115-399: ' Phra Lak Phra Ram' ( ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ , pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national epic of the Lao people, an adaptation of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana . Ramayana reached Laos much later than Cambodia ( Reamker ) and Thailand ( Ramakien ) which caused the loss of its original Hindu influence and affected local adaptation. Similar to some Malay versions of the Hikayat Seri Rama ,
230-697: A Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam , a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu 's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada and Srimadramayana Kalpavrukshamu in Telugu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana who received Jnanapeeth award for this work. There
345-524: A combination of Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna doctrines, and Joseph Walser agrees that this assessment is correct. The Prajñaptivādins held that the Buddha's teachings in the various piṭakas were nominal (Skt. prajñapti ), conventional (Skt. saṃvṛti ), and causal (Skt. hetuphala ). Therefore, all teachings were viewed by the Prajñaptivādins as being of provisional importance, since they cannot contain
460-554: A demon, Lankini , who protects all of Lankā. Hanumān fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lankā nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry Rāvaṇa. Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as
575-585: A gift. Rama's rule itself was Rāma rājya described to be a just and fair rule. It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas , and the festival of Deepavali is connected with Rāma's return. Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in stories such as Sita's exile and death of Shambuka , and together with Bala Kanda it
690-409: A gigantic form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva Kanyā who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Maināka who offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanumān refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sītā. After entering Lankā, he finds
805-651: A manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved. Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane. Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from
920-612: A more sedentary monastic community (the Vinaya Piṭaka period). The Vinaya focuses on the rules and regulations, or the morals and ethics, of monastic life that range from dress code and dietary rules to prohibitions of certain personal conducts. Each of the early Buddhist Schools likely had their own versions of the Tripiṭaka . According to some sources, there were some Indian schools of Buddhism that had five or seven piṭakas. According to Yijing , an 8th-century Chinese pilgrim to India,
1035-738: A number of sub-sects including the Pūrvaśailas, Aparaśailas, Siddhārthikas, and Rājagirikas. In the 6th century CE, Avalokitavrata writes that Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Prajñāparamitā and others are chanted by the Aparaśailas and the Pūrvaśailas. Also in the 6th century CE, Bhāvaviveka speaks of the Siddhārthikas using a Vidyādhāra Piṭaka, and the Pūrvaśailas and Aparaśailas both using a Bodhisattva Piṭaka, implying collections of Mahāyāna texts within these Caitika schools. The Bahuśrutīya school
1150-437: A sign that Rāma is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma – "When Rāma was not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there, Hanumān carried Sītā back to Ræma." She says that Rāma himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her comb as
1265-400: A slight native flair. In khône and lakhone dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions. Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram
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#17327832441081380-437: A son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Rāvaṇa . As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā. When Rāma
1495-517: A token to prove that she is still alive. Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and tell him of Sītā's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa to release Sīta. He
1610-667: A twelve-year exile. After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is no Ravana in this version, or the Rama-Ravana war. However, Ravana appears in other Buddhist literature, the Lankavatara Sutra . Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka Tipiṭaka ( Pali: [tɪˈpɪʈɐkɐ] ) or Tripiṭaka ( Sanskrit: [trɪˈpɪʈɐkɐ] ) , meaning "Triple Basket",
1725-652: A version of the Ramayana in the 17th century. Akbar , the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother, Hamida Banu Begum . Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes from the narrative. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan , a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century; Vilanka Ramayana by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and Jagamohana Ramayana (also known as Dandi Ramayana ) by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in Odia ;
1840-406: A wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyī demands Rāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years , while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout
