131-559: Sand War Six-Day War Yom Kippur War Western Sahara War Shaba I Gulf War Battle of Mogadishu Operation Scorched Earth (alleged) The Royal Moroccan Army ( Arabic : القوات البرية الملكية المغربية Al-Quwwat al-Bariyah al-Malakiyah al-Maghribiyah , Standard Moroccan Tamazight : ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ tasrdast tagldant ) is the branch of the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The Royal Moroccan Army
262-671: A Major non-NATO ally of the US, and member of the initiative 5+5 and other cooperation agreements. The army's modernisation program took shape with the acquisitions of weapons such as the Chinese VT-1A and MRLS AR2, American M1A1 Abrams, the HAWK air defense system or the M109A5 Self-Propelled Howitzer. The organisation and structure of command remained the same: Formations are as follows: The Kingdom of Morocco
393-688: A 25-year asymmetric war ( Western Sahara War ) against the POLISARIO , an Algerian backed rebel national liberation movement seeking the independence of Western Sahara from Morocco. The Royal Moroccan Army fought during the Six-Day War and on the Golan front during the Yom Kippur War of 1973 (mostly in the battle for Quneitra ) and intervened decisively in the 1977 conflict known as Shaba I to save Zaire's regime. After Shaba II, Morocco
524-593: A French Protectorate, was dissolved. Fourteen thousand Moroccan personnel from the French Army and ten thousand from the Spanish Armed Forces transferred into the newly formed armed forces. This number was augmented by approximately 5,000 former guerrillas from the "Army of Liberation". About 2,000 French officers and NCOs remained in Morocco on short-term contracts, until crash training programmes at
655-713: A TV station, were also set on fire. Moroccan officials said five security personnel had been killed in the unrest. On 15 November 2010, the Moroccan government accused the Algerian secret services of orchestrating and financing the Gadaym Izik camp with the intent to destabilize the region. The Spanish press was accused of mounting a campaign of disinformation to support the Sahrawi initiative, and all foreign reporters were either prevented from traveling or else expelled from
786-466: A Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the Polisario Front. In May 2005, demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence or a referendum broke out in
917-486: A battery of 57-mm recoilless rifles, anti-aircraft artillery with eighteen guns, and eighteen 122mm field guns with the crews to operate them. The unit was made up of 686 men under the command of Efigenio Ameijeiras . Although they were initially described as an advisory contingent to train the Algerian army, Fidel Castro also authorized their deployment in combat actions to safeguard Algeria's territorial integrity. The Cubans offloaded their equipment and transported it to
1048-597: A ceasefire and both armies returning to their positions prior to the 8 October attack. The United Nations received many pleas to issue a ceasefire appeal, but Secretary-General U Thant wanted to allow regional initiatives to pursue a solution. On October 10, the Arab League called for a withdrawal of troops and reconciliation. On October 29, Hassan and Ben Bella met to negotiate in Bamako , Mali , joined by Emperor Selassie and Mali's President Modibo Keïta . After
1179-491: A ceasefire was officially declared on October 30, 1963. This ceasefire marked the first multinational peacekeeping mission conducted by the Organisation of African Unity . A formal peace treaty was eventually signed on February 20, 1964. Three factors contributed to the outbreak of this conflict: the absence of a precise delineation of the border between Algeria and Morocco, the discovery of important mineral resources in
1310-465: A grain of its sand." In 2006, he created an appointed advisory body Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), which proposes a self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco. The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting has been raised as a possibility. In 2005, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activity on both sides of
1441-627: A major counteroffensive, Operation Dignidad , aimed at driving the Moroccan forces back across the border and capturing Berguent. From Oran, the Cuban military with armored vehicles on a train of 12 wagons and 42 open platforms travelled 70 km southwest to the city of Sidi Bel Abbes , and then another 10 km along the road to the border town of Ras El Ma , where they settled in Bedo barracks. The Cuban military immediately began preparations for battle. Ameijeiras , Bravo and other senior officers went to
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#17327655841531572-507: A major offensive on Tindouf. It stalled due to unexpectedly stubborn resistance from the town's Algerian and Egyptian garrison. On October 28, 1963, Moroccan forces had planned a second offensive on Tindouf and occupied positions about four kilometres from the settlement. However, Hassan was reluctant to authorise it, fearing that another battle would prompt further military intervention from Algeria's allies. On October 22, hundreds of Cuban troops arrived at Oran . The troops were sent at
1703-525: A military budget of $ 66 million. Morocco's armed forces were smaller, but comparatively well-equipped and frequently took advantage of their superior firepower on the battlefield. They possessed forty T-54 main battle tanks that they had purchased from the Soviet Union, twelve SU-100 tank destroyers, seventeen AMX-13s, and a fleet of gun-armed Panhard EBR armored cars. Morocco also possessed modern strike aircraft, while Algeria did not. In 1963,
1834-636: A multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it controls. It also controls the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall, known as the liberated territories . This area has a very small population, estimated to be approximately 30,000 nomads. The Moroccan government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops. The SADR government whose troops also patrol
