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141-712: Benedetto Pistrucci (29 May 1783 – 16 September 1855) was an Italian gem-engraver , medallist and a coin engraver, probably best known for his Saint George and the Dragon design for the British sovereign coin . Pistrucci was commissioned by the British government to create the large Waterloo Medal , a project which took him thirty years to complete. Born in Rome in 1783, Pistrucci studied briefly with other artists before striking out on his own at age 15. He became prominent as

282-512: A cameo carver and was patronised by royalty. In 1815, he moved to Britain, where he would live for most of the rest of his life. His talent brought him to the attention of notables including William Wellesley-Pole , the Master of the Mint . Pole engaged Pistrucci to design new coinage, including the sovereign, which was first issued in 1817 to mixed reactions. Although Pole probably promised Pistrucci

423-477: A cameo carver . He advanced quickly, also taking lessons from Stefano Tofanelli , and soon Giuseppe Mango was selling Pistrucci's carvings as his own. Realising that his works were being sold as counterfeit antiques, Pistrucci began placing a secret mark, the Greek letter λ (lambda) on his creations. Pistrucci's obvious talent made his fellow apprentices envious, and one provoked a fight with him, stabbing him in

564-521: A cameo fragment he had purchased, and which he dated to Ancient Greece. After Banks praised it highly, Pistrucci, on examining it, identified it as his own work, displaying the secret mark he had placed on it. The incident increased Pistrucci's reputation in London. Pistrucci was introduced to Lord and Lady Spencer by Banks. Lady Spencer showed Pistrucci a model of Saint George and the Dragon by Nathaniel Marchant and commissioned him to reproduce it in

705-552: A competition to make a cameo of Elisa (the Grand Duchess of Tuscany ), working nearly nonstop for eight days to complete it. The Grand Duchess was so impressed by his work that she gave him studio space at her palace. Pistrucci felt secure enough with this patronage that in 1802, he married Barbara Folchi, daughter of a well-to-do merchant; they had nine children together. He continued working in Rome, turning out portrait cameos and engraved gems, until 1814. Bonelli returned from

846-423: A double-sided cameo gem with portraits of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his wife and son. The Scot James Tassie (1735–1799), and his nephew William (1777–1860) developed methods for taking hard impressions from old gems, and also for casting new designs from carved wax in enamel , enabling a huge production of what are really imitation engraved gems. The fullest catalogue of his impressions ("Tassie gems")

987-487: A favourite topic for antiquaries from the Renaissance onwards, culminating in the work of Philipp von Stosch, described above. Major progress in understanding Greek gems was made in the work of Adolf Furtwängler (1853–1907, father of the conductor, Wilhelm ). Among recent scholars Sir John Boardman (b. 1927) has made a special contribution, again concentrating on Greek gems. Gertrud Seidmann (1919–2013) moved into

1128-479: A flat-edged wheel on a drill for intaglio work, while Carolingian ones used round-tipped drills; it is unclear where they learnt this technique from. In intaglio gems at least, the recessed cut surface is usually very well preserved, and microscopic examination is revealing of the technique used. The colour of several gemstones can be enhanced by a number of artificial methods, using heat, sugar and dyes. Many of these can be shown to have been used since antiquity – since

1269-477: A flattish faced stone that might fit into a ring. Seal engraving covers the inscription that is printed by stamping, which nearly always only contains script rather than images. Other decoration of the seal itself was not intended to be reproduced. The iconography of gems is similar to that of coins, though more varied. Early gems mostly show animals. Gods, satyrs , and mythological scenes were common, and famous statues often represented – much modern knowledge of

1410-603: A friendly relationship with Princess Victoria of Kent , the niece and heiress presumptive of King William, and cut several cameos of her. After she succeeded to the throne as Queen Victoria in 1837, Pistrucci was selected to sculpt her Coronation medal, which he did; the Queen granted him several sittings. Although the Queen was pleased, there were mixed reviews. When questions were asked in the House of Commons , Labouchere stated that Pistrucci may have been ill. Joseph Hume opined that

1551-929: A general, Étienne Radet , to remove the pope and eliminate a figure that could rally opposition against the Empire and his regime. The removal occurred on the night of 6 July 1809, and in the pope traveled toward Savona in the days following his ouster. The pope passed by Florence where Élisa did not welcome him in person and also asked Pius to leave the region soon as possible, so as not to displease her brother by being seen as welcoming his enemy. Élisa's relations with Napoleon became increasingly strained. Napoleon frequently recalled Élisa for any irregularity in her execution of his orders in Tuscany . On 17 March 1810, Élisa arrived in Paris for Napoleon's marriage to Marie-Louise of Austria , but Napoleon took advantage of her visit to reclaim

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1692-649: A new one in the former monastery of Sant' Anastasia, with the new building opening in 1810, and also set up the Casa Sanitaria , a dispensary in the town's port. On 5 May 1807, decreed the established of the "Committee for the Encouragement of Agriculture, Arts and Commerce" to encourage and finance the invention of new machines and new techniques to increase the territories' agricultural production and experimental plantations such as those of mulberries at Massa , where an École Normale de la Soie (Silk School)

1833-517: A number of gems owned by St Albans Abbey , including one large Late Roman imperial cameo (now lost) called Kaadmau which was used to induce overdue childbirths – it was slowly lowered, with a prayer to St Alban, on its chain down the woman's cleavage, as it was believed that the infant would flee downwards to escape it, a belief in accordance with the views of the "father of mineralogy", Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) on jasper . Some gems were engraved, mostly with religious scenes in intaglio, during

1974-639: A perceived slowness to complete his works (especially the Waterloo Medal) have been sources of criticism by later writers. Howard Linecar, in his book on British coin designs and designers, wrote, "there is little doubt that Pistrucci held the cutting of these dies as a bargaining counter in his relentless efforts to obtain the post of Chief Engraver at the Royal Mint ;... On balance it is perhaps fair to say that Pistrucci, having probably been promised that which he could not have ... squeezed

2115-422: A poor captain, Napoleon had some initial reservations about his sister's choice of spouse. Their religious ceremony was held on the same day as her sister Pauline 's marriage to general Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc . In July, Baciocchi was promoted to chef de bataillon , with the command of the citadel at Ajaccio. In 1799, the extended Bonaparte family moved to Paris. Élisa set up home at 125 rue de Miromesnil , in

2256-631: A relief image is more impressive than an intaglio one; in the earlier form the recipient of a document saw this in the impressed sealing wax, while in the later reliefs it was the owner of the seal who kept it for himself, probably marking the emergence of gems meant to be collected or worn as jewellery pendants in necklaces and the like, rather than used as seals – later ones are sometimes rather large to use to seal letters. However inscriptions are usually still in reverse ("mirror-writing") so they only read correctly on impressions (or by viewing from behind with transparent stones). This aspect also partly explains

