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158-521: The Plaza de toros México , situated in Mexico City , is the world's largest bullring . The 41,262-seat facility is usually dedicated to bullfighting , but many boxing matches have been held there as well, including Julio César Chávez 's third and final bout with Frankie Randall on May 22, 2004. The Plaza México replaced the former Toreo de la Condesa bullring in the Condesa neighborhood that
316-421: A subtropical highland climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwb ), due to its tropical location but high elevation. The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa , Iztacalco , Venustiano Carranza and the east portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta ,
474-623: A constitutional convention to discuss their status in the new political order. It was a shrewd political move, but none accepted the invitation. However, it became clear to the Supreme Central Junta that keeping his overseas kingdoms loyal was imperative. Silver from New Spain was vital for funding the war against France. The body expanded to include membership from Spanish America, with the explicit recognition that they were kingdoms in their own right and not colonies of Spain. Elections were set to send delegates to Spain to participate in
632-712: A crisis of legitimacy of crown rule, since he had placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne after forcing the abdication of the Spanish monarch Charles IV . In Spain and many of its overseas possessions, the local response was to set up juntas , ruling in the name of the Bourbon monarchy . Delegates in Spain and overseas territories met in Cádiz —a small corner of the Iberian Peninsula still under Spanish control—as
790-409: A defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and two cannons—all that could be found on such short notice. The crown had established a standing military in the late eighteenth century, granting non-Spaniards who served the fuero militar , the only special privileges for mixed-race men were eligible. Indians were excluded from the military. Royal army troops of
948-712: A disproportionate impact on American-born priests, who filled the ranks of the lower clergy in New Spain. A number of parish priests, most famously Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos , subsequently became involved in the insurgency for independence. When the crown expelled the Jesuits from Spain and the overseas empire in 1767, it had a major impact on elites in New Spain, whose Jesuit sons were sent into exile, and cultural institutions, especially universities and colleges where they taught were affected. In New Spain there were riots in protest of their expulsion. Colonial rule
1106-666: A key factor in Creoles considering political independence. Within the Spanish Empire there was an unofficial yet apparent racial hierarchy which affected the social mobility of those not at the top of society. White, Spanish-born Peninsulares were at the top where many occupied the highest levels of government. This was followed by Mexican-born pure Spanish descendants, who also occupied most government positions, and Creoles. Below this were indigenous groups, African Mexicans and mixed race Mexicans. Many Creole elites deeply resented
1264-594: A legitimate, representative, and autonomous government in New Spain, but not necessarily breaking from the Spanish Empire. Opposition to that proposal came from conservative elements, including the peninsular-born judges of the High Court ( Audiencia ), who voiced Peninsular interests. Iturrigaray attempted to find a compromise between the two factions, but failed. Upon hearing the news of the Napoleonic invasion some elites suspected that Iturrigaray intended to declare
1422-409: A major part of Mexican Catholicism, from preaching and restrictions on villagers to engage in processions around communal land to protect from unwanted spirits caused much outcry and prompted a multitude of legal battles between indigenous groups and the colonial regime through the separate indigenous courts. Not only this, but new laws essentially forcing indigenous groups to learn Spanish in schools and
1580-720: A major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on 8 August, where the Saint Patrick's Battalion , which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexicans, fought for the Mexican cause, repelling the American attacks. After defeating
1738-609: A member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution . Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government , and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency. Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called
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#17327872554571896-469: A mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco . The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16 °C (54 to 61 °F), depending on the altitude of the borough. The temperature is rarely below 3 °C (37 °F) or above 30 °C (86 °F). At the Tacubaya observatory, the lowest temperature ever registered was −4.4 °C (24 °F) on 13 February 1960, and
2054-626: A new king, Cuitláhuac , but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc . Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city. Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during
2212-416: A royal regiment during the rule of José de Iturrigaray , who was overthrown in 1808 by peninsular Spaniards who considered him too sympathetic to the grievances of American-born Spaniards. With the ouster of the viceroy, Allende turned against the new regime and was open to the conspiracy for independence. Hidalgo joined the conspiracy, and with Allende vouching for him rose to being one of its leaders. Word of
2370-460: A separate Mexican identity, though at the time this would have occurred only among elite Creole circles. Despite these murmurings of independence, serious challenges to Spanish imperial power before 1810 were rare and relatively isolated. One early challenge to crown authority came after the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor . Under these laws, the grants of
2528-479: A standing military in the 1780s began to shift the political calculus since the crown could now use an armed force to impose rule. To aid building a standing military, the crown created set of corporate privileges ( fuero ) for the military. For the first time, mixed-race castas and blacks had access to corporate privileges, usually reserved for white elites. Silver entrepreneurs and large-scale merchants also had access to special privileges. Lucrative overseas trade
2686-543: A third of those in 1992. The levels of signature pollutants in Mexico City are similar to those of Los Angeles . Despite the cleanup, the metropolitan area is still the most ozone -polluted part of the country, with ozone levels 2.5 times beyond WHO -defined safe limits. To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides . When
2844-598: A vision for a sovereign Mexico. Morelos was not ambitious to become leader of the insurgency, but it was clear that he was recognized by insurgents as its supreme military commander. He moved swiftly and decisively, stripping Rayón of power, dissolving the Supreme Junta, and in 1813, Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo , also known as the Congress of Anáhuac. The congress brought together representatives of
3002-541: A way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico
3160-472: A year by American troops in the framework of the Mexican–American War (1847–1848). The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from 8 to 15 September 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War . Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec , culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored
3318-682: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mexico City Mexico City is the capital and largest city of Mexico , and the most populous city in North America . It is one of the most important cultural and financial centers in the world. Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico within the high Mexican central plateau , at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 ft). The city has 16 boroughs or demarcaciones territoriales , which are in turn divided into neighborhoods or colonias . The 2020 population for
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#17327872554573476-486: Is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals' nickname chilangos . Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to "connote a loud, arrogant, ill-mannered, loutish person". For their part those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in la provincia ('the provinces', 'the periphery') and many proudly embrace the term chilango. Residents of Mexico City are more recently called defeños (deriving from
3634-482: Is further emphasized to mandate December 12, the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe, as a day to honor her. A provision of key importance to dark-skinned plebeians (point 15) is "That slavery is proscribed forever, as well as the distinctions of caste [race], so that all shall be equal; and that the only distinction between one American and another shall be that between vice and virtue.". Also important for Morelos's vision of
3792-544: Is now considered the father of Mexican independence. His uprising on 16 September 1810 is considered the spark igniting the Mexican War of Independence. He inspired tens of thousands of ordinary men to follow him, but did not organize them into a disciplined fighting force or have a broad military strategy, but he did want to destroy the old order. Fellow insurgent leader and second in command, Ignacio Allende , said of Hidalgo, "Neither were his men amenable to discipline, nor
3950-594: Is the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous people . The city was originally built on a group of islands in Lake Texcoco by the Mexica around 1325, under the name Tenochtitlan . It was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards . In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City
4108-426: The encomenderos were to be ended following the deaths of the current grant holders. The encomenderos ' conspiracy included Don Martín Cortés , son of Hernán Cortés , who was exiled, with other conspirators executed. Another challenge to crown authority occurred in 1624 when elites ousted the reformist Viceroy Diego Carrillo de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Gelves , who sought to break up crime rackets from which
4266-676: The Alameda Central , it is recognized as the oldest public park in the Americas . Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district; Parque Hundido and Parque de los Venados in Colonia del Valle , and Parque Lincoln in Polanco . There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small "squares" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts. Several other larger parks such as
4424-542: The Bosque de Tlalpan [ es ; no ] and Viveros de Coyoacán , and in the east Alameda Oriente [ es ] , offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón [ ceb ; es ; no ] . In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market , a World Heritage Site . West of Santa Fe district are
4582-561: The Cortes of Cádiz , and drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812 . That constitution sought to create a new governing framework in the absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch. It tried to accommodate the aspirations of American-born Spaniards ( criollos ) for more local control and equal standing with Peninsular-born Spaniards, known locally as peninsulares . This political process had far-reaching impacts in New Spain during
4740-664: The Ecobici bike-sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation. Chapultepec , the city's most iconic public park, has history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat. It is south of Polanco district, and houses the Chapultepec Zoo the main city's zoo, several ponds and seven museums, including the National Museum of Anthropology . Other iconic city parks include
4898-597: The Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F. ) and is now officially known as Ciudad de México (or CDMX ), with a greater degree of autonomy. A clause in the Constitution of Mexico , however, prevents it from becoming a state within the Mexican federation, as long it remains the capital of the country. Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of
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5056-561: The Saint Patrick's Battalion , the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions . The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself. During this battle, on 13 September, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman , spearheaded
5214-509: The Toltec , and Mexica (Aztecs) cultures. The latter arrived around the 14th century to settle first on the shores of the lake. The city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325 or 1327. The old Mexica city that is now referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico , which is shared with a smaller city-state called Tlatelolco . According to legend,
5372-649: The Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period: The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem. The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they are very wide. Many died from being crushed by beams, or falling from high places, or in tearing down old buildings for new ones. Preconquest Tenochtitlan
5530-415: The archbishop 's residence. A painting by Cristóbal de Villalpando shows the damage of the tumulto . Unlike the riot in 1624, in which elites were involved and the viceroy ousted with no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was instigated by plebeians alone and had an additional racial component. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans, such as, "Kill
5688-486: The city proper was 9,209,944, with a land area of 1,495 square kilometers (577 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the population of Greater Mexico City is 21,804,515, which makes it the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the world, the second-largest urban agglomeration in the Western Hemisphere (behind São Paulo , Brazil ), and
5846-566: The massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco . Three years later, a demonstration in the Maestros avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called " Los Halcones ", composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the US. On 19 September 1985, at 7:19am CST ,
6004-684: The tierra caliente (hot country) of southern Mexico and to a certain extent in northern New Spain. In 1816, Francisco Javier Mina , a Spanish military leader who had fought against Ferdinand VII , joined the independence movement. Mina and 300 men landed at Rio Santander ( Tamaulipas ) in April, in 1817 and fought for seven months until his capture by royalist forces in November 1817. Two insurgent leaders arose: Guadalupe Victoria (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in
6162-473: The 1808–1809 food shortage may have been a contributory factor for popular resentment at the political regime. Various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era occurred but were generally local in nature, attempting to redress perceived wrongs of immediate authorities rather than throw off crown rule more broadly. They were not a broad independence movement as such. However, during the War of Independence, issues at