1955-484: Is that the Rama, Lakshmana and Hanuman were tied to a tree and were brought to trial in the tribal court, where the deities of the clan Sidhappan, Nanjappan, Mathappan etc. interrogate them with intense inquiries regarding the ethical justification for abandoning his pregnant wife in the barren jungle, neglecting his duties as a husband. Rama admits his mistakes and reaccepts Sita, Lava and Kusha. Even before Kambar wrote
2070-656: Is vanone ( ວານອນ , váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title Thao ( ທ້າວ , tʰȃːo). Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and
2185-600: Is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit epic ) from ancient India , one of the two important epics of Hinduism known as the Itihasas , the other being the Mahabharata . The epic narrates the life of Rama , the seventh avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu , who is a prince of Ayodhya in the kingdom of Kosala . The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his father King Dasharatha , on
2300-538: Is a collection of sacred texts recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism . In addition to sutrayana texts, the Tibetan canon includes tantric texts. The Tibetan Canon underwent a final compilation in the 14th century by Buton Rinchen Drub . The Tibetan Canon has its own scheme which divided texts into two broad categories: There many editions of the Tibetan Canon, some of the major editions include
2415-726: Is a compound Pāli word ti or Sanskrit word of tri (त्रि), meaning "three", and piṭaka (पिटक) or piṭa (पिट), meaning "basket". The "three baskets" were originally the receptacles of the palm-leaf manuscripts on which were preserved the collections of texts of the Suttas , the Vinaya , and the Abhidhamma , the three divisions that constitute the Buddhist Canons. These terms are also spelled without diacritics as Tripiṭaka and Tipiṭaka in scholarly literature. The Tripiṭaka
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#17327832441082530-472: Is a sub-plot to the Ramayana , prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali . Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that
2645-523: Is a traditional term for several collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures or Buddhist scriptural canons . In ancient India, there were several Buddhist scriptural canons, many of whom had three main divisions or categories of texts: Vinaya (monastic rule), Sutra (which contains teachings of the Buddha) and Abhidharma (which are more systematic and scholastic works). For example, the Pāli Tipiṭaka
2760-563: Is also considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as Phra Ram Xadôk ( ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ , pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called Rammakien ( ຣາມມະກຽນ , Ráːm māʔ kian), which is the name for other regional varieties of the Ramayana in general. Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the Phra Ram Xadôk via the first king of Lan Xang , Chao Fa Ngoum , who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from Angkor who would have been familiar with
2875-501: Is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical morlam , folklore, and village dances. Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through
2990-682: Is also the encyclopedic Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1545), which was held as canonical by the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins of northwest India. Portions of the Mūlasārvāstivāda Tripiṭaka survive in Tibetan translation and Nepalese manuscripts. The relationship of the Mūlasārvāstivāda school to Sarvāstivāda school is indeterminate; their vinayas certainly differed but it is not clear that their Sūtra Piṭaka did. The Gilgit manuscripts may contain Āgamas from
3105-450: Is an epic poem containing over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into seven kāṇḍa s ( Bālakāṇḍa , Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa , Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems ever written. The Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions:
3220-446: Is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called Rama-Rajya (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded the throne after Rama. As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and
3335-538: Is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin Phra Thevathat or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, Phra Man . The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire. Hampanasouane as Mara , the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt
3450-584: Is available in Chinese. The Saṃyukta Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 99) was translated by Guṇabhadra , also available in Chinese translation. The Sarvāstivāda is therefore the only early school besides the Theravada for which we have a roughly complete Sūtra Piṭaka. The Sārvāstivāda Vinaya Piṭaka is also extant in Chinese translation, as are the seven books of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka. There
3565-464: Is best if he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā
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3680-699: Is composed of the Vinaya Piṭaka , the Sutta Piṭaka , and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka . While Tripiṭaka has become the common term to refer to all the scriptural collections of the various Buddhist schools , most Buddhist scriptural canons (apart from the Pāli Canon) do not really follow the strict division into three piṭakas. Indeed, many of the ancient Indian Buddhist schools had canons with four or five divisions rather than three. The Pāli Canon maintained by
3795-639: Is composed of three main categories of texts that collectively constitute the Buddhist canon: the Sutra Piṭaka , the Vinaya Piṭaka , and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka . Sutras were the doctrinal teachings in aphoristic or narrative format. The historical Buddha delivered all of his sermons in Magadhan . These sermons were rehearsed orally during the meeting of the First Buddhist council just after
3910-588: Is composed of two words, Rāma and ayaṇa . Rāma , the name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda , it means 'dark, dark-coloured or black' and is related to the word rātri which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata , is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'. The word ayana means travel or journey. Thus, Rāmāyaṇa means "Rama's journey" with ayana altered to yaṇa (due to
4025-435: Is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news. Also known as Lankā Kāṇḍa , this book describes the war between the army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards
4140-605: Is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the Yuddhakanda. This kanda narrates Rama's reign of Ayodhya , the birth of Lava and Kusha , the Ashvamedha yajna , and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there
4255-597: Is likely that Zhisheng's catalogue proved decisive because it was used to reconstruct the Canon after the persecutions of 845 CE; however, it was also considered a "perfect synthesis of the entire four-hundred-year development of a proper Chinese form of the Canon." One of the most well known preserved edition of the Chinese Canon is the woodblock edition of the Tripitaka Koreana . These woodblocks became
4370-552: Is no major Mahayana (neither Hinayana or Pratyekabuddhayana) schools in Theravada tradition. The Tantric schools of Theravada tradition use Tantric texts independently, and not as the part of the Collection. Some of the well known preserved Pali Canons are the Chattha Sangayana Tipitaka, Buddha Jayanthi Tripitaka, Thai Tipitaka, etc. The Chinese Buddhist Canon is the Tripiṭaka collection maintained by
4485-460: Is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana . In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana 's wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in the Mahakali form. The Gondi people have their own version of
4600-694: Is preserved in Chinese translation (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421), translated by Buddhajīva and Zhu Daosheng in 424 CE. Small portions of the Tipiṭaka of the Kāśyapīya school survive in Chinese translation. An incomplete Chinese translation of the Saṃyukta Āgama of the Kāśyapīya school by an unknown translator circa the Three Qin (三秦) period (352-431 CE) survives. The Pāli Canon is the complete Tripiṭaka set maintained by
4715-535: Is said to have included a Bodhisattva Piṭaka in their canon. The Satyasiddhi Śāstra , also called the Tattvasiddhi Śāstra , is an extant abhidharma from the Bahuśrutīya school. This abhidharma was translated into Chinese in sixteen fascicles (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1646). Its authorship is attributed to Harivarman, a third-century monk from central India. Paramārtha cites this Bahuśrutīya abhidharma as containing
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4830-413: Is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa. Jatāyu , a vulture , tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard of rakṣasīs . Ravaṇa asks Sītā to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and
4945-559: The Dipavamsa states that during the reign of Valagamba of Anuradhapura (29–17 BCE) the monks who had previously remembered the Tipiṭaka and its commentary orally now wrote them down in books, because of the threat posed by famine and war. The Mahavamsa also refers briefly to the writing down of the canon and the commentaries at this time. According to Sri Lankan sources more than 1000 monks who had attained Arahantship were involved in
5060-675: The Alvar literature of Kulasekhara Alvar , Thirumangai Alvar , Andal and Nammalvar (dated between 5th and 10th centuries CE). Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva. The entire Ramayana was written as a Tamil Opera again in the 18th century CE by Arunachala Kavirayar in Srirangam . The Ramayana was named as Rama Natakam and was composed in Tamil Language . Arunachala Kavi
5175-836: The Derge edition, the Lhasa edition, the Peking edition and the Jiang edition. The Tibetan Kangyur and Tengyur were also translated into Classical Mongolian , and these texts compose the Mongolian Buddhist Canon. The Newar Buddhist tradition of Nepal has preserved many Buddhist texts in Sanskrit . The Nepalese Buddhist textual tradition is a unique collection of Buddhist texts preserved primarily in Nepal, particularly within