2397-542: A report, in which he settled some old scores. The reforms abolished the positions of chief engraver (Wyon died in 1851) and chief medallist, with Pistrucci appointed a modeller and engraver to the Mint, to receive a salary in addition to payment for any work done. Pistrucci in 1850 moved from Old Windsor to Flora Lodge, Englefield Green, near Windsor , where he lived with his daughters Maria Elisa and Elena, both gem engravers. He continued to accept private commissions for cameos and medals. Pistrucci died there of "inflammation of

2538-402: A sad confession for any art-historian." Other Renaissance gems reveal their date by showing mythological scenes derived from literature that were not part of the visual repertoire in classical times, or borrowing compositions from Renaissance paintings, and using "compositions with rather more figures than any ancient engraver would have tolerated or attempted". Among artists, the wealthy Rubens

2679-531: A spy for England in Italy". Among his contemporaries, Stosch made his lasting impression with Gemmæ Antiquæ Cælatæ ( Pierres antiques graveés ) (1724), in which Bernard Picart 's engravings reproduced seventy antique carved hardstones like onyx, jasper and carnelian from European collections. He also encouraged Johann Lorenz Natter (1705–1763) whom Stosch set to copying ancient carved gems in Florence. Frederick

2820-458: A successful trip to Britain in 1814 and proposed that Pistrucci go back with him, arguing that the artist's future was there. Pistrucci was willing, and after making provision for his family left Rome with Bonelli. They first stopped in Perugia so that Pistrucci could say farewell to his brother Filippo, but found him willing to accompany them. By Turin , Filippo Pistrucci had decided that Bonelli

2961-553: Is also called gem carving and the artists gem-cutters . References to antique gems and intaglios in a jewellery context will almost always mean carved gems; when referring to monumental sculpture , the term counter-relief , meaning the same as intaglio , is more likely to be used. Vessels like the Cup of the Ptolemies and heads or figures carved in the round are also known as hardstone carvings . Glyptics or glyptic art covers

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3102-819: Is in the Treasury of the Basilica of San Marco in Venice . Many of these retain the medieval mounts which adapted them for liturgical use. Like the Coupe des Ptolémées , most objects in European museums lost these when they became objects of classicist interest from the Renaissance onwards, or when the mounts were removed for the value of the materials, as happened to many in the French Revolution . The collection of 827 engraved gems of Pope Paul II , which included

3243-465: Is more than most medalists achieved in a life time." Farey concluded his study of Pistrucci, By his own admission, Benedetto Pistrucci argued readily with his peers and lost work by refusing point blank to copy the efforts of another artist. He remains an enigmatic figure whose genius is represented especially in the Waterloo medal and survives unsurpassed to this day in his portrayal of St George and

3384-678: Is regarded by many as a masterpiece on par with his St George and the Dragon. Pollard stated that the Waterloo Medal, "shows Pistrucci's command of the types (or figures) of cameos, an understanding of the figurative language of the Roman Renaissance, and an appreciation of the antique sculptured relief—his types, none the less, were always original". Marsh also praised the medal: "no better piece of intaglio engraving or design has surely ever been seen before or since. It contains as much as thirty ordinary-sized medals, and this alone

3525-522: Is shown, including the eyelashes on one male head, perhaps a portrait. Four gems signed by Dexamenos of Chios are the finest of the period, two showing herons . Relief carving became common in 5th century BC Greece, and gradually most of the spectacular carved gems in the Western tradition were in relief, although the Sassanian and other traditions remained faithful to the intaglio form. Generally

3666-514: The Natural History of Pliny the Elder give a summary art history of the Greek and Roman tradition, and of Roman collecting. According to Pliny Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC) was the first Roman collector. As in later periods objects carved in the round from semi-precious stone were regarded as a similar category of object; these are also known as hardstone carvings . One of

3807-593: The Campidoglio , where in 1800 he took the first prize for sculpture. Pistrucci felt Morelli was seeking to profit from his ability while giving him little training, and left his position at the age of 15, working from the family home. He was able to pay rent, as from the beginning he had ample commissions for cameos. Pistrucci's early clients included two of Rome's major art dealers, Ignazio Vescovali and Angelo Bonelli, and Napoleon's three sisters, Elisa , Pauline and Caroline . Pistrucci gained prominence by winning

3948-607: The Code Napoleon (such as the notable "Codice rurale del Principato di Piombino", issued on 24 March 1808) and producing a new penal code which was promulgated in 1807 and first reformed in 1810. In 1807 she set up the Committee of Public Charity for distributing charity funds, made up of clergy and lay-people, and also instituted free medical consultations for the poor so as to eradicate the diseases then ravaging Lucca's population. She demolished Piombino's hospital to build

4089-491: The Gonzagas of Mantua (later owned by Lord Arundel), the 2nd Earl of Bessborough , and the brother of Lord Chesterfield , who himself warned his son in one of his Letters against "days lost in poring upon imperceptible intaglios and cameos". The collection, including its single most famous cameo, the " Marlborough gem " depicting an initiation of Cupid and Psyche, was dispersed after a sale in 1899, fortunately timed for

4230-720: The Portland Vase , as a cheaper material for cameos, and one that allowed consistent and predictable layers on even round objects. During the European Middle Ages antique engraved gems were one classical art form which was always highly valued, and a large but unknown number of ancient gems have (unlike most surviving classical works of art) never been buried and then excavated. Gems were used to decorate elaborate pieces of goldsmith work such as votive crowns , book-covers and crosses, sometimes very inappropriately given their subject matter. Matthew Paris illustrated

4371-585: The Principality of Piombino , which had been French property for some years and was of major strategic interest to Napoleon due to its proximity to Elba and Corsica . Felice and Élisa took the titles "Prince and Princess of Piombino". In June 1805, the oligarchic Republic of Lucca , which had been occupied by France since late 1799, was made a principality and added to Felice and Élisa's domain, their entry into Lucca and investiture ceremony following on 14 July 1805. Napoleon had contemptuously called Lucca

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4512-614: The Quartier du Roule , where she held receptions and put on plays. During the rise of the Consulate, she and her brother Lucien held an artistic and literary salon at the Hôtel de Brissac, at which she met the journalist Louis de Fontanes , with whom she had a deep friendship for several years. On 14 May 1800, on the death of Lucien's first wife, Christine Boyer , Élisa took Lucien's two daughters under her protection. She placed Charlotte,

4653-673: The Royal Collection . The collections of Charles Towneley , Richard Payne Knight and Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode were bought by or bequeathed to the British Museum , founding their very important collection. But the most famous English collection was that formed by the 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817), "which the Duke kept in his bedroom and resorted to as a relief from his ambitious wife, his busy sister and his many children". This included collections formerly owned by

4794-535: The Susanna Crystal , to be viewed through the gem from the unengraved side, so their inscriptions were reversed like the seals. In wills and inventories, engraved gems were often given pride of place at the head of a list of treasures. Some gems in a remarkably effective evocation of classical style were made in Southern Italy for the court of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in the first half of