6320-538: The Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico. It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters (16,000 feet). This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making
6478-572: The City of Lakes . If approved by the government the project will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico , the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning. By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world's most polluted cities; however, the city has since become a model for drastically lowering pollution levels. By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped drastically, while sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were at levels about
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6636-421: The Congress of Chilpancingo, Morelos was captured 5 November 1815, interrogated, was tried and executed by firing squad. With his death, conventional warfare ended and guerrilla warfare continued uninterrupted. With the execution of Morelos in 1815, Vicente Guerrero emerged as the most important leader of the insurgency. From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting for independence from Spain was by guerrilla forces in
6794-633: The Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz , Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples, arriving there on 8 November 1519. Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa (Ixtapalapa), and the city's ruler, Moctezuma II , greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but
6952-458: The Hidalgo and his forces surrounded Mexico City, a group of 2,500 royalist women joined under Ana Iraeta de Mier, to create and distribute pamphlets based on their loyalty towards Spain and help fellow loyalist families. Hidalgo's forces continued to fight and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the city. Despite apparently having
7110-576: The Mexican wolf. Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, hippo, among others. Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68-acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan. It was inaugurated on 2 February 1999. It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from the area, featuring eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, white-tailed deer. Mexico City has
7268-559: The Mexicas' principal god, Huitzilopochtli , indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear devouring a rattlesnake . Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico. When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica , touching both
7426-629: The Mexico City coup ousting Iturrigaray, juntas in Spain created the Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies , on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez. Its creation was a major step in the political development in the Spanish empire, once it became clear that there needed to be a central governing body rather than scattered juntas of particular regions. Joseph I of Spain had invited representatives from Spanish America to Bayonne , France for
7584-578: The Miguel Hidalgo. It was opened in 1924. Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant panda, gorillas, caracal, hyena, hippos, jaguar, giraffe, lemur, lion, among others. Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero. In this zoo, opened in 1964, there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and
7742-613: The Morelos called for the establishment of Catholicism as the only religion (but with certain restrictions), the abolition of slavery and racial distinctions between and of all other nations," going on in point 5 to say, "sovereignty springs directly from the People." His second point makes the "Catholic Religion" the only one permissible, and that "Catholic dogma shall be sustained by the Church hierarchy" (point 4). The importance of Catholicism
7900-520: The Palaces"), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Germany, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe. But it was English politician Charles Latrobe who really penned the following: "... look at their works: the moles, aqueducts, churches, roads—and the luxurious City of Palaces which has risen from
8058-588: The Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence, is an important formal document in Mexican history, since it declares Mexico an independent nation and lays out its powers as a sovereign state to make war and peace, to appoint ambassadors, and to have standing with the Papacy, rather than indirectly through the Spanish monarch. The document enshrines Roman Catholicism the sole religion. Calleja restructured
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#17327872554578216-481: The Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves. Tenochtitlan was renamed "Mexico" because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce. The city had been the capital of the Aztec Empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain . The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in
8374-578: The Supreme Central Junta. Although in the Spanish Empire there was not an ongoing tradition of high level representative government, found in Britain and British North America, towns in Spain and New Spain had elected representative ruling bodies, the cabildos or ayuntamientos , which came to play an important political role when the legitimate Spanish monarch was ousted in 1808. The successful 1809 elections in Mexico City for delegates to be sent to Spain had some precedents. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
8532-492: The [American-born] Spaniards and the Gachupines [Iberian-born Spaniards] who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without confession ! Is this not our land?" The viceroy attempted to address the cause of the riot, a hike in maize prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented class warfare that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment
8690-414: The advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error and his failure to act "was
8848-635: The air is relatively drier, the driest month being December. This season is subdivided into a cold winter period and a warm spring period. The cold period spans from November to February, when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry. The warm period extends from March to May when subtropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain to form. Mexican War of Independence Independence agreement [REDACTED] Spanish Empire The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México , 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821)
9006-479: The area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza , in orderly, well laid-out streets. Indigenous residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located. Spaniards sought to keep indigenous people separate but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Amerindians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced. At intervals Zócalo
9164-446: The area was struck by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake . The earthquake proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party state government. The Mexican government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well. However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988. That year,
9322-536: The aristocrats and the king himself losing his head in revolutionary violence. The rise of military strongman Napoleon Bonaparte brought some order within France, but the turmoil there set the stage for the black slave revolt in the French sugar colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1791. The Haitian Revolution obliterated the slavocracy and gained independence for Haiti in 1804. Tensions in New Spain were growing after