5290-712: The East Asian Buddhist tradition . This canon contains texts translated various various Indian languages (such as Sanskrit and Gandhari prakrit) into Buddhist Chinese, a form of traditional literary Chinese . The traditional term for the canon is "Great Storage of Scriptures" ( traditional Chinese : 大藏經 ; simplified Chinese : 大藏经 ; pinyin : Dàzàngjīng ; Japanese : 大蔵経 ; rōmaji : Daizōkyō ; Korean : 대장경 ; romaja : Daejanggyeong ; Vietnamese : Đại tạng kinh ). Wu and Chia state that emerging evidence, though uncertain, suggests that
5405-469: The Himalayas . Upon reaching, Hanumān is unable to identify the sanjeevani herb that will cure Lakṣmaṇa and so he decides to bring the entire mountain back to Lankā. Eventually, the war ends when Rāma kills Rāvaṇa. Rāma then installs Vibhishaṇa on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over
5520-500: The Hindu life and culture, and its main figures were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of nations, both Hindu and Buddhist . Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from Sanskrit : रामराज्य , romanized : Rāmarājya , a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society/ realm. The name Rāmāyaṇa
5635-782: The Later Qin dynasty, dated to 413 CE. It contains 30 sūtras in contrast to the 34 suttas of the Theravadin Dīgha Nikāya. A. K. Warder also associates the extant Ekottara Āgama ( Taishō Tripiṭaka 125) with the Dharmaguptaka school, due to the number of rules for monastics, which corresponds to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya is also extant in Chinese translation ( Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428), and Buddhist monastics in East Asia adhere to
5750-688: The Newar Buddhist community of the Kathmandu Valley . It is distinct for its emphasis on preserving the Sanskrit originals of many Mahayana and Vajrayana scriptures, which have otherwise been lost in India and survived only in translations in regions like Tibet and China. The Newars have continued to copy Sanskrit manuscripts up to the present day. The Kathmandu Valley has long been a center for Buddhist scholarship, particularly following
5865-406: The Nikaya Buddhist schools kept different sets of canonical texts with some intentional or unintentional dissimilarities. Yijing notes four main textual collections among the non-Mahayana schools: Yijing notes that though there were numerous sub-schools and sects, the sub-sects shared the Tripiṭaka of their mother tradition (which he termed the "four principal schools of continuous tradition" or
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#17327832441085980-458: The Phra Lak Phra Ram , the Khwai Thoraphi focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice. The importance of Phra Lak Phra Ram to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It
6095-440: The Ramavataram in Tamil in the 12th century AD, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the Sangam literature of Akanaṉūṟu (dated 1st century BCE) and Purananuru (dated 300 BC), the twin epics of Silappatikaram (dated 2nd century CE) and Manimekalai (cantos 5, 17 and 18), and
6210-445: The Theravāda tradition as written and preserved in Pali . The dating of the Tripiṭaka is unclear. Max Müller states that the current structure and contents of the Pali Canon took shape in the 3rd century BCE after which it continued to be transmitted orally from generation to generation until finally being put into written form in the 1st century BCE (nearly 500 years after the lifetime of Buddha). The Theravada chronicle called
6325-538: The Theravāda tradition in Southeast Asia , the Chinese Buddhist Canon maintained by the East Asian Buddhist tradition , and the Tibetan Buddhist Canon maintained by the Tibetan Buddhist tradition are the three main important Tripiṭakas in the contemporary Buddhist world. The Nepalese Buddhist Sanskrit literature has also been very important for modern Buddhist studies scholarship since it contains many surviving Sanskrit manuscripts. Tipiṭaka ( Pāli ), or Tripiṭaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपिटक), means "Three Baskets". It
6440-419: The parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, much of the Mahāsāṃghika school moved north of Rājagṛha , and were divided over whether the Mahāyāna sūtras should be incorporated formally into their Tripiṭaka . According to this account, they split into three groups based upon the relative manner and degree to which they accepted the authority of these Mahāyāna texts. Paramārtha states that the Kukkuṭika sect did not accept
6555-418: The "arya" traditions). However, this does not mean that the various sub-schools did not possess their own unique Tripiṭaka . Xuanzang is said to have brought to China the Tripiṭaka of seven different schools, including those of the above-mentioned schools as well as the Dharmaguptaka , Kāśyapīya , and Mahīśāsaka . According to A. K. Warder , the Tibetan historian Bu-ston said that around or before
6670-463: The 15th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali . Valmiki's Ramayana inspired Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic in Awadhi Hindi with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti ; it is an acknowledged masterpiece, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana . Gujarati poet Premanand wrote
6785-420: The 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties. This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of