4935-700: The Treaty of Fontainebleau with the Spanish court. This transferred Tuscany to France, and, in November of that year, Marie-Louise left the kingdom. From 12 May 1808, Tuscany was entrusted to an intermediary governor, Abdallah Jacques Menou , a French soldier who had converted to Islam during Napoleon's invasion of Egypt , but his way of life and lack of interest in the territory's affairs forced Napoleon to recall him on 5 April 1809. Élisa wished to become Governess of Tuscany in 1808, but she contracted an illness late in

5076-515: The menorah . Many gems are inscribed in the Islamic world, typically with verses from the Koran , and sometimes gems in the Western tradition just contain inscriptions. Many Asian and Middle Eastern cultures have their own traditions, although for example the important Chinese tradition of carved gemstones and hardstones, especially jade carving , is broader than the European one of concentration on

5217-592: The "Felix gem" of Diomedes with the Palladium , was acquired by Lorenzo il Magnifico ; the Medici collection included many other gems and was legendary, valued in inventories much higher than his Botticellis . Somewhat like Chinese collectors, Lorenzo had all his gems inscribed with his name. The Gonzaga Cameo passed through a series of famous collections before coming to rest in the Hermitage . First known in

5358-525: The "dwarf republic", due to its small size in terms of territory, but despite this it was a bulwark of political, religious, and commercial independence. Most of the power over Lucca and Piombino was exercised by Élisa, with Félix taking only a minor role and contenting himself with making military decisions. The inhabitants of Lucca, under French occupation and begrudging the loss of their independence, knew Élisa ironically as " la Madame " and had little sympathy for Napoleon, Élisa, or their attempts to "Frenchify"

5499-402: The "route Friedland" to link Massa and Carrara, with work beginning on 15 August 1807 but becoming delayed and only completed in 1820. Lucca's status as a spa town was also bolstered by her improvement of the architecture and decor of the town's baths. She began construction of an aqueduct into Lucca in 1811, but this too was only completed after her fall. On 21 March 1801, Lucien Bonaparte and

5640-474: The 13th century, several in the Cabinet des Médailles in Paris. Meanwhile, the church led the development of large, often double-sided, metal seal matrices for wax seals that were left permanently attached to charters and similar legal documents, dangling by a cord, though smaller ring seals that were broken when a letter was opened remained in use. It is not clear to what extent this also continued practices in

5781-420: The 6th century are more often oval, with a scarab back (in the past this type was called a "scarabaeus"), and human or divine figures as well as animals; the scarab form was apparently adopted from Phoenicia . The forms are sophisticated for the period, despite the usually small size of the gems. In the 5th century gems became somewhat larger, but still only 2-3 centimetres tall. Despite this, very fine detail

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5922-586: The 7th millennium BC in the case of heating. The technique has an ancient tradition in the Near East , and is represented in all or most early cultures from the area, and the Indus Valley civilization . The cylinder seal , whose design appears only when it is rolled over damp clay, from which the flat ring type developed, was the usual form in Mesopotamia , Assyria and other cultures, and spread to

6063-777: The Aegean and Minoan world , including parts of Greece and Cyprus . These were made in various types of stone, not all hardstone, and gold rings were a related development in Minoan seals , which are often very fine. The Greek tradition emerged in Ancient Greek art under Minoan influence on mainland Helladic culture, and reached an apogee of subtlety and refinement in the Hellenistic period . Pre- Hellenic Ancient Egyptian seals tend to have inscriptions in hieroglyphs rather than images. The biblical Book of Exodus describes

6204-422: The British aristocrats he tutored in connoisseurship; his own collection was described in A.F. Gori , Le gemme antiche di Anton Maria Zanetti (Venice, 1750), illustrated with eighty plates of engravings from his own drawings. Baron Philipp von Stosch (1691–1757), a Prussian who lived in Rome and then Florence, was a major collector, as well as a dealer in engraved gems: "busy, unscrupulous, and in his spare time

6345-418: The Dragon. Engraved gem Strictly speaking, engraving means carving in intaglio (with the design cut into the flat background of the stone), but relief carvings (with the design projecting out of the background as in nearly all cameos ) are also covered by the term. This article uses cameo in its strict sense, to denote a carving exploiting layers of differently coloured stone. The activity

6486-672: The French Senate voted in favour of setting up the First French Empire , and Élisa and Napoleon's other sisters were established as members of the Imperial family, both taking the style " Imperial Highness " ("Altesse impériale"). Felice Baciocchi was promoted to brigade general and later made a senator. Her separation from her husband in 1805 was seen favorably by Napoleon (though he soon rejoined her after her promotion to Lucca). On 19 March 1805, Napoleon awarded her

6627-483: The Great had opened up new trade routes to the Greek world and increased the range of gemstones available. Roman gems generally continued Hellenistic styles, and can be hard to date, until their quality sharply declines at the end of the 2nd century AD. Philosophers are sometimes shown; Cicero refers to people having portraits of their favourite on their cups and rings. The Romans invented cameo glass , best known from

6768-631: The Great of Prussia bought Stosch's collection in 1765 and built the Antique Temple in the park of the Sanssouci Palace to house his collections of ancient sculpture, coins and over 4,000 gems – the two were naturally often grouped together. The gems are now in the Antikensammlung Berlin . The collection of Joseph Smith , British consul in Venice was bought by King George III of Great Britain and remains in

6909-731: The Great 's collection is in the Hermitage Museum ; one large collection she had bought was the gems from the Orléans Collection . Louis XV of France hired Dominique Vivant to assemble a collection for Madame de Pompadour . In the eighteenth century British aristocrats were able to outcompete even the agents for royal and princely collectors on the Continent, aided by connoisseur-dealers like Count Antonio Maria Zanetti and Philipp von Stosch . Zanetti travelled Europe in pursuit of gems hidden in private collections for

7050-589: The Greek style as part of her husband's regalia as a Knight of the Garter . Pistrucci had already been thinking of such a work, and he produced the cameo. The model for the saint was an Italian waiter at Brunet's Hotel in Leicester Square , where he had stayed after coming to London. Sir Joseph commissioned Pistrucci to craft a cameo of King George III . As the King was ill with porphyria , Pistrucci modelled

7191-687: The Hellenistic repertoire of subjects, though portraits in contemporary styles were also produced. Famous collectors begin with King Mithridates VI of Pontus (d. 63 BC), whose collection was part of the booty of Pompey the Great , who donated it to the Temple of Jupiter in Rome. Julius Caesar was determined to excel Pompey in this as in other areas, and later gave six collections to his own Temple of Venus Genetrix ; according to Suetonius gems were among his varied collecting passions. Many later emperors also collected gems. Chapters 4-6 of Book 37 of

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7332-530: The King of Prussia which now form the Daktyliothek Poniatowski in Berlin , where they were recognised as modern in 1832, mainly because the signatures of ancient artists from very different times were found on gems in too consistent a style. As in other fields, not many ancient artists' names are known from literary sources, although some gems are signed. According to Pliny, Pyrgoteles was