9480-451: The armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata , but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza 's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace. In the 20th century the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences dominate. In 1900,
9638-568: The army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta , chief general of the Federal Army , saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison . Huerta's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of
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#17327872554579796-433: The attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes"). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
9954-475: The autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII in 1820, conservatives in New Spain saw political independence as a way to maintain their position. The unified military force entered Mexico City in triumph in September 1821 and the Spanish viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba , ending Spanish rule. Following independence, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the First Mexican Empire , led by Agustín de Iturbide . This ephemeral constitutional monarchy
10112-400: The beginning of his downfall." Hidalgo moved west and set up headquarters in Guadalajara , where one of the worst incidents of violence against Spanish civilians occurred, a month of massacres from 12 December 1810 (the Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe) to 13 January 1811. At his trial following his capture later that year, Hidalgo admitted to ordering the murders. None "were given a trial, nor
10270-399: The birthname William Lamport . Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642 and executed fifteen years later for sedition . Today, there is a statue of Lamport in the mausoleum at the base of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City. In 1692, there was a major riot in Mexico City, where a plebeian mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's palace and
10428-448: The camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest , hoping to rule through him. Tensions increased until, on the night of 30 June 1520 – during a struggle known as " La Noche Triste " – the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies. Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected
10586-445: The capital. The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center . Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru , Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success. The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in
10744-490: The capture of the insurgent leaders, he fled south on 26 March 1811 to continue the fight. He subsequently fought the Spanish in the battles of Puerto de Piñones , Zacatecas , El Maguey , and Zitácuaro . In an important step, Rayón organized the Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América (Supreme National Governing Junta of America), which claimed legitimacy to lead the insurgency. Rayón articulated Elementos constitucionales , which states that "Sovereignty arises directly from
10902-413: The city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century. Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco . Seismic activity is frequent there. Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed's heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to
11060-425: The clay-built ruins of Tenochtitlan...", on page 84 of the Letter V of The Rambler in Mexico . During the colonial period, the city's motto was "Muy Noble e Insigne, Muy Leal e Imperial" (Very Noble and Distinguished, Very Loyal and Imperial). During Andrés Manuel López Obrador 's administration a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza ( lit. ' The City of Hope ' ). This motto
11218-436: The clergy and clerics preached sermons against the insurgency. They were not organized in any formal fashion, more of a mass movement than an army. Hidalgo inspired his followers, but did not organize or train them as a fighting force, nor impose order and discipline on them. A few militia men in uniform joined Hidalgo's movement and attempted to create some military order and discipline, but they were few in number. The bulk of
11376-514: The collapse of royal government and the military triumph of forces for independence. Mexican independence from Spain was not an inevitable outcome of the relationship between the Spanish Empire and its most valuable overseas possession, but events in Spain had a direct impact on the outbreak of the armed insurgency in 1810 and the course of warfare through the end of the conflict. Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion of Spain in 1808 touched off
11534-438: The colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for indigenous cultivation close to
11692-485: The consolidation of loans held by the Catholic Church. The 1804 Act of Consolidation called for borrowers to immediately repay the entire principal of the loan rather than stretch payments over decades. Borrowers were criollo land owners who could in no way repay large loans on short notice. The impact threatened the financial stability of elite Americans. The crown's forced extraction of funds is considered by some
11850-542: The conspiracy got to crown officials, and the corregidor Domínguez cracked down, but his wife Josefa was able to warn Allende who then alerted Hidalgo. At this point there was no firm ideology or action plan, but the tip-off galvanized Hidalgo to action. On Sunday, 16 September 1810 with his parishioners gathered for mass, Hidalgo issued his call to arms, the Grito de Dolores . It is unclear what Hidalgo actually said, since there are different accounts. The one which became part of
12008-506: The construction of large sporting facilities. In 1969, the Mexico City Metro was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started in the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring State of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest, and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million. In 1980, half of all
12166-408: The countryside were not pacified. From 1816 to 1820, the insurgency was stalemated, but not stamped out. Royalist military officer, Antonio López de Santa Anna led amnestied former insurgents, pursuing insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria. Insurgents attacked key roads, vital for commerce and imperial control, such that the crown sent a commander from Peru, Brigadier Fernando Miyares y Mancebo, to build
12324-502: The death of his brother Joaquín in 1803, Hidalgo, who was having money problems due to debts on landed estates he owned, became curate of the poor parish of Dolores. He became member of a group of well-educated American-born Spaniards in Querétaro . They met under the guise of being a literary society, supported by the wife of crown official ( corregidor ) Miguel Domínguez, Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez , known now as "La Corregidora". Instead
12482-429: The draining of Lake Texcoco and global warming have greatly reduced snowfalls after the snow flurries of 12 February 1907. Since 1908, snow has only fallen three times, snow on 14 February 1920; snow flurries on 14 March 1940; and on 12 January 1967, when 8 centimeters (3 in) of snow fell on the city, the most on record. The 1967 snowstorm coincided with the operation of Deep Drainage System that resulted in