6900-509: The 1st century CE there were eighteen schools of Buddhism each with their own Tripiṭaka transcribed into written form. However, except for one version that has survived in full and others, of which parts have survived, all of these texts are lost to history or yet to be found. The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was translated by Buddhabhadra and Faxian in 416 CE, and is preserved in Chinese translation ( Taishō Tripiṭaka 1425). The 6th century CE Indian monk Paramārtha wrote that 200 years after
7015-502: The 6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BCE) nor the prominence of Magadha (which rose to prominence in the 7th century BCE). The text also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala , rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of Shravasti . In terms of narrative time, the action of the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata . Goldman & Sutherland Goldman (2022) consider Ramayana's oldest surviving version
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#17327832441087130-435: The 7th to 5th centuries BCE, and later stages extend up to the 3rd century CE, although the original date of composition is unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka / Anuṣṭubh metre), divided into seven kāṇḍa (chapters). It belongs to the genre of Itihasa , narratives of past events ( purāvṛtta ), interspersed with teachings on
7245-426: The Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the Tripitaka , such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane. Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and
7360-578: The Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture. Phra Ram ( ພຣະຣາມ , pʰrāʔ ráːm) Phra Lak ( ພຣະລັກ , pʰrāʔ lāk) Nang Sida ( ນາງສີດາ , náːŋ sǐː daː) Thôtsakane or Hapmanasouane ( ທົດສະກັນ , tʰōt sáʔ kan; ຮາບມະນາສວນ , hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn) Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians
7475-441: The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. The Dharmaguptaka Tripiṭaka is said to have contained a total of five piṭakas. These included a Bodhisattva Piṭaka and a Mantra Piṭaka (Ch. 咒藏), also sometimes called a Dhāraṇī Piṭaka. According to the 5th-century Dharmaguptaka monk Buddhayaśas, the translator of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya into Chinese, the Dharmaguptaka school had assimilated the Mahāyāna Tripiṭaka (Ch. 大乘三藏). The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya
7590-424: The Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana ("words of the Buddha"), while the Lokottaravāda sect and the Ekavyāvahārika sect did accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana . Also in the 6th century CE, Avalokitavrata writes of the Mahāsāṃghikas using a "Great Āgama Piṭaka," which is then associated with Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Prajñāparamitā and the Daśabhūmika Sūtra . According to some sources, abhidharma
7705-422: The Mūlasārvāstivāda school in Sanskrit. The Mūlasārvāstivāda Vinaya Piṭaka survives in Tibetan translation and also in Chinese translation (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1442). The Gilgit manuscripts also contain vinaya texts from the Mūlasārvāstivāda school in Sanskrit. A complete version of the Dīrgha Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1) of the Dharmaguptaka school was translated into Chinese by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian (竺佛念) in
7820-418: The Nagas that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day Nong Khai , Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day Vientiane ). Like most animistic elements, the Nāga is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of
7935-441: The Parinibbana of the Buddha. The teachings continued to be transmitted orally until eventually being written down in the first century BCE. Even within the Sūtra Piṭaka it is possible to detect older and later texts. The Vinaya Piṭaka appears to have grown gradually as a commentary and justification of the monastic code (Prātimokṣa), which presupposes a transition from a community of wandering mendicants (the Sūtra Piṭaka period) to
8050-400: The Ramayana known as the Gond Ramayani , derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride. In Adiya Ramayana, an oral version of Ramayana prevailing among the Adiya tribe of Wayanad , Sita is an Adiya woman hailing from Pulpally in Wayanad. A notable difference in the version
8165-430: The Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C. Hindu culture , language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the cultural achievements of the Sahavahanas (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the gradual Tai inland migration from China , transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than
8280-909: The West , in collaboration with the Nagarjuna Institute in Kathmandu , Nepal , has worked to digitize and distribute Sanskrit scriptures into the Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon (DSBC) project. The scope of the DSBC project is vast, encompassing the digitization of at least 600 Mahayana Buddhist sutras that have survived in Sanskrit. As of now, the DSBC has successfully digitized over 604 texts, equating to roughly 50,000 pages, with more than 369 scriptures available on its official website. The collection continues to expand as additional texts are digitized and made accessible to