1965-563: A position of strength. To this Ameijeiras resolutely declared "We won't stop until we get to Casablanca ". On the evening of October 28, 1963, the commander of the tank battalion, Captain Melquiades Gonzalez, reported to Ameijeiras that the T-34s were ready for the offensive. It was scheduled for the early hours of October 29. However, Ben Bella suspended the attack at 1:00 a.m. in order to proceed with negotiations to end
2096-677: A solution. The Moroccans were determined to adjust the border, which the Algerians would not allow, resulting in an impasse. Morocco mobilized 30,000 to 40,000 men, while Algeria mobilized a similar amount. The Algerian forces began to retaliate against the Moroccan advances, taking back the posts of Hassi Beida and Tindjoub on October 8 and killing 10 Moroccan soldiers. Morocco claimed that this Algerian attack caused it 20 injuries and 80 disappeared. This prompted further attempts at negotiations, but these proved ineffectual as well. The capture of Hassi Beida involved 1,000 Moroccan soldiers under
2227-617: A €25 million ($ 27 million) investment in Guelmim-Oued Noun , which includes part of the Western Sahara. Sovereignty over Western Sahara is contested between Morocco and the Polisario Front and its legal status remains unresolved. The United Nations considers it to be a " non-self-governing territory ". Formally, Morocco is administered by a bicameral parliament under a constitutional monarchy wherein
2358-551: Is about 215,000 troops strong and consists of 195,000 professional soldiers and 20,000 conscripts. In case of war or state of siege, an additional force of 150,000 Reservists and paramilitary forces, including 24,000 regulars of the Royal Moroccan Gendarmerie and 30,000 Auxiliary Forces come under the Ministry of Defense command. Army forces from Morocco have taken part in different wars and battles during
2489-519: Is part of multiple international organisations, is a Major non-NATO ally , part of the Arab League , and has established military cooperation with different countries such as USA, Russia, Portugal, Tunisia, China, Qatar, Italy, France, Spain, UAE or Turkey. As part of the UN , Moroccan Army participated in different Peacekeeping missions. Moroccan troops were sent as part of SFOR , KFOR , MINUSTAH or
2620-453: Is rare. Western Sahara contains four terrestrial ecoregions : Saharan halophytics , Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets , Atlantic coastal desert , and North Saharan steppe and woodlands . The earliest known inhabitants of Western Sahara were the Gaetuli . Depending on the century, Roman-era sources describe the area as inhabited by Gaetulian Autololes or
2751-531: Is stipulated that "a territory without water is uninhabitable and its boundaries are superfluous" and the border is delineated over only 165 km. Beyond that there is only one border area, without limit, punctuated by tribal territories attached to Morocco or Algeria. In the 1890s, the French administration and military called for the annexation of the Tuat region. Tuat owed religious and tributary allegiance to
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#17327655841532882-575: The Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in Africa , the same year Spain seized control of Western Sahara and established it as a Spanish colony. Despite establishing their first colony in the region at Río de Oro Bay in 1884, the Spanish were unable to pacify the interior of the region until the 1930s. Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Saharan population kept
3013-764: The Free French forces in North Africa, Italy, France and Austria. The two world conflicts saw Moroccan units earning the nickname of "Todesschwalben" (death swallows) by German soldiers as they showed particular toughness on the battlefield. After the end of World War II , Moroccan troops formed part of the French Far East Expeditionary Corps engaged in the First Indochina War from 1946 to 1954. The Spanish Army also made extensive use of Moroccan troops recruited in
3144-652: The Lamtuna nomadic Berbers of the Sahara . Over roughly five centuries, through a complex process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and North Africa, some of the indigenous Berber tribes mixed with the Maqil Arab tribes and formed a culture unique to Morocco and Mauritania . The Spanish presence in the region of modern-day Western Sahara lasted from 1884 to 1975. While initial Spanish interest in
3275-553: The National Liberation Army to repel the Moroccan invaders. Negotiations for a ceasefire failed again in Marrakesh on October 15–17. On October 20, Moroccan spokesmen reported the capture of an Algerian Army helicopter with 5 Egyptian officers on board. On October 23, Moroccan soldiers tried to attack the town of Hassi-Taghucht post, 90 km south of Tauz, while Algerian units tried to encircle and attack
3406-748: The Spanish Protectorate , during both the Rif War of 1921–26 and the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39. Moroccan Regulares , together with the Spanish Legion , made up Spain's elite Spanish Army of Africa . A para-military gendarmerie , known as the "Mehal-la Jalifianas" and modelled on the French goumieres, was employed within the Spanish Zone. The Royal Armed Forces were created on 14 May 1956, after French Morocco ,
3537-521: The cease-fire terms , but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without the green light from Algeria , which houses the Sahrawis' refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement. In April 2007, the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the CORCAS, should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project
3668-538: The guerrilla ranks of the FLN's National Liberation Army (ALN), was still oriented towards asymmetric warfare , and had few heavy weapons. Its logistics was also complicated by its vast array of largely obsolete weapons from a number of diverse sources, including France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, and the United States. The Algerian army had ordered a large number of AMX-13 light tanks from France in 1962, but, at
3799-413: The monarch retains significant powers, such as the capacity to appoint the government and to dissolve parliament. The last elections to the parliament's lower house were deemed reasonably free and fair by international observers. The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces that are treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes
3930-469: The 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below) to vote, while Morocco has insisted that the census was flawed by evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes that escaped from Spanish invasion to the north of Morocco by the 19th century. Efforts by the UN special envoys to find a common ground for both parties did not succeed. By 1999 the UN had identified about 85,000 voters, with nearly half of them in
4061-761: The 8th century played a major role in the development of the Maghreb region. Trade developed further, and the territory may have been one of the routes for caravans , especially between Marrakesh and Tombouctou in Mali . In the 11th century, the Maqil Arabs (fewer than 200 individuals) settled in Morocco (mainly in the Draa River valley, between the Moulouya River , Tafilalt and Taourirt ). Towards
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4192-599: The African Union works with the UN mission to maintain the ceasefire and reach a peace agreement. The African Union provides a peacekeeping contingent to the UN mission which is used to control a buffer zone near the de facto border walls built by Morocco. Western Sahara is located on the north-west coast in West Africa and on the cusp of North Africa , bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to
4323-684: The Algerian-Berber FFS of Aït Ahmed both suffered as a result of this. In the case of UNFP, its leader, Mehdi Ben Barka , sided with Algeria, and was sentenced to death in absentia as a result. In Algeria, the armed rebellion of the FFS in Kabylie fizzled out, as commanders defected to join the national forces against Morocco. The rivalry between Morocco and Algeria exemplified in the Sand War also influenced Algeria's policy regarding
4454-548: The Algerian-Moroccan border dispute. According to The New York Times , the Algerian artillery barrage at this border town appeared to have erased the cease-fire agreement. The attack was denounced and dramatized by the Moroccan Government. Algerian Foreign Minister Abdelaziz Bouteflika expressed confidence that "wisdom will triumph" and that Algeria and Morocco would end renewed border fighting near
4585-641: The Army of Liberation today exist on both sides of the Western Sahara conflict, and both the Kingdom of Morocco and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic celebrate it as part of their political history. From the beginning of 21st-century, the Moroccan army began a modernisation program that included the purchase of modern equipment and the transformation into a more professional army performing multiple exercises with allied armies, and as
4716-497: The Foreign Ministers of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The meeting would be held to set up a commission to determine who was responsible for starting the war and to examine the frontier question and suggest methods for bringing about a lasting settlement of the conflict. The ceasefire was almost jeopardized on November 1, when Algerian troops assaulted a village near Figuig and positioned themselves against
4847-439: The French administration these were not international borders and the area was virtually uninhabited. The discovery of large deposits of oil and minerals (iron, manganese) in the region led France to define more precisely the territories, and in 1952 the French decided to integrate Tindouf and Colomb-Bechar to the French departments of Algeria. In 1956 France relinquished its protectorate in Morocco, which immediately demanded
4978-573: The Gaetulian Daradae tribes. Berber heritage is still evident from regional and place-name toponymy , as well as from tribal names. Other early inhabitants of Western Sahara may be the Bafour and later the Serer . The Bafour were later replaced or absorbed by Berber-speaking populations, which eventually merged in turn with the migrating Beni Ḥassān Arab tribes. The arrival of Islam in
5109-581: The Gaza strip after Operation Pillar of Defense . The Royal Moroccan Army also performs annual training exercise called "African Lion" with the United States Marine Corps. The exercise is a regularly scheduled, combined U.S. - Moroccan military exercise designed to promote improved interoperability and mutual understanding of each nation's tactics, techniques, procedures, unit readiness and enhancing foreign relations. Morocco has also been
5240-657: The Houston Agreement (1997), Morocco officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they were destined to lose (see Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate ). As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, James Baker visited all sides and produced
5371-506: The Liberation of Saguía el Hamra and Río de Oro. The movement tried without success to gain backing from several Arab governments, including Algeria and Morocco. Spain began rapidly to divest itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. By 1974–75 the government issued promises of a referendum on independence in Western Sahara. At the same time, Morocco and Mauritania , which had historical and competing claims of sovereignty over
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5502-792: The Moroccan army had: The most common service uniform of the Royal Moroccan Army is olive drab , but you can also see Moroccan troops with other types of uniforms such as the Desert lizard , Red Lizard and Camouflage Central-Europe uniforms.The uniform has been changed into a newer and modern one : Sand War Military stalemate Post-Egyptian revolution After the death of Nasser Spoilers other political entities French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Sand War ( Arabic : حَرْبُ الرِّمَال , romanized : Ḥarb ar-Rimāl )
5633-557: The Moroccan government. In the Spanish Sahara, the Army rallied Sahrawi tribes along the way, and triggered a large-scale rebellion . In early 1958, the Moroccan king reorganized the Army of Liberation units fighting in the Spanish Sahara as the "Saharan Liberation Army" . The revolt in the Spanish Sahara was put down in 1958 by a joint French and Spanish offensive. The king of Morocco then signed an agreement with