12640-455: The elites profited and curtail opulent displays of clerical power. The viceroy was removed following an urban religious riot of Mexico City commoners in 1624 stirred up by the elites. The crowd, which was mostly Catholic , was reported to have shouted, "Long live the King! Long live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic Lutheran [Viceroy Gelves]! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack
12798-498: The final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán , but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order. He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule , but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city-state , having power that extended far beyond its borders. Although
12956-615: The four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas of Guanajuato as a grim warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps. Warfare in the northern Bajío region waned after the capture and execution of the insurgency's creole leadership, but the insurgency had already spread to other more southern regions, to the towns of Zitácuaro, Cuautla, Antequera (now Oaxaca) towns where a new leadership had emerged. Priests José María Morelos and Mariano Matamoros , as well as Vicente Guerrero , Guadalupe Victoria , and Ignacio López Rayón carried on
13114-432: The government as a communal vessel. Leading up to the crisis in 1808 both Creole and Mexican-born Spaniards, and indigenous and mixed groups had come to dislike the colonial regime for different reasons. The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. The viceroy was the "king's living image" in New Spain. In 1808 viceroy José de Iturrigaray (1803–1808)
13272-581: The highest temperature on record was 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) on 25 May 2024. Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, and includes dense hail . Snow falls in the city scarcely, although somewhat more often on nearby mountaintops. Throughout its history, the Central Valley of Mexico was accustomed to having several snowfalls per decade (including a period between 1878 and 1895 in which every single year—except 1880—recorded snowfalls ), mostly lake-effect snow . The effects of
13430-399: The image of Guadalupe on their hats. Supporters of the imperial regime took as their patron the Virgin of Remedios, so that religious symbolism was used by both insurgents and royalists. There were a number of parish priests and other lower clergy in the insurgency, most prominently Hidalgo and José María Morelos , but the Church hierarchy was flatly opposed. Insurgents were excommunicated by
13588-471: The independence war and beyond. Pre-existing cultural, religious, and racial divides in Mexico played a major role in not only the development of the independence movement but also the development of the conflict as it progressed. The conflict had several phases. The first uprising for independence was led by parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , who issued the Cry of Dolores on 16 September 1810. The revolt
13746-610: The industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shanty towns . The inhabitants of Mexico City faced serious air pollution and water pollution problems, as well as groundwater-related subsidence . Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs,
13904-564: The insurgency had spread beyond its original region and leadership. Hidalgo was a learned priest who knew multiple languages, had a significant library, and was friends with men who held Enlightenment views. He held the important position of rector of the Seminary of San Nicolás, but had run afoul of the Inquisition for unorthodox beliefs and speaking against the monarchy. He had already sired two daughters with Josefa Quintana. Following
14062-556: The insurgency on a different basis, organizing their forces, using guerrilla tactics, and importantly for the insurgency, creating organizations and creating written documents that articulated the insurgents' goals. Following the execution of Hidalgo and other insurgents, leadership of the remaining insurgent movement initially coalesced under Ignacio López Rayón , a civilian lawyer and businessman. He had been stationed in Saltillo , Coahuila with 3,500 men and 22 cannons. When he heard of
14220-527: The insurgency together. Morelos formulated his Sentiments of the Nation, addressed to the congress. In point 1, he clearly and flatly states that "America is free and independent of Spain." On 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America . In addition to declaring independence from Spain,
14378-595: The insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 27 September 1821. Agustín de Iturbide is proclaimed Emperor of the First Mexican Empire by Congress, crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico . The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by
14536-532: The insurgency, the Sentimientos de la Nación ("Sentiments of the Nation") (1813). One clear point was political independence from Spain. Despite its having only a vague ideology, Hidalgo's movement demonstrated the massive discontent and power of Mexico's plebeians as an existential threat to the imperial regime. The government focused its resources on defeating Hidalgo's insurgents militarily and in tracking down and publicly executing its leadership. But by then
14694-408: The lack of social mobility this brought as only Peninsular-born Spaniards could occupy the highest levels of government. This contributed to their reasoning behind backing the move for independence, to achieve power. They did not wish to overthrow the status quo entirely, as this would threaten their lucrative position in Mexican society. Instead, they wished to move up the social ladder, unable to under
14852-517: The largest Spanish-speaking city (city proper) in the world. Greater Mexico City has a GDP of $ 411 billion in 2011, which makes it one of the most productive urban areas in the world . The city was responsible for generating 15.8% of Mexico's GDP, and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22% of the country's GDP. If it were an independent country in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America . Mexico City
15010-465: The last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City's nickname of "The city of palaces" given by Alexander Von Humboldt . The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores"), also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence"), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence . The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of
15168-452: The levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the A day without a car program to two days of the week. The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels . The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and
15326-581: The local level in these rural areas were so widespread as to constitute what some historians have called "the other rebellion". Finally, before the events of 1808 upended the political situation in New Spain, there was an isolated and abortive 1799 event called the Conspiracy of the Machetes , perpetrated by a small group in Mexico City seeking independence. In the early 19th century, the Age of Revolution
15484-564: The lower Cenolithic period (9500–7000 BC). However, a 2003 study placed the age of the Peñon woman at 12,700 years old (calendar age), one of the oldest human remains discovered in the Americas. Studies of her mitochondrial DNA suggest she was either of Asian or European or Aboriginal Australian origin. The area was the destination of the migrations of the Teochichimecas during the 8th and 13th centuries, people that would give rise to