8395-538: The aid of the rakṣasa Mārīca . Mārīca, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā under Lakṣmaṇa's guard. After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it
8510-442: The amalgamation of "a" in Rama and the "a" in ayana, as per the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi ). Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 5th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. According to Robert P. Goldman (1984), the oldest parts of the Ramayana date to the early 7th century BCE . The later parts cannot have been composed later than
8625-630: The annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama. Animistic elements are not as apparent in the Phra Lak Phra Ram , but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the Ganges is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the King of
8740-414: The ascetic Śabarī , who directs them towards Sugriva and Hanuman. Kishkindha Kanda is set in the place of Vānaras (Vana-nara) – Forest dwelling humans. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of Sugriva , the banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vāli thus regaining
8855-768: The basis for the modern edition of the Japanese Taishō Tripiṭaka , the most widely used and digitized edition for modern scholarship. The Taishō Daizōkyō is the standard modern edition as systematized by Japanese scholars, published in Japan from 1924 to 1929. While still referred to by the traditional term "Tripiṭaka", it is actually divided into many more textual categories, including: Āgamas (equivalent to Nikāyas), Jātakas , Mahāyāna Sūtras , Esoteric texts, Vinaya, Sutra Commentaries, Abhidharma, Mahayana Śāstras (‘Treatises’), Chinese commentaries, Chinese Treatises, Histories and biographies. The Tibetan Buddhist canon
8970-535: The bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā; the wedding is celebrated with great festivity in Mithilā and the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā. After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy about this, but was later on provoked by Mantharā ,
9085-431: The burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to Rāma, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of Agni Pariksha varies in the versions of Ramāyaṇa by Valmiki and Tulsidas . In Tulsidas 's Ramcharitmanas , Sītā was under the protection of Agni (see Māyā Sītā ) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rāma. The gods led by Brahma arrive and glorify Rama as
9200-661: The code of conduct and moral virtues in the Vinaya basket particularly, have similarities to some of the surviving Dharmasutra texts of Hinduism. Much of the surviving Tripiṭaka literature is in Pali, with some in Sanskrit as well as other local Asian languages. The Pali Canon does not contain the Mahayana Sutras and Tantras as Mahayana schools were not influential in Theravada tradition as in East Asia and Tibet. Hence, there
9315-599: The destruction of Indian monasteries after the 12th-century Muslim conquests . Tibetan scholars often visited to acquire texts, and local Newar Buddhists, including householder clergy (śākyabhikṣus and vajrācāryas ), were proficient in Sanskrit, making it a significant language for Buddhist scholarship in the region. From the 19th century onwards, Sanskrit manuscripts from Nepal were collected and sent to academic institutions in Calcutta and Europe by figures like Brian H. Hodgson, contributing to modern Buddhist studies. However,
9430-555: The earliest written Buddhist Tripiṭaka texts may have arrived in China from India by the 1st century BCE. An organised collection of Buddhist texts began to emerge in the 6th century CE, based on the structure of early bibliographies of Buddhist texts. However, it was the 'Kaiyuan Era Catalogue' by Zhisheng in 730 that provided the lasting structure. Zhisheng introduced the basic six-fold division with sutra, vinaya, and abhidharma belonging to Mahāyāna, Pratyekabuddhayana and Sravakayana . It
9545-402: The earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Aṅgada and Hanumān learns from a vulture named Sampātī the elder brother of Jatāyu, that Sītā was taken to Lankā. Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanumān 's heroics. After learning about Sītā, Hanumān assumes
9660-465: The enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa". However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened. So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter. When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays to Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from
9775-641: The epic has lost the association with Hinduism and is instead considered a Jataka tale (the Dasaratha Jataka ), a previous lifetime of the Buddha. Phra Lak Phra Ram is named after two principal characters, the brothers Phra Lak , or Lakshaman , and Phra Ram , or Rama . Since Phra Ram is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that Phra Lak comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of Phra Ram, whose actions were obligatory to his kingship. Since it
9890-533: The epic without two of its kandas. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram , known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil , but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. The Telugu rendition, Ranganatha Ramayanam , was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 13th century and another of a purer Telugu rendition, called Molla Ramayanam written by Atukuri Molla in
