed, in Christianity , into a religious one. The Christian doctrine of perfection is in the Gospels as well as elsewhere in the Bible . Matthew 5:48 enjoins: "Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect." Early Christian writings, especially Paul 's, are replete with calls to perfection. Many of these are collected in

4655-574: The accuracy and content of its terminology. Technical industries and standardization institutes compile their own glossaries. This provides the consistency needed in the various areas—fields and branches, movements and specialties—to work with core terminology to then offer material for the discipline's traditional and doctrinal literature. Terminology is also then key in boundary-crossing problems, such as in language translation and social epistemology . Terminology helps to build bridges and to extend one area into another. Translators research

4750-547: The alternates, "perfection" and the Biblical "perfectness." The word "perfection" derives from the Latin " perfectio ", and "perfect" — from " perfectus ". These expressions in turn come from " perficio " — "to finish", "to bring to an end". " Perfectio (n)" thus literally means "a finishing", and "perfect (us) " — "finished", much as in grammatical parlance (" perfect "). Many modern languages have adopted their terms for

4845-569: The area by the late 6th-century BC, and at this time, the Italic tribes reinvented their government by creating republics , with greater restraints on the ability of individual rulers to exercise power. According to legend, Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas , Romulus and Remus . As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited

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4940-516: The closing of the last Platonic Academy in Athens by the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I in 529, and the conquest of much of the Mediterranean by the new Muslim faith from 634 to 718. These Muslim conquests, of Syria (637), Egypt (639), Cyprus (654), North Africa (665), Hispania (718), Southern Gaul (720), Crete (820), and Sicily (827), Malta (870), as well as the sieges of

5035-451: The concept of " good ", central to his philosophy, was tantamount to "perfection". He believed that approximation to the idea of perfection makes people perfect. Soon after, the Stoics introduced the concept of perfection into ethics expressly, describing it as harmony — with nature , reason , man himself. They held that such harmony—such perfection—was attainable for anyone. Plato and

5130-795: The concept of "perfection" from the Latin: the French " parfait " and " perfection "; the Italian " perfetto " and " perfezione "; the Spanish " perfecto " and " perfección "; the English "perfect" and "perfection"; the Russian " совершенный " (sovyershenniy) and " совершенство " (sovyershenstvo); the Croatian and Serbian " savršen " and " savršenstvo "; the Czech " dokonalost ";

5225-690: The creation of a new Greek state in 1832. After the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the Russian Czars (a title derived from Caesar) claimed the Byzantine legacy as the champion of Orthodoxy ; Moscow was described as the " Third Rome ", and the Czars ruled as divinely appointed Emperors into the 20th century. Despite the fact that the Western Roman secular authority disappeared entirely in Europe, it still left traces. The Papacy and

5320-494: The cultures of Persia , the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah , Central Asia and Egypt . Significant advances were made in the sciences ( geography , astronomy , mathematics , etc.), notably with the followers of Aristotle ( Aristotelianism ). The Hellenistic period ended with the increase of the Roman Republic to a super-regional power during the 2nd century BC and the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC. The Republican period of Ancient Rome began with

5415-421: The disappearance of imperial authority in the west. This tendency reached its maximum when Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" in the year 800, an act which resulted in the formation of the Holy Roman Empire . The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state the jurisdiction of which extended through

5510-412: The dominance of Athens in the Delian League , which resulted in conflict with Sparta and the Peloponnesian League , resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), ending with a Spartan victory. Greece began the 4th century with Spartan hegemony , but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers dismissed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost its naval supremacy. Athens , Argos , Thebes and Corinth ,

5605-425: The earliest recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer (8th–7th-century BC) and ends with the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. Such a wide span of history and territory covers many disparate cultures and periods. Classical antiquity may also refer to an idealized vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe 's words, "the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome". The culture of

5700-411: The entire Mediterranean as well as Gaul, parts of Germania and Britannia , the Balkans , Dacia , Asia Minor, the Caucasus , and Mesopotamia . Culturally, the Roman Empire was significantly Hellenized , but also incorporated syncretic "eastern" traditions, such as Mithraism , Gnosticism , and most notably Christianity . Classical Rome had vast differences within their family life compared to