15642-489: The main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico . Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including Mario Pani , Eugenio Peschard , and Enrique del Moral , the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera , David Alfaro Siqueiros , and José Chávez Morado . It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The 1968 Olympic Games brought about
15800-571: The members discussed the possibility of a popular rising, similar to one that already had recently been quashed in Valladolid (now Morelia ) in 1809 in the name of Ferdinand VII . Hidalgo was friends with Ignacio Allende , a captain in the regiment of Dragoons in New Spain, who was also among the conspirators. The "Conspiracy of Querétaro" began forming cells in other Spanish cities in the north, including Celaya , Guanajuato , San Miguel el Grande , now named after Allende. Allende had served in
15958-424: The metropolitan area. The area receives about 820 millimeters (32 in) of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from May through October with little or no precipitation for the remainder of the year. The area has two main seasons. The wet humid summer runs from May to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, the wettest month being July. The cool sunny winter runs from November to April, when
16116-506: The mid-eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms . With the reforms the crown sought to increase the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of the Catholic church , rationalize and tighten control over the royal bureaucracy by placing peninsular-born officials rather than American-born, and increase revenues to the crown by a series of measures that undermined the economic position of American-born elites. The reforms were an attempt to revive
16274-465: The movement. The religious character of the movement was present from the beginning, embodied in leadership of the priest, Hidalgo. The movement's banner with image of the Virgin of Guadalupe , seized by Hidalgo from the church at Atotonilco, was symbolically important. The "dark virgin" was seen as a protector of dark-skinned Mexicans, and now seen as well as a liberator. Many men in Hidalgo's forces put
16432-421: The new nation was equality before the law (point 13), rather than maintaining special courts and privileges ( fueros ) to particular groups, such as churchmen, miners, merchants, and the military. The Congress elected Morelos as the head of the executive branch of government, as well as supreme commander of the insurgency, coordinating its far-flung components. The formal statement by the Congress of Chilpancingo,
16590-517: The official record of accusation against Hidalgo was "Long live religion! Long live Our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live Fernando VII! Long live America and down with bad government!" From a small gathering at the Dolores church, others joined the uprising including workers on local landed estates, prisoners liberated from jail, and a few members of a royal army regiment. Many estate workers' weapons were agricultural tools now to be used against
16748-508: The old Aztec ceremonial center. The existing central plaza of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central plaza of the nation. The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area. Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia , one of
16906-419: The over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater-related subsidence . Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as nine meters (30 feet) in some areas. On average Mexico City sinks 20 inches (1 foot and 8 inches) or 50 centimetres (1/2 meters ) every year. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during
17064-507: The people, resides in the person of Ferdinand VII , and is exercised by the Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América . The Supreme Junta generated a flood of detailed regulations and orders. On the ground, Father José María Morelos pursued successful military engagements, accepting the authority of the Supreme Junta. After winning victories and taking the port of Acapulco , then the towns Tixtla, Izúcar, and Taxco, Morelos
17222-650: The pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park . Amusement parks include Six Flags México , in Ajusco neighborhood which is the largest in Latin America. There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city. Mexico City has three zoos. Chapultepec Zoo , the San Juan de Aragon Zoo [ es ; no ] and Los Coyotes Zoo . Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in
17380-408: The political and economic fortunes of the Spanish empire, but many historians see the reforms as accelerating the breakdown of its unity. This involved often removing large quantities of wealth that had been obtained in Mexico, before exporting to other parts of the empire to fund the many wars the Spanish were fighting. The crown removed privileges ( fuero eclesiástico ) from ecclesiastics that had
17538-516: The political disputes of the country. It was the imperial capital on two occasions (1821–1823 and 1864–1867), and of two federalist states and two centralist states that followed innumerable coups d'états in the space of half a century before the triumph of the Liberals after the Reform War . It was also the objective of one of the two French invasions to Mexico ( 1861–1867 ), and occupied for
17696-568: The population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city's first skyscraper. The rapid development of Mexico City as a center for modernist architecture was most fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City ,
17854-503: The port of Veracruz and the capital, Mexico City. To avert that strategic disaster, which would have left the capital cut off from its main port, viceroy Venegas transferred Calleja from the Bajío to deal with Morelos's forces. Morelos's forces moved south and took Oaxaca, allowing him to control most of the southern region. During this period, the insurgency had reason for optimism and formulated documents declaring independence and articulating
18012-636: The postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read "De-Efe"). They are formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but "[p]erhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized". The oldest signs of human occupation in the area of Mexico City are those of the " Peñón woman " and others found in San Bartolo Atepehuacan ( Gustavo A. Madero ). They were believed to correspond to
18170-432: The presidency was set between the P.R.I. 's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left-wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas . The counting system "fell" because coincidentally the power went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand. As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became
18328-421: The professional army were supplemented by local militias. The regime was determined to crush the uprising and attempted to stifle malcontents who might be drawn to the insurgency. Ignacio López Rayón joined Hidalgo's forces whilst passing near Maravatío , Michoacan while en route to Mexico City and on 30 October, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces . As
18486-471: The rebels to flee north towards the United States, perhaps hoping they would attain financial and military support. They were intercepted by Ignacio Elizondo , who pretended to join the fleeing insurgent forces. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján ( Norias de Baján ). When the insurgents adopted the tactics of guerrilla warfare and operated where it