5764-486: The Moroccan town of Figuig. A Malian officer arrived on November 4 and enforced the Bamako Accord, ending the hostilities. The OAU mediated a formal peace treaty on February 20, 1964. The treaty was signed in Mali following a number of preliminary discussions between Hassan and Ben Bella. Terms of this agreement included a reaffirmation of the previously established borders in Algeria's favor and restoration of
5895-664: The Moroccan-Israeli normalisation deal, the United States established a temporary consulate post in Dakhla in January 2021 as a transition to establishing a permanent consulate within the near future. The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human-rights abuses, constantly reported by external reporters and human rights activists, most notably the displacement of tens of thousands of Sahrawi civilians from
6026-528: The Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and in parts of southern Morocco (notably the town of Assa ). They were met by police. Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed. Pro-independence Sahrawi sources, including the Polisario, have given these demonstrations
6157-490: The Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara or Southern Morocco, and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps , Mauritania and other places of exile. Polisario accepted this voter list, as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of them originally based on the Spanish census of 1974), but Morocco refused and, as rejected voter candidates began a mass-appeals procedure, insisted that each application be scrutinized individually. This again brought
6288-442: The Polisario Front and Morocco broke down, leading to armed clashes between both sides. On 10 December 2020, the United States announced that it would recognize full Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Morocco normalizing relations with Israel with a view for subsequent establishment of diplomatic relations . In February 2021, Morocco proposed to Spain the creation of an autonomy for Western Sahara under
6419-431: The Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence of Western Sahara. The UN attempted to settle these disputes through a visiting mission in late 1975, as well as a verdict from the International Court of Justice (ICJ). It acknowledged that Western Sahara had historical links with Morocco and Mauritania, but not sufficient to prove the sovereignty of either State over
6550-401: The Sahara was focused on using it as a port for the slave trade , by the 1700s Spain had transitioned economic activity on the Saharan coast towards commercial fishing. By the 19th century, Spain had claimed the southern coastal region and penetration of the hinterland gradually followed; later in 1904 the northern region was acquired. After an agreement among the European colonial powers at
6681-408: The Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants from Sahrawis and other communities in Morocco proper. The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into
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#17327655841536812-404: The Spanish forces out of much of the territory for a long time. The territory was eventually subdued by joint Spanish and French forces in 1934, the same year the Spaniards divided their Saharan territories into two regions named after the rivers: Saguía el-Hamra and Río de Oro . After 1939 and the outbreak of World War II , this area was administered by Spanish Morocco . In 1958, Spain joined
6943-444: The Spanish, as he asserted control over the rebellious southern border areas, and parts of the Army of Liberation was absorbed back into the Moroccan armed forces. Nationalistic Moroccans tend to see the Army of Liberation battles in Western Sahara as a proof of Western Sahara's loyalty to the Moroccan crown, whereas sympathizers to the Polisario Front view it only as an anti-colonial war directed against Spain . Sahrawi veterans of
7074-412: The Sultans of Morocco, although it was separated from both Algeria and Morocco by a largely uninhabited desert. The French 19th Army Corps ' Oran and Algiers divisions fought the Aït Khabbash, a fraction of the Aït Ounbgui khams of the Aït Atta confederation. The Moroccan viceroy of Tafilalt who was in charge of collecting tribute from the region refrained from interfering in the conflict, and thus
7205-401: The U.S.-led Unified Task Force (UNITAF), sometimes known by its U.S. codename of 'Restore Hope,' and the follow-on UNOSOM II . They saw fighting during the 3–4 October 1993 confrontation in Mogadishu to rescue a U.S. anti-militia assault force. Other peace support involvement during the 1990s included United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) in Cambodia, and the missions in
7336-423: The UK and Morocco. To achieve this, the scenario consisted of a joint counter insurgency operation in the desert and mountain foothills to re-establish control and authority within a troubled region of North Africa. Another exercises were the "Jebel Tarik", with the Moroccan contribution of service personnel to an annual bilateral deployment of two companies (up to 180 personnel) of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment (RG) to
7467-648: The UK, on seven occasions since 2003. "Desert Vortex", a one-off bilateral helicopter exercise which is run between 16 May and 30 June 2009. This was a UK training exercise with objectives set by Joint Helicopter Command (JHC) and run concurrently with Moroccan Air Force annual helicopter crew training. The Royal Gibraltar Regiment ran an exercise with the Moroccan 2e Brigade d'Infanterie Parachutiste (2e BIP) in late 2008. The Royal Armed Forces also take part of different international exercises as Leapfest, Flintlock, Blue Sand, and occasional military operations exercises with Belgium, U.A.E., Spain, France and others. In 2009,
7598-523: The UN General Assembly requesting that a referendum be held by Spain on self-determination. In 1975, Spain relinquished administrative control of the territory to a joint administration by Morocco and Mauritania . A war erupted between those countries and a Sahrawi nationalist movement, the Polisario Front , which proclaimed itself the rightful leadership of the SADR with a government-in-exile in Tindouf , Algeria . Mauritania withdrew its claims in 1979, and Morocco secured de facto control of most of