7473-518: The King of Spain signed the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso , which restored Louisiana to France and in exchange established the Kingdom of Etruria by dividing Tuscany . The new kingdom was initially put in the charge of the infante Maria Louisa and her husband, Louis of Etruria , but he soon proved to be a poor ruler and deceased soon after in 1803. Thus, on 29 October 1807, Napoleon signed

7614-544: The Portland Vase and the Marlborough gem , a famous head of Antinous , and interpreted in jasperware casts from antique gems by James Tassie. John Flaxman 's neoclassical designs for jasperware were carried out in the extremely low relief typical of cameo production. Some other porcelain imitated three-layer cameos purely by paint, even in implausible objects like a flat Sèvres tea-tray of 1840. Gems were

7755-509: The Roman statues and sarcophagi being newly excavated, antique gems were prime sources for artists eager to regain a classical figurative vocabulary. Cast bronze copies of gems were made, which circulated around Italy, and later Europe. Among very many examples of borrowings that can be traced confidently, the Felix or Diomedes gem owned by Lorenzo de' Medici (see below), with an unusual pose,

7896-584: The Royal Mint in 2017, has the ribbon of the Order of the Garter surrounding the George and dragon design, with its motto HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE . The design, with Saint George bearing a sword rather than a spear, is ordinarily seen on the sovereign, and was also used for the crown from 1818. Clancy noted of the design process for the crown, "what emerges is the presence of Pole at each turn. He bombarded

8037-582: The Royal Mint: "The arrangement was not put into writing, and misunderstanding was easy for a foreigner. Pole categorically denied any commitment beyond the grant for the time being of a salary for coinage designs as cheaper than payment of fees. The Italian persistently contended that he was seduced into Mint service by a promise of formal appointment to the chief engravership". According to H.W.A. Linecar in his book on British coin designs and designers, "the arrangement might have worked very well, even though it

8178-471: The Waterloo Medal. Pistrucci's biographer, Michael A. March, tied his disinclination to work on the Waterloo Medal to his unhappiness about his position at the Mint, and he may have concluded that he would be sacked if he finished the medal. In 1836, the new Master, Henry Labouchere , stated that he felt the medal could be finished in 18 months, and offered Pistrucci payment if he would take on four apprentices and finish it. Pistrucci declined. Pistrucci enjoyed

8319-431: The abdomen before Pistrucci fended off the attack. Recovering at home, he taught himself to model with wax. Federico Pistrucci decided his son would be better off with a new master, and secured a position for him with Giuseppe Cerbara, but the boy refused, believing that he would have to work in poor conditions. A place with gem-carver Nicolo Morelli was secured, and Pistrucci also attended the scuola del nudo art academy at

8460-439: The advantages accruing to a coinage from an artistic and well-executed design". By 1893, it was on all of Britain's gold coins; The Art Journal described Pistrucci's design as having "triumphantly borne the test of time". Marsh noted, "it is indeed a tribute that his wonderful design should still adorn the gold coinage of our current Queen Elizabeth II . It is one of the finest ever in our coinage history, and has certainly stood

8601-559: The advice of Francesco Maria Zanetti and Francesco Ficoroni ; 170 of the Carlisle gems, both Classical and post-Classical, were purchased in 1890 for the British Museum . By the mid-eighteenth century prices had reached such a level that major collections could only be formed by the very wealthy; lesser collectors had to make do with collecting plaster casts , which was also very popular, or buying one of many sumptuously illustrated catalogues of collections that were published. Catherine

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8742-576: The ancient world. The late medieval French and Burgundian courts collected and commissioned gems, and began to use them for portraits. The British Museum has what is probably a seated portrait of John, Duke of Berry in intaglio on a sapphire , and the Hermitage has a cameo head of Charles VII of France . Interest had also revived in Early Renaissance Italy, where Venice soon became a particular centre of production. Along with

8883-415: The arrangement was that he would create such medals as might be ordered by government departments, with each medal a separate fee in addition to the annual salary. This effectively left Pistrucci with little to do at the Mint. He created several medallic works, for example, a small memorial medal for the King's brother, Frederick, Duke of York in 1827 that was popular, in royal circles, mounted in rings. He

9024-516: The arts, particularly the theatre, she encouraged them in the territories over which she ruled. Élisa was born in Ajaccio , Corsica. She was christened Maria-Anna , but later officially adopted the nickname "Élisa" (her brother Lucien, to whom she was very close in childhood, nicknamed her Elisa). In June 1784, a bursary allowed her to attend the Maison royale de Saint-Louis at Saint-Cyr , where she

9165-441: The battle. Pistrucci's price was £2,400, and the down payment allowed him to bring his family from Italy. The medal was originally supposed to be a design by John Flaxman , but Pistrucci refused to engrave the work of another artist, and Pole allowed him to design his own medal, a decision that antagonised London's art establishment against Pistrucci. A gigantic undertaking, the medal would take Pistrucci 30 years to complete. After

9306-429: The cabinet of the Flemish antiquary Abraham Gorlaeus in 1609, and engraved gems featured among the antiquities assembled by Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel . Later in the century William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire , formed a collection of gems that is still conserved at Chatsworth . In the eighteenth century a more discerning cabinet of gems was assembled by Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Carlisle , acting upon

9447-429: The cabinet) and, later, Pierre d'Hautmesnil (with the budget portfolio). She also set up a court and court etiquette inspired by those at the Tuileries . On 31 March 1806 Napoleon withdrew Massa and Carrara from the Kingdom of Italy to add to Élisa's possessions. Carrara was one of the biggest white marble suppliers in Europe and Élisa bolstered her prestige by establishing an Académie des Beaux-Arts , designed to host

9588-515: The cameo is Alexandrian work of the 3rd century BC, or a Julio-Claudian imitation of the style from the 1st century AD. Three of the largest cameo gems from antiquity were created for members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and seem to have survived above ground since antiquity. The large Gemma Augustea appeared in 1246 in the treasury of the Basilique St-Sernin, Toulouse . In 1533, King François I appropriated it and moved it to Paris, where it soon disappeared around 1590. Not long thereafter it

9729-452: The coinage effigy, the Mint played for time. Pole's resignation in 1823 deprived Pistrucci of a friend and supporter at the Mint. Sculptor Francis Chantrey had prepared a bust of the King which the monarch liked, and ordered that it be placed on the coinage. Pistrucci would not copy the work of another artist, and refused. The new coinage of 1823–1825 was engraved by Pistrucci's assistant, Jean Baptiste Merlen , and by William Wyon ; Pistrucci

9870-480: The collecting of impressions in plaster or wax from gems, which may be easier to appreciate than the original. The cameo, which is rare in intaglio form, seems to have reached Greece around the 3rd century; the Farnese Tazza is the only major surviving Hellenistic example (depending on the date assigned to the Gonzaga Cameo – see below), but other glass-paste imitations with portraits suggest that gem-type cameos were made in this period. The conquests of Alexander