18644-413: The regime. Some were mounted and acted as a cavalry under the direction of their estate foremen. Others were poorly armed Indians with bows and arrows. The numbers joining the revolt rapidly swelled under Hidalgo's leadership, they began moving beyond the village of Dolores. Despite rising tensions following the events of 1808, the royal regime was largely unprepared for the suddenness, size, and violence of
18802-472: The renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation. The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to
18960-593: The right to elect both a head of government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by election in 1997. Ever since, left-wing parties (first the Party of the Democratic Revolution and later the National Regeneration Movement ) have controlled both of them. The city has several progressive policies, such as elective abortions , a limited form of euthanasia , no-fault divorce , same-sex marriage , and legal gender change . On 29 January 2016, it ceased to be
19118-453: The royal army in an attempt to crush the insurgency, creating commands in Puebla, Valladolid (now Morelia), Guanajuato, and Nueva Galicia, with experienced peninsular military officers to lead them. American-born officer Agustín de Iturbide was part of this royalist leadership. Brigadier Ciriaco de Llano captured and executed Mariano Matamoros , an effective insurgent. After the dissolution of
19276-566: The royal army remained loyal to the imperial regime, but Hidalgo's rising had caught them unprepared and their response was delayed. Hidalgo's early victories gave the movement momentum, but "the lack of weapons, trained soldiers, and good officers meant that except in unusual circumstances the rebels could not field armies capable of fighting conventional battles against the royalists." The growing insurgent force marched through towns including San Miguel el Grande and Celaya, where they met little resistance, and gained more followers. When they reached
19434-417: The siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside Mexico City, in the municipality of Atenco , State of Mexico . Architects Teodoro González de León and Alberto Kalach along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists have developed the project plan for Recovering
19592-595: The signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution . Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco de Mora and then Toluca became the capital of the State of Mexico. During the 19th century, Mexico City was the center stage of all
19750-462: The summer. The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city's remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta , Tlalpan and Xochimilco . Originally much of the valley lay beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco , a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes. The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during
19908-400: The taxation of Cofradias or Confraternities negatively affected the literacy and living standards in villages. The ruling white Spanish elite and the majority of the country had very different views not only in culture and religion but on the role of government and social relations, with many elites viewing the government as a tool for progressing their own power, while indigenous groups saw
20066-417: The total draining of what was left of Lake Texcoco. After the disappearance of Lake Texcoco, snow has never fallen again over Mexico City. The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems. The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around
20224-424: The town of Guanajuato on 28 September , they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary, Alhóndiga de Granaditas . Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 European and American Spaniards, and marched on toward Mexico City. The new viceroy quickly organized
20382-423: The unspoken racial hierarchy of the regime. Religious tension is arguably one of the biggest contributions to tension before the French invasion of Spain in 1808. Many Creoles, Mexican Spaniards and the majority of indigenous, mixed and African groups in Mexico practiced Mexican Catholicism while the ruling Peninsulares preferred Modern Catholicism . Mexican or traditional Catholicism often worshiped through
20540-478: The upper hand, with military stalemate continuing until 1821, when former royalist commander Agustín de Iturbide made an alliance with Guerrero under the Plan of Iguala in 1821. They formed a unified military force rapidly bringing about the collapse of royal government and the establishment of independent Mexico. The unexpected turn of events in Mexico was prompted by events in Spain. When Spanish liberals overthrew
20698-498: The use of relics, symbols and artifacts where they believe the Holy Spirit existed in the physical form of the artifact, and was a mix of traditional indigenous forms of worship and Catholicism. This contrasted with the view of modern Catholicism that many Peninsulares shared, where God was worshiped through divine artifacts and relics, but there was no religious presence within the physical artifact. Laws prohibiting Lay preachers,
20856-488: The viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo . The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral , the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop's palace, and across from it the building housing the city council or ayuntamiento of the city. A late seventeenth-century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been
21014-513: The viceroy, and imprisoning him along with some American-born Spanish members of the city council. The peninsular rebels installed Pedro de Garibay as viceroy. Since he was not a crown appointee, but rather the leader of a rebel faction, creoles viewed him as an illegitimate representative of the crown. The event radicalized both sides. For creoles, it was clear that to gain power they needed to form conspiracies against Peninsular rule, and later they took up arms to achieve their goals. Garibay
21172-499: The viceroyalty a sovereign state and perhaps establish himself as head of a new state. With the support of the archbishop, Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont , landowner Gabriel de Yermo , the merchant guild of Mexico City ( consulado ), and other members of elite society in the capital, Yermo led a coup d'état against the viceroy. They stormed the Viceregal Palace in Mexico City, the night of 15 September 1808, deposing
21330-441: The village of Tixla, in what is now the state of Guerrero . Both gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. Many did lay down their arms and received pardons, but when the opportunity arose, they often returned to the insurgency. The royal army controlled the major cities and towns, but whole swaths of
21488-404: Was Hidalgo interested in regulations." Hidalgo issued a few important decrees in the later stage of the insurgency, but did not articulate a coherent set of goals much beyond his initial call to arms denouncing bad government. Only following Hidalgo's death in 1811 under the leadership of his former seminary student, Father José María Morelos , was a document created that made explicit the goals of
21646-638: Was already underway when the 1808 Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. In 1776, the Anglo-American Thirteen Colonies and the American Revolution successfully gained their independence in 1783, with the help of both the Spanish Empire and Louis XVI 's French monarchy. Louis XVI was toppled in the French Revolution of 1789, with
21804-517: Was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico 's independence from the Spanish Empire . It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional struggles that occurred within the same period, and can be considered a revolutionary civil war . It culminated with the drafting of the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, following