10005-570: The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana , and the Puranas . The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life . It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal son, servant, brother, husband, wife, and king. Like the Mahabharata , Ramayana presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrative allegory , interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana
10120-510: The focus of modern Newar Buddhist literature was largely on local compositions in the Newari vernacular, reflecting the distinct practices of Newar Buddhism. Newar texts often used bilingual formats, integrating Sanskrit and Newari, and employed diverse calligraphic scripts like Newā Lipi and Rañjana . A recent digital humanities project is compiling a Sanskrit Buddhist canon based on surviving Sanskrit Buddhist literature . The University of
10235-430: The forest and implores him to return to Ayodhyā and claim the throne that is rightfully his. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Bharata reluctantly returns to Ayodhyā and rules the kingdom on behalf of his brother. In exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks of the river Godāvari , where they build cottages and live off
10350-468: The goals of human life . There are many versions of the Ramayana in Indian languages, including Buddhist and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian ( Reamker ), Indonesian , Filipino , Thai ( Ramakien ), Lao , Burmese , Nepali , Maldivian , Vietnamese , Tibeto-Chinese , and Malay versions of the Ramayana. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and
10465-415: The incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra restores the dead Vanaras back to life. After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy they celebrate it like a festival. Deepavali is the day considered that Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumān reached Ayodhyā after a period of 14 years in exile after Rāma's army of good defeated demon king Rāvaṇa's army of evil. The return of Rāma to Ayodhyā
10580-531: The killing of the ascetic Sambuka. The U-K attributes both actions to Rama, whom people acknowledged to be righteous and as a model to follow. By masquerading as an additional kanda of the Ramayana composed by Valmiki himself, the U-K succeeded, to a considerable extent, in sabotaging the values presented in Valmiki's Ramayana. The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in
10695-417: The kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā. However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tārā , (wife of Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of
10810-541: The land. One day, in the Pañcavati forest they are visited by a rākṣasī named Śurpaṇakhā , sister of Ravaṇa. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sītā out of jealousy. Lakṣmaṇa stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothers Khara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas. When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy Rāma by capturing Sītā with
10925-439: The landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes. The party then decide to go to attend king Janaka's sacrifice in the kingdom of Mithilā , who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughter Sītā , whom he had found in the earth when plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string
11040-430: The main epic, according to many Uttara Kanda is certainly a later interpolation, not attributable to Valmiki. Both of these two kāndas are absent in the oldest manuscript. Some think that the Uttara Kanda contradicts how Rama and Dharma are portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran says that the way the positions of women and Shudras are depicted shows that the Uttara Kanda is a later insertion. Since Rama
11155-820: The manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified. In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos. - In a version of the Tai Lu people preserved in Louang Phrabang , Sita is born as Indra 's wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap. Ramayana Traditional The Ramayana ( / r ɑː ˈ m ɑː j ə n ə / ; Sanskrit : रामायणम् , romanized : Rāmāyaṇam ), also known as Valmiki Ramayana , as traditionally attributed to Valmiki ,
11270-424: The northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana , like the Mahabharata , is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind." There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes of Valmiki's Ramayana (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) were composed by the original author. Though Bala Kanda is sometimes considered in
11385-556: The public. The Chinese form of Tripiṭaka , "sānzàng" (三藏), was sometimes used as an honorary title for a Buddhist monk who has mastered the teachings of the Tripiṭaka. In Chinese culture, this is notable in the case of the Tang Dynasty monk Xuanzang , whose pilgrimage to India to study and bring Buddhist texts back to China was portrayed in the novel Journey to the West as "Tang Sanzang" (Tang Dynasty Tripiṭaka Master). Due to