5795-465: The entire civilized western world. That model continued to exist in Constantinople for the entirety of the Middle Ages, where the Byzantine Emperor was considered the sovereign of the entire Christian world. The Patriarch of Constantinople was the Empire's highest-ranked cleric, but even he was subordinate to the emperor, who was "God's Vicegerent on Earth". The Greek-speaking Byzantines and their descendants continued to call themselves " Romioi " until

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5890-413: The existing definitions. Considering the fact that characteristics and functioning of term depend heavily on its lexical surrounding nowadays it is common to view as the main object of terminology science not separate terms, but rather the whole terminology used in some particular field of knowledge (also called subject field). Terminological research started seventy years ago and was especially fruitful at

5985-399: The fifth perfect number: 33,550,336. Gradually mathematicians found further perfect numbers (which are very rare). In 1652 the Polish polymath Jan Brożek noted that there was no perfect number between 10 and 10. Despite over 2,000 years of study, it still is not known whether there exist infinitely many perfect numbers; or whether there are any odd ones. Today the term "perfect number"

6080-439: The form of contaminants ) is requisite for the production of semiconductors. The solution to the apparent paradox lies in a distinction between two concepts of "perfection": that of regularity, and that of utility . Imperfection is perfect in technology, in the sense that irregularity is useful. Perfect numbers have been distinguished ever since the ancient Greeks called them " teleioi ." There was, however, no consensus among

6175-425: The fringes of India . The classical Greek period conventionally ends at the death of Alexander in 323 BC and the fragmentation of his empire, which was at this time divided among the Diadochi . Greece began the Hellenistic period with the increasing power of Macedon and the conquests of Alexander the Great . Greek became the lingua franca far beyond Greece itself, and Hellenistic culture interacted with

6270-439: The inhabitants of Constantinople continued to refer to themselves as Romans, as did their eventual conquerors in 1453, the Ottomans (see Romaioi and Rûm .) The classical scholarship and culture that was still preserved in Constantinople were brought by refugees fleeing its conquest in 1453 and helped to begin the Renaissance (see Greek scholars in the Renaissance ). Ultimately, it was a slow, complex, and graduated change of

6365-412: The language, politics, law, educational systems, philosophy , science, warfare, literature, historiography, ethics, rhetoric, art and architecture of both the Western , and through it, the modern world. Surviving fragments of classical culture helped produce a revival beginning during the 14th century which later came to be known as the Renaissance , and various neo-classical revivals occurred during

6460-418: The last forty years. At that time the main types of special lexical units, such as terms proper, nomens, terminoids, prototerms, preterms and quasiterms were singled out and studied. A nomen , or a nomenclature unit , is a name of a single notion or a certain unit of mass production, e.g. prefix dis-; Canon 550D; UA-24; etc. Terminoids , or jargon terms , are special lexical units which are used to name

6555-534: The latter possesses a potential for development and for complementing with new characteristics (" perfectio complementii "). This view relates to the baroque esthetic of Vanini and Marin Mersenne : the perfection of an art work consists in its forcing the recipient to be active—to complement the art work by an effort of mind and imagination. The paradox of perfection—that imperfection is perfect—applies not only to human affairs, but to technology . Thus, irregularity in semiconductor crystals (an imperfection, in

6650-417: The latter two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War , which ended inconclusively in 387 BC. Later, in 371 BC, the Theban generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas won a victory at the Battle of Leuctra . The result of this battle was the end of Spartan supremacy and the establishment of Theban hegemony . Thebes sought to maintain its dominance until it

6745-405: The leading European languages belonging to many subject fields were described and analysed. It should be mentioned that at the former USSR terminological studies were conducted on an especially large scale: while in the 1940s only four terminological dissertations were successfully defended, in the 1950s there were 50 such dissertations, in the 1960s their number reached 231, in the 1970s – 463 and in