10011-407: The collection of Isabella d'Este , it passed to the Gonzaga Dukes of Mantua , Emperor Rudolf II , Queen Christina of Sweden , Cardinal Decio Azzolini , Livio Odescalchi , Duke of Bracciano , and Pope Pius VI before Napoleon carried it off to Paris, where his Empress Joséphine gave it to Alexander I of Russia after Napoleon's downfall, as a token of goodwill. It remains disputed whether

10152-599: The death of George III in 1820, Pistrucci prepared the coinage bust of the new King, George IV. The King despised Pistrucci's work for its bloated expression—according to Clancy, "its full features implying something of the appetites of the monarch". The King and Pistrucci also came into conflict over the Coronation medal, with the King objecting to being placed on the same level as the allegorical representations of his kingdoms. Pistrucci stated, "I shall elevate His Majesty", and did so. The King's toupee also caused difficulty in

10293-562: The distinctive personal signature did not really exist in antiquity. Gems were mostly cut by using abrasive powder from harder stones in conjunction with a hand-drill, probably often set in a lathe . Emery has been mined for abrasive powder on Naxos since antiquity. Some early types of seal were cut by hand, rather than a drill, which does not allow fine detail. There is no evidence that magnifying lenses were used by gem cutters in antiquity. A medieval guide to gem-carving techniques survives from Theophilus Presbyter . Byzantine cutters used

10434-508: The early 20th century, gold coins were struck for circulation, rather than as bullion pieces. Kevin Clancy , in his volume on the history of the sovereign coin, doubted whether the Spencer commission was truly the inspiration for the George and Dragon design which that coin has long featured, and that the idea might not even have come from Pistrucci. Clancy argued that such motifs were common at

10575-685: The efforts of her brother, Jérôme Bonaparte , before moving to the Villa Caprara in Trieste . Napoleon was exiled to Elba on 13 April 1814 under the Treaty of Fontainebleau , and Élisa was arrested on 25 March and interned in the Austrian fortress of Brünn . She was freed at the end of August and authorized to stay in Trieste with the title of "Countess of Compignano". Élisa acquired a country house at Villa Vicentina near Cervignano after her release and financed several archaeological digs in

10716-593: The eldest, in Madame Campan 's boarding school for young women at Saint-Germain-en-Laye . At the start of November 1800, Lucien was reassigned from his job as Minister of the Interior to Madrid as French ambassador to the court of the King of Spain . He took Élisa's husband, Félix Baciocchi , as his secretary. Élisa remained in Paris, but maintained a regular correspondence with her brother. On 18 May 1804,

10857-438: The engraved gem. Another offshoot of the mania for engraved gems is the fine-grained slightly translucent stoneware called jasperware that was developed by Josiah Wedgwood and perfected in 1775. Though white-on-blue matte jasperware is the most familiar Wedgwood ceramic line, still in production today and widely imitated since the mid-19th century, white-on-black was also produced. Wedgwood made notable jasperware copies of

10998-480: The engraving process. On the coinage, the sovereign was modified to remove its garter, and the saint's broken spear was replaced by a sword. Thus, it became very similar to the design used on modern-day sovereigns but for the lack of a streamer on Saint George's helmet. This version of the reverse was struck from 1821 to 1825, but Pistrucci's design would be thereafter absent from the sovereign from 1825 to 1874, after his death. Aware of King George's dissatisfaction with

11139-703: The family had property, but the Pistrucci family was forced to move to Rome in 1794 when Napoleon invaded Italy, and the boys were enrolled in the Roman College . Napoleon had put a price on Federico Pistrucci's head, as he had prosecuted Bonapartist rebels, so the family fled Rome when the French advanced towards it, stopping in Frosinone , where the boys were again put into an academic school. Filippo satisfied his father with enough academic achievement that he

11280-429: The field of small carved stones, including cylinder seals and inscriptions, especially in an archaeological context. Though they were keenly collected in antiquity, most carved gems originally functioned as seals , often mounted in a ring; intaglio designs register most clearly when viewed by the recipient of a letter as an impression in hardened wax. A finely carved seal was practical, as it made forgery more difficult –

11421-473: The form of the hoshen , a ceremonial breastplate worn by the high priest, bearing twelve gems engraved with the names of the Twelve tribes of Israel . Round or oval Greek gems (along with similar objects in bone and ivory) are found from the 8th and 7th centuries BC, usually with animals in energetic geometric poses, often with a border marked by dots or a rim. Early examples are mostly in softer stones. Gems of

11562-432: The government had struck the medals, there was almost no one to present them to, for of the intended recipients, all were dead but the Duke of Wellington. The conflict between Pistrucci and William Wyon continued into the late 1840s, and was sometimes featured in the press, contributing to the feeling that all was not well at the Mint. A Royal Commission on reform of the Royal Mint was appointed in 1848. Pistrucci submitted

11703-601: The greatest sculptors and thus make Carrara an exporter of marble statues, which had a greater value than the raw marble. She also set up the Banque Élisienne to give financial aid to sculptors and workers on marble taxes. She reformed the clergy at Lucca and Piombino from May 1806, during which reforms she nationalised their goods and lands and closed down convents which did not also function as hotels or schools. She also carried out legislative reform in Lucca, producing laws inspired by

11844-566: The largest, the Coupe des Ptolémées was probably donated to the Basilica of Saint-Denis , near Paris, by Charles the Bald , as the inscription on its former gem-studded gold Carolingian mounting stated; it may have belonged to Charlemagne . One of the best collections of such vessels, though mostly plain without carved decoration, was looted from Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade , and

11985-530: The last drop of blood out of the situation." According to Clancy, "With great talent can often come controversy and throughout his career Pistrucci was acclaimed and reviled in equal measure, maintaining a series of tense relationships with his colleagues, the most pointed of which [was] with his fellow engraver William Wyon." Craig concluded, "Apart from the George and Dragon design, which was less esteemed then than now ... this artist's Mint works, unlike his private commissions, were failures". The Waterloo Medal

12126-545: The later Archaic period. Portraits of monarchs are found from the Hellenistic period onwards, although as they do not usually have identifying inscriptions, many fine ones cannot be identified with a subject. In the Roman Imperial period, portraits of the imperial family were often produced for the court circle, and many of these have survived, especially a number of spectacular cameos from the time of Augustus . As private objects, produced no doubt by artists trained in

12267-670: The likeness from Marchant's three-shilling bank token, and cut it in red jasper for a fee of 50 guineas . Banks showed the cameo to William Wellesley-Pole , elder brother of the Duke of Wellington and the Master of the Mint , who was greatly impressed by the quality of what he saw. At this time, the Royal Mint was preparing to issue new gold and silver coins as part of the Great Recoinage of 1816 , and in June of that year, Pole decided to hire Pistrucci to make models in stone for