7729-408: The UN had ever recognized Moroccan sovereignty over parts of Western Sahara. In 2020, the US recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Moroccan normalization of relations with Israel . In 2023, Israel recognized Moroccan sovereignty. In 1984, the African Union 's predecessor, the Organisation of African Unity , recognized the SADR as one of its full members, with
7860-444: The United States and the United Kingdom since 2007, when Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara began. The Army of Liberation ( Arabic : جيش التحرير , Standard Moroccan Tamazight : ⴰⵙⴻⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ) was a force fighting for the independence of Morocco . In 1956, units of the Army began infiltrating Ifni and other enclaves of Spanish Morocco , as well as the Spanish Sahara . Initially, they received important backing from
7991-424: The area have proclaimed a village in the area, Bir Lehlou and Tifariti , as SADR's former and actual temporary factual capitals. On 18 December 2019, the Comoros became the first nation to open a consulate in Laayoune in support of Moroccan claims to Western Sahara. In January 2020, The Gambia and Guinea opened consulates in Dakhla ; meanwhile, Gabon opened a consulate general in Laayoune. As part of
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#17327655841538122-416: The area. The protest coincided with a fresh round of negotiations at the UN. In 2016, the European Union (EU) declared that "Western Sahara is not part of Moroccan territory." In March 2016, Morocco "expelled more than 70 U.N. civilian staffers with MINURSO" due to strained relations after Ban Ki-moon called Morocco's annexation of Western Sahara an "occupation". In November 2020, the ceasefire between
8253-418: The battle, there were 1,000 Moroccan troops armed with bazookas, recoilless cannons, heavy machine guns and tanks. It is asserted that 3,000 Algerian troops took part in the battle. Little use of airpower has been reported, except for an Algerian plane that bombarded Oued Zeknou. This battle cut the route from Bechar to Tindouf and the passage of caravans through the area. Algeria was strongly disadvantaged as
8384-419: The border towns of Hassi Beida and Tindjoub, beginning a battle with Algerian forces for control over the towns. In the north, Algeria opened a front near Ich, while Morocco launched an offensive towards Tindouf in the south. Cuban troops arrived in Algeria to prepare for an offensive into eastern Morocco, prompting Morocco to prepare for a second offensive towards Tindouf. However, both attacks were suspended, and
8515-405: The city of Colomb-Bechar , where the headquarters of the Algerian Minister of Defense Houari Boumédiène was located. By that time, the Algerian military had already developed a strategy to confront the Moroccans. At a command meeting in Colomb-Béchar, Defense Minister Boumédiène set the task of capturing as many of the border areas of Morocco as possible, which would allow Algeria to negotiate from
8646-456: The command of colonel Habibi who started from bases near Ouarzazate . Moroccan infantry advanced along camel roads until 4:00 a.m. The battle involved mortars and heavy machine guns. Tinjoub held out for about 2 hours until 7:30 a.m, while Hassi Beida held out for another hour. The larger Moroccan army retook the two posts during the week of October 14, killing at least 10 Algerians in the process. The Algerians retreated to Tinfouchy . During
8777-399: The concept of a Greater Morocco . Upon Algerian independence, the FLN announced it would apply the principle of uti possidetis to pre-existing colonial borders. King Hassan II of Morocco visited Algiers in March 1963 to discuss the undefined borders, but Algeria's President Ahmed Ben Bella believed the matter should be resolved at a later date. Ben Bella's fledgling administration
8908-418: The conflict in Western Sahara , with Algeria backing an independence -minded Sahrawi guerrilla organization, the Polisario Front , partly to curb Moroccan expansionism in the wake of the attempt to annex Tindouf. Western Sahara Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North-western Africa . It has a surface area of 272,000 square kilometres (105,000 sq mi). Approximately 30% of
9039-431: The conflict. Ben Bella claimed that the conflict had been deliberately provoked by "feudal" Morocco with the encouragement of the United States in order to crush Algeria's socialist revolution. On October 18, the Algerians opened a new front along the border in the north, close to the more highly developed Mediterranean region of northern Algeria and in a portion of the border not contested by Morocco. This represented
9170-411: The country, the expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians by the Algerian government from Algeria, and numerous casualties of war and repression. During the war years (1975–1991), both sides accused each other of targeting civilians. Moroccan claims of Polisario terrorism have generally had little to no support abroad, with the US, European Union, African Union and UN all refusing to include
9301-428: The developing world. The Polisario Front has won formal recognition for the SADR from 46 UN member states and South Ossetia , and was extended membership of the African Union . Morocco has won support from several African governments and most of the Muslim world and Arab League . In most instances, recognitions are extended or withdrawn due to a change in relations with Morocco. Until 2020, no other member state of
9432-590: The disputed area, and the Moroccan irredentism fueled by the Greater Morocco ideology of the Istiqlal Party and Allal al-Fassi . Before French colonization of the region in the nineteenth century, part of south and west Algeria were under Moroccan influence and no border was defined. In the Treaty of Lalla Maghnia (March 18, 1845), which set the border between French Algeria and Morocco, it