6840-548: The measure of other numbers: those in which the sum of the divisors is greater than the number itself, as in 12, have — since as early as Theon of Smyrna , ca. 130 A.D. — been called "redundant" ( Latin : redundantio ), "more than perfect" ( plus quam perfecti ), or " abundant numbers ", and those the sum of whose divisors is smaller, as in 8, have been called " deficient numbers " ( deficientes ). As of 7 December 2018, 51 perfect numbers had been identified. A variety of physical and chemical concepts include, in their names,

6935-540: The numbers had come to be called "perfect" in order to emphasize their special regularity. The Greek mathematicians had named these numbers "perfect" in the same sense in which philosophers and artists used the word. Jamblich ( In Nicomachi arithmeticam , Leipzig, 1894) states that the Pythagoreans had called the number 6 "marriage", "health", and "beauty", on account of the harmony and accord of that number. The perfect numbers early on came to be treated as

7030-750: The overthrow of the Monarchy c. 509 BC and lasted more than 450 years until its subversion through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period. During the half millennium of the Republic, Rome increased from a regional power of the Latium to the dominant force in Italy and beyond. The unification of Italy by the Romans was a gradual process, brought about by

7125-566: The phenomena that are absolutely new and whose concepts are not interpreted in a monosemantic way. E.g., Salmon Day, mouse potato, etc. Prototerms are special lexemes that appeared and were used in prescientific times. Preterms are a special group of lexemes which is represented by special lexical units used as terms to name new scientific notions. They are represented by a vast descriptive pattern, e.g. business process reengineering , management by walking about, etc. The main principles of terminological work were elaborated, terminologies of

7220-402: The point of view of their origin, formal structure, their meanings and also functional features. Terms are used to denote concepts, therefore terminology science also concerns itself with the formation and development of concepts, as well as with the principles of exposing the existing relations between concepts and classifying concepts; also, with the principles of defining concepts and appraising

7315-503: The relation of a perfect gas to a real one. The equation of state of a perfect gas is a first approximation to a quantum equation of state that results from statistical physics. Thus, the equation of state of a real gas within classical limits assumes the form of the equation of state of a perfect gas. That is, the equation of state of a perfect gas describes an ideal gas (comprising points, that is, dimensionless molecules that do not act upon one another). The perfect gas equation arose from

7410-587: The same time, it was the terminal point as there soon began attempts at reforming the idea. Terminology Terminology is a discipline that systematically studies the "labelling or designating of concepts" particular to one or more subject fields or domains of human activity. It does this through the research and analysis of terms in context for the purpose of documenting and promoting consistent usage. Terminology can be limited to one or more languages (for example, "multilingual terminology" and "bilingual terminology"), or may have an interdisciplinarity focus on

7505-541: The socio-economic structure in European history that resulted in the changeover between classical antiquity and medieval society and no specific date can truly exemplify that. In politics, the late Roman conception of the Empire as a universal state, commanded by one supreme divinely appointed ruler, united with Christianity as a universal religion likewise headed by a supreme patriarch , proved very influential, even after

7600-640: The son-in-law of Servius Tullius , Superbus was of Etruscan birth. It was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock , enraging the people of Rome. The people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia , a patrician Roman, by his own son. Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor to Marcus Brutus ), summoned

7695-789: The state, as can be seen in the architecture of the Panthéon , the Arc de Triomphe , and the paintings of Jacques-Louis David . During the revolution, France transitioned from kingdom to republic to dictatorship to Empire (complete with Imperial Eagles) that the Romans had experienced centuries earlier. Classical antiquity is a general term for a long period of cultural history . Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many rather disparate cultures and periods. "Classical antiquity" often refers to an idealized vision of later people, of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe 's words, "the glory that

7790-439: The status of independent scientific disciplines. Terminological theories include general theory of terminology, socioterminology, communicative theory of terminology, sociocognitive terminology, and frame-based terminology . Classical antiquity Classical antiquity , also known as the classical era , classical period , classical age , or simply antiquity , is the period of cultural European history between

7885-439: The terminology of the languages they translate. Terminology is taught alongside translation in universities and translation schools. Large translation departments and translation bureaus have a Terminology section. Terminology science is a branch of linguistics studying special vocabulary. The main objects of terminological studies are special lexical units (or special lexemes ), first of all terms. They are analysed from