12408-412: The lungs", on 16 September 1855, and is buried at Christ Church, Virginia Water, Surrey. Pistrucci is probably remembered most for his George and Dragon design for the sovereign. Not greatly liked at the time of its origin, it has come to be celebrated. The Deputy Master of the Mint who restored the design to the sovereign in 1871, Charles Fremantle, stated his view that "it is hardly possible to over-rate

12549-434: The man who had adapted Pistrucci's designs, Pole most probably offered Pistrucci the post of chief engraver at the Royal Mint, with a salary of £500 per annum. and a house within the grounds of the Mint. However, it soon appeared that a law passed under William III barred foreigners from the post, and so Pole left it vacant, while granting Pistrucci the salary and emoluments of the office. Sir John Craig wrote in his history of

12690-440: The mint; the insecurity of his position there was deepened by a spasmodic but bitter campaign conducted through the newspapers by his partisans and those of William Wyon." Pistrucci appealed to each new Master of the Mint for appointment to the post of chief engraver. In 1828, the incumbent Master, George Tierney , worked a compromise that satisfied no one. Wyon was appointed as chief engraver, and Pistrucci as chief medallist , with

12831-619: The new American museums and provided the core of the collection of the Metropolitan in New York and elsewhere, with the largest group still together being about 100 in the Walters Art Museum , Baltimore. Prince Stanisław Poniatowski (1754–1833) "commissioned about 2500 gems and encouraged the belief that they were, in fact, ancient." He presented a set of 419 plaster impressions of his collection of Poniatowski gems to

12972-416: The new coinage that could be converted into steel dies by the Mint's engravers. Pole had Pistrucci create three portraits of the King in different sizes. Only two were used, one for the obverse of the half crown, and the other for the shilling and sixpence. Both were modified by Thomas Wyon of the Mint, who engraved the designs in steel. What was dubbed the "bull head" of the King on the 1816 half crown

13113-496: The number of gems that were not what they seemed to be scared collectors. Among the last practitioners was James Robertson , who sensibly moved into the new art of photography . Perhaps the best known gem engraver of the 20th century, working in a contemporary idiom, is the British artist Ronald Pennell , whose work is held in the British Crafts Council Collection among many others. Cameo glass

13254-550: The only artist allowed to carve gems for the seal rings of Alexander the Great . Most of the most famous Roman artists were Greeks, like Dioskurides, who is thought to have produced the Gemma Augustea, and is recorded as the artist of the matching signet rings of Augustus – very carefully controlled, they allowed orders to be issued in his name by his most trusted associates. Other works survive signed by him (rather more than are all likely to be genuine), and his son Hyllos

13395-569: The papal mint, but returned to London a few months later, deeming the salary too low. By the early 1840s, the Audit Office was questioning the amount spent on Pistrucci. In 1844, the Master of the Mint, William Gladstone restored Pistrucci's salary to the full £350 and offered him £400 to complete the Waterloo Medal. Pistrucci moved his residence from the Mint on Tower Hill to Fine Arts Cottage, Old Windsor , and set to work in full earnest. He

13536-554: The payments from his grants of Massa and Carrara. When Élisa returned to Tuscany, she found Napoleon still sought to claim payment of these grants via his envoys. Élisa refused to pay a second time, arguing that the territories had too few resources to pay Napoleon's demanded 200,000 lira. Napoleon threatened to seize Carrara from Élisa and also demanded Lucca raise men by conscription. Lucca was previously spared this burden prior to May 1811, and Napoleon's demands eroded Élisa support in Lucca. Élisa returned to Lucca from Florence and restored

13677-616: The period both in Byzantium and Europe. In the West production revived from the Carolingian period , when rock crystal was the commonest material. The Lothair Crystal (or Suzanna Crystal , British Museum , 11.5 cm diameter), clearly not designed for use as a seal, is the best known of 20 surviving Carolingian large intaglio gems with complex figural scenes, although most were used for seals. Several crystals were designed, like

13818-445: The poses of lost Greek cult statues such as Athena Promachos comes from the study of gems, which often have clearer images than coins. A 6th(?) century BC Greek gem already shows Ajax committing suicide, with his name inscribed. The story of Heracles was, as in other arts, the most common source of narrative subjects. A scene may be intended as the subject of an early Archaic gem, and certainly appears on 6th century examples from

13959-427: The post of Chief Engraver, the position could not be awarded as only a British subject could hold it. This slight became a long-term grievance for Pistrucci. Talented but temperamental, Pistrucci refused to copy the work of other artists. When in 1823 George IV demanded that an unflattering portrait of him on the coinage be changed with a new likeness to be based on the work of Francis Chantrey , Pistrucci refused and

14100-483: The power to modify any of these decisions. This was a significant difference compared to the relative autonomy Élisa enjoyed in Lucca and Piombino . The decree also promoted Félix to the rank of général de division . Elisa was the only woman Napoleon entrusted with a real political responsibility. He normally disliked politically active women, and while he did appoint his second wife regent during his absence, that post

14241-514: The pregnant Élisa to flee on the night of 13 March 1814. Élisa was forced to abdicate as Grand Duchess of Tuscany in favor of Grand Duke Ferdinand III's restoration. Élisa made several short stays in Italy and France, notably seeking support in Marseille to return to Italy as a private individual. The former duchess' requests were denied, but she was able to stay in Austria for a time thanks to

14382-563: The princely palaces. These works were hotly contested, especially in Lucca, where the expansion of the princely palaces necessitated the demolition of the Church of San Pietro in March 1807. She also razed an entire block in Lucca to build a piazza in the French style in front of her city residence (now the seat of the province and the prefecture). That block had included the Church of San Paolo with

14523-453: The region. As at Lucca, Élisa tried to nationalise the goods of the clergy and closed many convents. She continued her patronage of arts and science. In 1809, she commissioned the sculptor Lorenzo Bartolini to create busts of her immediate family. The first two volumes of the "Annali del Museo Imperiale di Fisica e Storia Naturale" of Florence were dedicated to her, in 1808 and 1809. The observatory at that museum of physics and natural history

14664-477: The republic. Very active and concerned with administering the area, Élisa was surrounded at Lucca by ministers who largely remained in place right to the end of her reign. These ministers included her Minister of Justice , Luigi Matteucci, her Minister of the Interior and Foreign Affairs , Francesco Belluomini (replaced in October 1807 by his son Giuseppe), her finance ministers, Jean-Baptiste Froussard (head of

14805-468: The reverse was no better done than the cheap medals sold in the streets for a penny each. In 1838, Pistrucci made the silver seal of the Duchy of Lancaster , using a new process by which the punch or die could be cast in metal directly from the original wax or clay mould, rather than having to be copied by hand engraving. The following year, Pistrucci left for Rome to take up a position as chief engraver at