9563-605: The district of Saguia el-Hamra (the "Red River") in the north with the Río de Oro (in the south) to form the province of Spanish Sahara, following Morocco's claiming these regions in 1957. As a consequence, Ahmed Belbachir Haskouri , the Chief of Cabinet, General Secretary of the Government of Spanish Morocco, cooperated with the Spanish to select governors in that area. The Saharan lords who were already in prominent positions, such as
9694-492: The document known as the "Baker Plan". This was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned an autonomous Western Sahara Authority (WSA), which would be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It was rejected by both sides, although it
9825-567: The end of Francisco Franco 's rule. There was a global trend towards complete decolonization . Spain abandoned most territories within neighboring Morocco in 1956, but resisted encroachment by the Moroccan Liberation Army within Ifni and Spanish Sahara from 1956 to 1958. In 1971, Sahrawi (an Arabic term for those from Sahara ) students in Moroccan universities began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for
9956-805: The end of the Almohad Caliphate , the Beni Hassan, a sub-tribe of the Maqil, were called by the local ruler of the Sous to quell a rebellion; they settled in the Sous Ksours and controlled such cities as Taroudant . During Marinid dynasty rule, the Beni Hassan rebelled but were defeated by the Sultan and escaped beyond the Saguia el-Hamra dry river. The Beni Hassan then were at constant war with
10087-405: The escalation and internationalization of the war, particularly wanting to avoid Soviet intervention, and therefore advocated for the peaceful resolution of the conflict. The United States opposed Hassan's interpretation of inter-Arab rivalry's effect on North Africa. Despite Hassan's request, France, Spain and the United States refused to provide him with military assistance in an effort to isolate
10218-570: The first intensification of the hostilities and enlarged the war to the north. The Algerians attacked the town of Ich on October 18, a border oasis 80 miles northeast of Figuig , forcing the Moroccans to withdraw. The Moroccan casualties were a few dozen missing. On the next day, the Algerians bombarded the Tindrara region in Oujda province. On October 13, 1963, Moroccan ground units launched
10349-769: The former Yugoslavia: IFOR , SFOR , and KFOR . Recent United Nations deployment in Africa and elsewhere have included the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), the UNOCI , BINUCA and MISCA (2014) Other missions have included: Algeria, Morocco, and other Maghreb states affected by the GSPC insurgency have been assisted in fighting Islamist militants by
10480-445: The foundations for a lasting and often intensely hostile rivalry between Morocco and Algeria, exacerbated by the differences in political outlook between the conservative Moroccan monarchy and the revolutionary , Arab socialist Algerian military government. In January 1969, Algerian President Houari Boumediene made a state visit to Morocco and signed a treaty of friendship with Hassan's government at Ifrane . The following year
10611-435: The four leaders met alone on October 30, a truce was declared. The accord mandated a ceasefire for November 2, and announced that a commission consisting of Moroccan, Algerian, Ethiopian, and Malian officers would decide the boundaries of a demilitarized zone . It was also determined that an Ethiopian and Malian team would observe the neutrality of the demilitarized zone. Finally, the accord suggested an immediate gathering of
10742-405: The front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications. Morocco has repeatedly tried to engage Algeria in bilateral negotiations, based on its view of Polisario as the cat's paw of the Algerian military. It has received vocal support from France and occasionally (and currently) from the United States. These negotiations would define the exact limits of
10873-537: The front was within the range of the Saharan military district of Morocco and accessible to logistical support, while the fighting took place 750 miles away from the capital Algiers , and Algerian troops were committed to suppressing the Socialist Forces Front rebellion in the region of Kabylia, which Algeria eventually succeeded in suppressing. On October 15, Ben Bella called for a remobilization of
11004-535: The government coalition, the Polisario Front, as well as members of the governing party, who support a solution "that respects the democratic will of the Saharawi people". In July 2023, Israel officially recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. In October 2024, in a speech to the Parliament of Morocco , French President Emmanuel Macron backed Morocco's autonomy proposal. Macron also unveiled
11135-421: The group on their lists of terrorist organizations. Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorism, and insist that collective punishment and forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians should be considered state terrorism on the part of Morocco. Both Morocco and the Polisario additionally accuse each other of violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in
11266-455: The independence camp. Morocco was also allowed to keep its army in the area and retain control over all security issues during both the autonomy years and the election. In 2002, the Moroccan king stated that the referendum idea was "out of date" since it "cannot be implemented"; Polisario retorted that that was only because of the King's refusal to allow it to take place. In 2003, a new version of
11397-560: The largest city of Western Sahara. Previously occupied by Spain as the Spanish Sahara until 1975, Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after a Moroccan demand. In 1965, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution on Western Sahara, asking Spain to decolonize the territory. A year later, resolution 2229 (XXI) was passed by
11528-536: The local tribes were left to fend for themselves. Although the Moroccan state did not interfere in the annexation of the Tuat region, several Moroccan tribes independently sent volunteers to fight against the French. The conflict ended with the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901. In 1903, France also began expanding westwards towards Bechar and Tindouf . They defeated