11500-456: The request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi ; his travels across forests in the Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana ; the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana , the king of Lanka , that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya along with Sita to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration. Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from
11615-456: The rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia , Cambodia , Philippines , Thailand , Malaysia , Laos , Vietnam and Maldives . There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents
11730-455: The shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade brother Vibhiṣaṇa . The vānaras named Nala and Nīla construct the Rama Setu . The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Meghanāda hurls a powerful weapon at Lakṣmaṇa and he gets mortally wounded. So Hanumān assumes his gigantic form and flies from Lankā to
11845-544: The story. By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion. Although the Hindu nature of the Ramayana epic was lost in Laos, it was not completely erased. Indra, Shiva, and Brahma are present in the Phra Ram Xadôk. Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with
11960-481: The story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to take her with him in exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his brother into the forest. After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. He is shocked and refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming. He visits Rāma in
12075-702: The task. The place where the project was undertaken was in Aluvihare , Matale , Sri Lanka. The resulting texts were later partly translated into a number of East Asian languages such as Chinese, Tibetan and Mongolian by ancient visiting scholars, which though extensive are incomplete. Each Buddhist sub-tradition had its own Tripiṭaka for its monasteries, written by its sangha , each set consisting of 32 books, in three parts or baskets of teachings: Vinaya Pitaka (“Basket of Discipline”), Sutra Pitaka (“Basket of Discourse”), and Abhidhamma Piṭaka (“Basket of Special [or Further] Doctrine”). The structure,
12190-578: The traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in Ramayana and the Mahabharata motifs, such as at Vat Phou in Champassak . Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by
12305-600: The ultimate truth. It has been observed that this view of the Buddha's teachings is very close to the fully developed position of the Mahāyāna sūtras. Scholars at present have "a nearly complete collection of sūtras from the Sarvāstivāda school" thanks to a recent discovery in Afghanistan of roughly two-thirds of Dīrgha Āgama in Sanskrit. The Madhyama Āgama ( Taishō Tripiṭaka 26) was translated by Gautama Saṃghadeva, and
12420-529: The world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of metre called śloka , in which he is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of king Rāma. Then the main narrative begins. Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have
12535-414: Was 16 years old, the r̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroy Tāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of
12650-473: Was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rāma pattabhisheka . There are mentions in Rāmayaṇa that Rama gave several donations to Sugriva, Jambavan, other Vanaras, and gave a pearl necklace to Sita telling her to give it to a great person. She gives it to Hanumān. Rāma was so thankful to Vibhisaṇa and wanted to give him a great gift. Rāma gave his Aradhana Devata (Sri Ranganathaswamy) to Vibhishana as
12765-468: Was composed around 500 BCE. Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books ( Balakanda and Uttara Kanda , respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi toward this consensus. The Ramayana belongs to the genre of Itihasa , narratives of past events ( purāvṛtta ), which includes
12880-409: Was fascinated by the epic Ramayana so much that he wanted to impart the story and the good lessons preached by it to a large number of persons who could not obviously read the entire epic in original. He composed the entire Ramayana in the form of songs together as an opera so even normal people could understand his Ramayana. In the Buddhist variant of the Ramayana ( Dasaratha Jataka ), Dasharatha
12995-457: Was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for
13110-734: Was not accepted as canonical by the Mahāsāṃghika school. The Theravādin Dīpavaṃsa , for example, records that the Mahāsāṃghikas had no abhidharma. However, other sources indicate that there were such collections of abhidharma, and the Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang both mention Mahāsāṃghika abhidharma. On the basis of textual evidence as well as inscriptions at Nāgārjunakoṇḍā , Joseph Walser concludes that at least some Mahāsāṃghika sects probably had an abhidharma collection, and that it likely contained five or six books. The Caitikas included
13225-426: Was revered as a dharmatma, his ideas seen in the Ramayana proper cannot be replaced by new ideas as to what dharma is, except by claiming that he himself adopted those new ideas. That is what the U-K [Uttara Kanda] does. It embodies the new ideas in two stories that are usually referred to as Sita-parityaga, the abandonment of Sita (after Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya and Rama was consecrated as king) and Sambuka-vadha,
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