7980-687: The use of terms in different fields. The terminology discipline consists mainly of the following aspects: A distinction is made between two types of terminology work: Ad hoc terminology is prevalent in the translation profession, where a translation for a specific term (or group of terms) is required quickly to solve a particular translation problem. Nomenclature comprises types of terminology especially having to do with general ontology , applied ontology , and taxonomy ( categorizations and classifications , such as taxonomy for life forms , taxonomy for search engines , and so on). A terminologist intends to hone categorical organization by improving

8075-577: The victory of King Sargon II in 709 BC over the seven kings of the island, marking an important part of the transfer of Cyprus from Tyrian rule to the Neo-Assyrian Empire . The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages , and saw significant advancements in political theory , and the beginnings of democracy , philosophy , theatre , poetry , as well as the revitalization of the written language (which had been lost during

8170-422: The word "perfect." Physicists designate as a perfectly rigid body, one that "is not deformed by forces applied to it", in full awareness that this is a fictitious body, that no such body exists in nature . The concept is an ideal construct . A perfectly plastic body is one that is deformed infinitely at a constant load corresponding to the body's limit of plasticity: this is a physical model , not

8265-421: The word. These are all concepts that are necessary in physics, insofar as they are limiting, ideal, fictitious — insofar as they set the extreme which nature may at the most approach. In a looser sense, real things are called "perfect" if they approximate perfection more or less closely, though they be not, strictly speaking, perfect. The relation of these perfect bodies to real bodies may be illustrated by

8360-418: The work of Robert Boyle , Edme Mariotte and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac , who, in studying the properties of real gases , found formulas applicable not to these but to an ideal, perfect gas . The ethical question of perfection concerns not whether man is perfect, but whether he should be. And if he should be, then how is this to be attained? Plato seldom actually used the term "perfection", but

8455-480: The world to be the best of possible worlds , did not claim that it was perfect. The parallel existence of two concepts of perfection, one strict ("perfection", as such) and the other loose ("excellence"), has given rise, perhaps since antiquity but certainly since the Renaissance , to a singular paradox : that the greatest perfection is imperfection. This was formulated by Lucilio Vanini (1585–1619), who had

8550-545: Was Greece , the grandeur that was Rome !" During the 18th and 19th centuries AD, reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in Europe and the United States than it is now. Respect for the ancient people of Greece and Rome affected politics , philosophy , sculpture , literature , theatre , education , architecture , and sexuality . Epic poetry in Latin continued to be written and circulated well into

8645-545: Was attainable for man. According to 1 John 1:8, "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us." Similarly Jesus said in Matthew 19:17: "And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is, God..."; while Jesus does not deny that he himself is good, he does call into question the idea that anyone but God can even be good, let alone perfect. Thus St. Jerome wrote: " Perfectio vera in coelestibus " — true perfection

8740-718: Was emperor Maurice , who reigned until 602. The overthrow of Maurice by his mutinying Danube army commanded by Phocas resulted in the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and the weakening of Balkan and Greek urban culture (resulting in the flight of Balkan Latin speakers to the mountains, see Origin of the Romanians ), and also provoked the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 in which all the great eastern cities except Constantinople were lost. The resulting turmoil did not end until

8835-669: Was finally ended by the increasing power of Macedon in 346 BC. During the reign of Philip II , (359–336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paeonians , the Thracians and the Illyrians . Philip's son, Alexander the Great , (356–323 BC) managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states but also to the Persian Empire , including Egypt and lands as far east as

8930-749: Was strong among the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Latin American revolutionaries; the Americans described their new government as a republic (from res publica ) and gave it a Senate and a President (another Latin term), rather than use available English terms like commonwealth or parliament . Similarly in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, republicanism and Roman martial virtues were promoted by

9025-414: Was to be done. The medieval concept of perfection and self-perfection, especially in its mature form, can be natural for modern man. As formulated by Peter Lombard , this concept implies that perfection is a result of development . And as described by Giles of Rome , perfection has not only personal sources (" personalia ") but social ones (" secundum statum "). Since the individual is formed within

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