11659-507: The local tribesmen at the Battle of Taghit and the Battle of El-Moungar , although they didn't directly annex the region into French Algeria. The borders around this region were loosely defined. After Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912, the French administration set borders between the two territories, but these tracks were often misidentified (Varnier line in 1912, Trinquet line in 1938), and varied from one map to another, since for
11790-772: The members of Maa El Ainain family, provided a recommended list of candidates for new governors. Together with the Spanish High Commissioner, Belbachir selected from this list. During the annual celebration of Muhammad 's birthday, these lords paid their respects to the caliph to show loyalty to the Moroccan monarchy. As time went by, Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonization after World War II ; former North African and sub-Saharan African possessions and protectorates gained independence from European powers. Spanish decolonization proceeded more slowly, but internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up towards
11921-582: The military academies of Saint-Cyr , Toledo and Dar al Bayda produced sufficient numbers of Moroccan commissioned officers. The first wars that Moroccan troops have taken part in the 20th century as an independent country were the Ifni War and Sand War . In the early 1960s, Moroccan troops were sent to the Congo as part of the first multifunctional UN peacekeeping operation, ONUC . But the Moroccan Armed Forces were most notable in fighting
12052-645: The more recent UNSMIS in Syria. It has also responded the call of its allies, taking part of conflicts such as Shaba I , Battle of Mogadishu (1993) , the Gulf War or the Operation Scorched Earth , among others. Morocco has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters, the latest contributions were at Libyan Civil War , the Syrian civil war . and in
12183-469: The name " Independence Intifada ", while most sources have tended to see the events as being of limited importance. International press and other media coverage have been sparse, and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan government's policy of strictly controlling independent media coverage within the territory. Demonstrations and protests still occur, even after Morocco declared in February 2006 that it
12314-543: The north. In the waning days of General Franco 's rule, and after the Green March , the Spanish government signed a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to transfer the territory on 14 November 1975. The accords were based on a bipartite administration, and Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territories, with Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces , and Mauritania taking control of
12445-401: The northwest, Morocco proper to the north-northeast , Algeria to the east-northeast , and Mauritania to the east and south . Among the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, the land along the coast is low flat desert and rises, especially in the north, to small mountains reaching up to 600 metres (2,000 ft) on the eastern side. While the area can experience flash flooding in
12576-467: The option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. In 1997, the Houston Agreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum but likewise has hitherto not had success. As of 2010 , negotiations over terms have not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be registered to participate in
12707-503: The plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA, making it less reliant on Moroccan devolution . It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a "basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many. This appeared to abandon Polisario's previous position of only negotiating based on
12838-522: The plan, but he was met with rejection. King Hassan II of Morocco initially supported the referendum idea in principle in 1982, and signed contracts with Polisario and the UN in 1991 and 1997. No major powers have expressed interest in forcing the issue, however, and Morocco has shown little interest in a real referendum. Hassan II's son and successor, Mohammed VI , has opposed any referendum on independence, and has said Morocco will never agree to one: "We shall not give up one inch of our beloved Sahara, not
12969-494: The population offered to take up arms against the Moroccan invaders. Morocco's invasion proved to be a diplomatic blunder, as the other Arab and African states refused to recognize its border claims. Egypt ( United Arab Republic ) even began sending troops and defense hardware in late October to bolster the Algerian military, sending about 1,000 troops to Algeria. Morocco's Western allies provided assistance, after Morocco's formal requests for military aid. The United States feared
13100-526: The process to a halt. According to a NATO delegation, MINURSO election observers stated in 1999, as the deadlock continued, that "if the number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the SADR side". By 2001, the process had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other, third-way solutions. Indeed, shortly after
13231-473: The referendum, and, since about the year 2000, Morocco considers that since there is no agreement on persons entitled to vote, a referendum is not possible. Meanwhile, Polisario still insisted on a referendum with independence as a clear option, without offering a solution to the problem of who is qualified to be registered to participate in it. Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. The Polisario has insisted on only allowing those found on
13362-572: The request of Ben Bella, though he would later deny this in 1997. Just years after the victory of their own revolution, many Cubans identified with the Algerians and were eager to support them. They also suspected that Washington was hoping the war would precipitate Ben Bella's downfall, which Castro was determined to prevent. For these reasons, the Cuban government formed the Grupo Especial de Instrucción to be sent to Algeria. Its forces included twenty-two T-34 tanks, eighteen 120-mm mortars,