14946-403: The salaries of the top two engraving positions divided between them. Of Pistrucci's salary of £350, £50 was conditional on his training an apprentice. Pistrucci in succession named two of his sons, but the allowance was stopped after 1830 as it had come to light that each resided abroad, and one was not a British subject and so was ineligible for regular Mint employment. Pistrucci's understanding of

15087-417: The same types of sardonyx and other hardstones and using virtually the same techniques, produced classicizing works of glyptic art, often intended as forgeries, in such quantity that they compromised the market for them, as Gisela Richter observed in 1922. Even today, Sir John Boardman admits that "We are sometimes at a loss to know whether what we are looking at belongs to the 1st or the 15th century AD,

15228-535: The sovereign after 1825 was more part of a general redesign of the coinage than an attack upon Pistrucci, according to Clancy he "cannot have masked the sense he must have felt of tides turning against him". There was conflict at the Mint between Pistrucci and William Wyon, that sometimes involved Merlen. According to Graham Pollard in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , "Pistrucci's temperament did not foster good relations with his colleagues at

15369-462: The subject, having previously been a German teacher. Elisa Bonaparte Maria Anna Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi Levoy ( French : Marie Anne Elisa Bonaparte ; 3 January 1777 – 7 August 1820), better known as Elisa Bonaparte , was an imperial French princess and sister of Napoleon Bonaparte . She was Princess of Lucca and Piombino (1805-1814), Grand Duchess of Tuscany (1809-1814) and Countess of Compignano by appointment of her brother. She

15510-574: The surname Levoy). A Corsican nobleman and formerly a captain in the Royal Corse, he had been dismissed from his rank with the outbreak of the French Revolution . Élisa married Levoy in a civil ceremony in Marseille on 1 May 1797, followed by a religious ceremony in Mombello , where Napoleon had a villa. He had moved there with his family in June 1797. Concerned about Baciocchi's reputation as

15651-463: The test of time. Long may it continue." Pistrucci's design has also appeared on a non-circulating £20 silver coin in 2013 and on the crown in 1818–1823, 1887–1900, 1902 and 1951. Roderick Farey, in his biographical articles on Pistrucci, described him as "an Italian with a fiery disposition, he had numerous arguments with the authorities but no-one could doubt his genius firstly as a cameo cutter and later as an engraver and medallist." Those disputes, and

15792-468: The time and that the story originated with Pistrucci, whom he deemed an unreliable witness on his own past. For a fee of 100 guineas (£105), Pistrucci created the sovereign's design, engraving it himself. He depicted the saint atop a fiery steed which is trampling the wounded dragon. George has a broken spear in his hand; part is in the dragon and another fragment lies on the ground. Pistrucci's original design, used for circulation in 1817–1819 and reprised by

15933-589: The tradition of Hellenistic monarchies, their iconography is less inhibited than the public state art of the period about showing divine attributes as well as sexual matters. The identity and interpretation of figures in the Gemma Augustea remains unclear. A number of gems from the same period contain scenes apparently from the lost epic on the Sack of Troy , of which the finest is by Dioskurides ( Chatsworth House ). Renaissance and later gems remain dominated by

16074-452: The venerated image of the Madonna dei miracoli and so its demolition seriously affected the city's medieval architecture and almost sparked a revolt. At Massa, she demolished a cathedral on 30 April 1807. The palace at Lucca was fully redecorated and the gardens improved, with the creation of a botanical garden with a menagerie and aviary in 1811. She also began road construction, notably

16215-746: The villa now known as the Villa Reale di Marlia , despite the cold reception of the local community. In 1813, with Napoleon facing the allied coalition after his Russian campaign , Caroline Bonaparte 's husband Joachim Murat , King of Naples , abandoned his brother-in-law and joined the Austrian cause by leading the Neapolitan to Rome, reaching Florence in January 1814. Élisa was forced to leave Tuscany for Lucca. The Neapolitans captured Massa and Carrara in March. An Anglo-Austrian force under Lord William Bentinck captured Lucca soon after, forcing

16356-517: The war. He saw Napoleon in a garden, and always having a ball of wax with him, quietly modelled the emperor, the last portrait of him done in Europe. After the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, Pistrucci began preparations to move on to Britain, but it was not until 31 December that he arrived there. On arrival at Dover , Pistrucci had difficulty with Customs, possibly caused by Bonelli's malice. Once he

16497-516: The year that prevented her from taking part in state affairs. She recovered in February 1809. A decree was officially created between the second and third of March that year which established the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , made Florence its capital and Élisa its " grand duchess ". However, the terms of the decree required Élisa to enforce the decisions of Napoleon and his ministers and denied her

16638-404: The young artist with suggestions and instructions on how the design should be changed from the shape of the sword to the perceived ferocity of the dragon." Pistrucci had placed his full last name on both sides of the crown, for which he was criticised by the public, and some said the saint would surely fall off his horse with the next blow. After the death in 1817 of Thomas Wyon Sr , the father of

16779-566: Was a notable collector. Engraved gems occur in the Bible , especially when the hoshen and ephod worn by the High Priest are described; though these were inscribed with the names of the tribes of Israel in letters, rather than any images. A few identifiably Jewish gems survive from the classical world, including Persia, mostly with the owner's name in Hebrew, but some with symbols such as

16920-413: Was able to, he journeyed to London. He had letters of introduction to several people, and Charles Konig , Keeper of Minerals at the British Museum , proved a loyal friend. Through Konig, Pistrucci met the famous naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks , who commissioned the artist to do a portrait of him. While Banks was sitting for Pistrucci, the connoisseur Richard Payne Knight came by, anxious to show Sir Joseph

17061-526: Was against accepted procedure, had Pistrucci been other than he was." In 1819, Pistrucci was awarded the commission to design the Waterloo Medal , a huge piece some 5.3 inches (130 mm) in diameter that the government planned to award to the victorious generals and national leaders who had defeated Napoleon. Such a medal had been proposed by the Prince Regent (later George IV ) soon after

17202-466: Was allowed to take a job with a painter named Mango. Deprived of his brother, Benedetto became despondent and was eventually allowed to work at Mango's. There, he quickly displayed his artistic talent. Mango told Benedetto of his brother Giuseppe Mango, a cameo engraver in Rome. With the Pope and the French having made peace, the family was able to return there, and Benedetto Pistrucci began his training as

17343-800: Was also a gem engraver. The Anichini family were leading artists in Venice and elsewhere in the 15th and 16th centuries. Many Renaissance artists no doubt kept their activities quiet, as they were passing their products off as antique. Other specialist carvers included Giovanni Bernardi (1494–1553), Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio (c. 1500–1565), Giuseppe Antonio Torricelli (1662–1719), the German-Italian Anton Pichler (1697–1779) and his sons Giovanni and Luigi , Charles Christian Reisen (Anglo-Norwegian, 1680–1725). Other sculptors also carved gems, or had someone in their workshop who did. Leone Leoni said he personally spent two months on