21962-531: Was besieged for 72 days by royalist troops under Calleja at Cuautla . The Junta failed to send aid to Morelos. Morelos's troops held out and broke out of the siege, going on to take Antequera, (now Oaxaca ). The relationship between Morelos and the Junta soured, with Morelos complaining, "Your disagreements have been of service to the enemy." Morelos was a real contrast to Hidalgo, although both were rebel priests. Both had sympathy for Mexico's downtrodden, but Morelos
22120-423: Was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor. Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward. The Spanish lived in
22278-482: Was effective, such as in the hot country of southern Mexico, they were able to undermine the royalist army. Around Guanajuato , regional insurgent leader Albino García [ es ] for a time successfully combined insurgency with banditry. With the capture of Hidalgo and the creole leadership in the north, this phase of the insurgency was at an end. The captured rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo , who
22436-424: Was established, known as México Tenochtitlán , and as of 1585, it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City played a major role in the Spanish colonial empire as a political, administrative, and financial center. Following independence from Spain , the federal district was established in 1824. After years of demanding greater political autonomy , residents were finally given
22594-545: Was in office when Napoleon's forces invaded Iberia and deposed the Spanish monarch Charles IV and Napoleon's brother Joseph was declared the monarch. This turn of events set off a crisis of legitimacy. Viceroy Iturrigaray had been appointed by Charles IV, so his legitimacy to rule was not in doubt. In Mexico City, the city council ( ayuntamiento ), a stronghold of American-born Spaniards, began promoting ideas of autonomy for New Spain, and declaring New Spain to be on an equal basis to Spain. Their proposal would have created
22752-399: Was in the hands of family firms based in Spain with ties to New Spain. Silver mining was the motor of the economy of New Spain, but also fueled the economies of Spain and the entire Atlantic world. That industry was in the hands of peninsula-born mine owners and their elite merchant investors. The crown imposed new regulations to boost their revenues from their overseas territories, particularly
22910-401: Was massive and not well organized. Hidalgo was captured by royalist forces, defrocked from the priesthood, and executed in July 1811. The second phase of the insurgency was led by Father José María Morelos , who was captured by royalist forces and executed in 1815. The insurgency devolved into guerrilla warfare, with Vicente Guerrero emerging as a leader. Neither royalists nor insurgents gained
23068-462: Was not based on outright coercion, until the early nineteenth century, since the crown did not have sufficient personnel and firepower to enforce its rule. Rather, the crown's hegemony and legitimacy to rule was accepted and ruled through institutions acting as mediators between competing groups, many organized as corporate entities. These were ecclesiastics, mining entrepreneurs, elite merchants, as well as indigenous communities. The crown's creation of
23226-418: Was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in
23384-545: Was of advanced years and held office for just a year, replaced by Archbishop Lizana y Beaumont, also holding office for about a year. There was a precedent for the archbishop serving as viceroy, and given that Garibay came to power by coup, the archbishop had more legitimacy as ruler. Francisco Javier Venegas was appointed viceroy and landed in Veracruz in August, reaching Mexico City 14 September 1810. The next day, Hidalgo issued his call to arms in Dolores. Immediately after
23542-470: Was of mixed-race while Hidalgo was an American-born Spaniard, so Morelos experientially understood racial discrimination in the colonial order. On more practical grounds, Morelos built an organized and disciplined military force, while Hidalgo's followers lacked arms, training, or discipline, an effective force that the royal army took seriously. Potentially Morelos could have taken the colony's second largest city, Puebla de los Angeles , situated halfway between
23700-410: Was overthrown and a federal republic was declared in 1823 and codified in the Constitution of 1824 . After some Spanish reconquest attempts , including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836. There is evidence that even from an early period in post-conquest Mexican history, some began articulating the idea of
23858-489: Was overwhelmed by the rapid growth of population in the capital. It opened on 5 February 1946 and annually since then, that date marks the date of the Corrida de Aniversario. This building was built beside the football stadium Estadio Ciudad de los Deportes (formerly Estadio Azul). This article about a sports venue in Mexico is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This bullfighting -related article
24016-554: Was quickly adopted as a city nickname but has faded since the new motto, Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement"), was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard , though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media. Up until 2013, it was common to refer to the city by the initialism "DF" from "Distrito Federal de México". Since 2013, the abbreviation "CDMX" (Ciudad de México) has been more common, particularly in relation to government campaigns. The city
24174-409: Was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez, and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the Inquisition . He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July 1811. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were preserved and hung from
24332-566: Was signed in what is now the far north of the city. The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten-year conflict of the Mexican Revolution . The most significant episode of this period for the city was the Decena Trágica ("Ten Tragic Days") of February 1913, when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from
24490-407: Was specifically against Gelves, seen as a bad representative of the crown, rather than against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. In 1642, there was a brief conspiracy to unite American-born Spaniards, blacks, Indians and castas against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man seeking to bring about independendence called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman with
24648-494: Was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica." Food shortages almost a century later, due to a growing population and severe droughts, led to two food riots in 1785 and 1808. The first riot was more severe, but both culminated in violence and anger at officials of the colonial regime. However, there is no direct link between these riots and the independence movement of 1810, although
24806-473: Was there any reason to do so, since he knew perfectly well they were innocent." In Guadalajara, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe suddenly disappeared from insurgents' hats and there were many desertions. The royalist forces, led by Félix María Calleja del Rey , were becoming more effective against disorganized and poorly armed of Hidalgo, defeating them at a bridge on the Calderón River , forcing
24964-403: Was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692. The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe , compelled thousands of indigenous over
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