17484-582: Was asked to design the Coronation medal after King William IV came to the throne on George's death in 1830, but declined as he was asked to copy a bust by Chantrey, and the King refused to sit for him. He created, in 1830–1831, the Army Long Service and Good Conduct Medal , the first non-campaign medal of the British Army. He took twelve months to do so, a period of time Craig found unduly long. He continued to cut cameos, and to work, slowly, on

17625-571: Was born in Rome on 29 May 1783, second child and son of Federico Pistrucci, Senior Judge of the High Criminal Court under the papal government , and Antonia (née Greco). His elder brother Filippo displayed artistic tendencies from a young age, but Benedetto showed mainly a disinclination to study. Federico Pistrucci wanted his sons to follow in his footsteps and sent them to Latin schools . Benedetto began his education in Bologna , where

17766-542: Was copied by Leonardo da Vinci and may well have provided the "starting point" for one of Michelangelo 's ignudi on the Sistine Chapel ceiling . Another of Lorenzo's gems supplied, probably via a drawing by Perugino , a pose used by Raphael . By the 16th century carved and engraved gems were keenly collected across Europe for dedicated sections of a cabinet of curiosities , and their production revived, in classical styles; 16th-century gem-cutters working with

17907-513: Was created on 16 August 1808. Élisa also set up many teaching establishments in Lucca and, in 1809, a "Direction Générale de l'Instruction Publique" (General Department of Public Education). On 1 December 1807 she set up the "Collège Félix", the only boys' secondary school in the principality. For girls, she began by fixing set curricula for convents that also operated as schools, then set up a body of "dames d'inspection" to verify that these curricula were being adhered to. Teaching of girls aged 5 to 8

18048-430: Was disliked by the public, and it was replaced by another in 1817. The criticism incensed Pistrucci, who blamed Wyon for bungling the design, and who set about learning to engrave in steel himself. After completing Lady Spencer's commission, by most accounts, Pistrucci suggested to Pole that an appropriate subject for the sovereign , a new gold coin equal to one pound that was to be struck, would be Saint George . Until

18189-614: Was fenced for 12,000 gold pieces to Emperor Rudolph II; it remains in Vienna , alongside the Gemma Claudia . The largest flat engraved gem known from antiquity is the Great Cameo of France , which entered (or re-entered) the French royal collection in 1791 from the treasury of Sainte-Chapelle , where it had been since at least 1291. In England, a false dawn of gem collecting was represented by Henry, Prince of Wales ' purchase of

18330-594: Was frequently visited by her brother Napoleon. Following the French Revolution , the Legislative Assembly decreed the Maison's closure on 16 August 1792 as it shut down institutions associated with the aristocracy. Élisa left on 1 September with Napoleon to return to Ajaccio. Around 1795, the Bonaparte family relocated to Marseille . There Élisa got to know Felice Pasquale Baciocchi (who later adopted

18471-561: Was invented by the Romans in about 30BC to imitate engraved hardstone cameos, with the advantage that consistent layering could be achieved even on round vessels – impossible with natural gemstones. It was however very difficult to manufacture and surviving pieces, most famously the Portland Vase , are actually much rarer than Roman gemstone cameos. The technique was revived in the 18th and especially 19th centuries in England and elsewhere, and

18612-472: Was made compulsory, though the laws were not always well applied. On 2 July 1807, Élisa founded the "Institut Élisa" within the limits of a former convent for noble-born girls, to produce well-educated and cultivated future wives. On 29 July 1812, Élisa set up an establishment for young poor girls, the "Congregazione San Felice", though this did not long outlive Élisa's fall. As with Napoleon, Élisa set up city improvement works in her territories, mainly to expand

18753-507: Was most effectively used in French Art Nouveau glass that made no attempt to follow classical styles. The Middle Ages, which lived by charters and other sealed documents, were at least as keen on using seals as the ancient world, now creating them for towns and church institutions, but they normally used metal matrices and signet rings . However some objects, like a 13th-century Venetian Seven Sleepers of Ephesus , mimicked

18894-422: Was nearly dismissed. The Mint did not dismiss him, lest the money already spent on the Waterloo Medal be wasted. Pistrucci kept his place with the Mint for the rest of his life, eventually completing the Waterloo Medal in 1849, though because of its great size it could not be struck. After Pistrucci's death, the George and Dragon design was restored to the sovereign coin, and is still used today. Benedetto Pistrucci

19035-423: Was nominal only. Elisa was thus an exceptional case for Napoleon in this issue. He was later to say about her On 2 April 1809, Élisa arrived in Florence, where she was coldly received by the nobility. Her arrival coincided with a revolt against compulsory conscription that ended after a mayor and a judge were assassinated. The conscription and many new taxes imposed on Tuscany by Napoleon were sources of conflicts in

19176-530: Was not to be trusted, and so informed his brother. When they reached Paris in December 1814, the brothers refused to accompany Bonelli further, and after making threats, the dealer departed. Filippo soon returned to Italy, but Benedetto Pistrucci found his name and art were known in Paris, and set to work. He was there when Napoleon returned from Elba, beginning the Hundred Days , but worked on, unaffected by

19317-526: Was published in 1791, with 15,800 items. There are complete sets of the impressions in the Hermitage, the Victoria & Albert Museum in London, and in Edinburgh. Other types of imitation became fashionable for ladies' brooches , such as ceramic cameos by Josiah Wedgwood in jasperware . The engraved gem fell permanently out of fashion from about the 1860s, perhaps partly as a growing realization of

19458-468: Was slowed by injuries from a fall, and it was not until the beginning of 1849 that he submitted the matrices of the medal, and was paid the remaining balance of £1,500. The matrices were so large no one at the Royal Mint was willing to take the risk of hardening them and possibly ruining three decades' work. So only soft impressions were taken, with no medals in gold, silver and bronze as intended, though replicas have since been minted from other dies. Even if

19599-524: Was the ancestor of Florence's present-day Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri . Élisa later became unwillingly involved in Napoleon's removal of Pope Pius VII . Pius opposed the Empire's annexation of the Papal States , and he refused to renounce his temporal powers. Pius then excommunicated Napoleon in the bull Quum memoranda on 10 June 1809. In response to this intransigence, Napoleon selected

19740-477: Was the fourth surviving child and eldest surviving daughter of Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino . A younger sister of Napoleon Bonaparte , she had elder brothers Joseph and Lucien , and younger siblings Louis , Pauline , Caroline and Jerome . As Princess of Lucca and Piombino, then Grand Duchess of Tuscany, she became Napoleon's only sister to possess political power. Their relations were sometimes strained due to her sharp tongue. Highly interested in

19881-425: Was thereafter excluded from work on the coinage. The Mint considered sacking Pistrucci, but realised that if it did, the £1,700 advanced for fees and expenses on the Waterloo medal would probably be wasted, and he kept his position and pay on condition he focused on the completion of the medal. Despite this, by 1826, only a portion of one side had been completed. Though the banishment of the George and Dragon design from

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