13493-472: The rest of the territory. It gradually contained the guerrillas by setting up the extensive sand-berm in the desert (known as the Border Wall or Moroccan Wall) to exclude guerrilla fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission MINURSO , under the terms of a UN Settlement Plan . The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the local population
13624-630: The return of the disputed departments, especially Tindouf. The French government refused. During the Algerian War , Morocco backed the National Liberation Front , Algeria's leading nationalist movement, in its guerrilla campaign against the French. However, one of the FLN's primary objectives was to prevent France from splitting the strategic Sahara regions from a future Algerian state. It was, therefore, disinclined to support Morocco's historical claims to Tindouf and Bechar or
13755-569: The same status as Morocco, and Morocco protested by suspending its membership of the OAU. Morocco was readmitted to the Union in 2017, after promising conflicting claims would be resolved peacefully and it would stop building walls to extend its military control. Meanwhile, the African Union has not issued any formal statement about the border separating the sovereign territories of Morocco and the SADR. Instead,
13886-538: The size of the Moroccan army was 34,843 troops and it had a military budget of $ 94 million. Weeks of skirmishes along the border eventually escalated into a full-blown confrontation on September 25, 1963, with intense fighting around the oasis towns of Tindouf and Figuig . The Royal Moroccan Army soon crossed into Algeria in force and succeeded in taking the two border posts of Hassi Beida and Tindjoub. On October 5, representatives from Morocco and Algeria convened at Oujda to negotiate, but they were unable to deliver
14017-484: The southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya . Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within three months, repatriating Spanish remains from its cemeteries. The Moroccan and Mauritanian annexations were resisted by the Polisario Front , which had gained backing from Algeria . It initiated guerrilla warfare and, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew due to pressure from Polisario, including a bombardment of its capital and other economic targets. Morocco extended its control to
14148-523: The southwestern front by rail. The troops provided training to the Algerians, and their medical team offered the population free healthcare. While Castro had hoped to keep Cuba's intervention covert, and a number of the Cuban personnel wore Algerian uniforms, they were observed by French military and diplomatic staff in Oran and word of their presence soon leaked to the Western press. Algeria and Cuba planned
14279-570: The sovereignty of the King of Morocco . In March 2022, the Spanish government abandoned its traditional position of neutrality in the conflict, siding with the Moroccan government and recognising the autonomy proposal "as the most serious, realistic and credible basis for the resolution of the dispute". This sudden turnaround was generally rejected by both the Opposition, the parties that make up
14410-684: The spring, there are no permanent streams. At times, a cool off-shore current can produce fog and heavy dew. The interior experiences extreme summer heat, with average highs reaching 43–45 °C (109–113 °F) in July and in August; during winter, days are still hot to very hot, with average highs from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F); however, in the northern part of the territory, the thermometer may drop below 0 °C (32 °F) at night and it can be freezing in December and in January, although this
14541-591: The standards of voter identification from 1991 (i.e. the Spanish census). After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003. Baker resigned his post at the United Nations in 2004; his term did not see the crisis resolved. His resignation followed several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on
14672-532: The status quo. The demilitarized zone was maintained in the meantime, monitored by the OAU's first multinational peacekeeping force. French sources reported Algerian casualties to be 60 dead and 250 wounded, with later works giving a number of 300 Algerian dead. Morocco officially reported to have suffered 39 dead. Moroccan losses were probably lower than the Algerians' but are unconfirmed, with later sources reporting 200 Moroccan dead. About 57 Moroccans and 379 Algerians were taken prisoner . The Sand War laid
14803-547: The territory (82,500 km (31,900 sq mi)) is controlled by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR); the remaining 70% is occupied and administered by neighboring Morocco . It is the most sparsely populated territory in Africa and the second most sparsely populated territory in the world , mainly consisting of desert flatlands. The population is estimated at 618,600. Nearly 40% of that population lives in Morocco-controlled Laayoune ,
14934-469: The territory at the time of the Spanish colonization. The population of the territory thus possessed the right of self-determination . On 6 November 1975 Morocco initiated the Green March into Western Sahara; 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross the border in a peaceful march. A few days before, on 31 October, Moroccan troops invaded Western Sahara from
15065-681: The territory has been administered by the Moroccan government , with tacit support from France and the United States. The remainder is administered by the SADR, backed by Algeria . The only part of the coast in SADR territory is the extreme south. Internationally, countries such as Russia have taken an ambiguous and neutral position on each side's claims and pressed parties to agree on a peaceful resolution. Morocco and Polisario have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition, especially from African, Asian, and Latin American states in
15196-496: The territory, argued that it had been artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. Algeria , which also bordered the territory, viewed their demands with suspicion, as Morocco also claimed the Algerian provinces of Tindouf and Béchar . After arguing for a process of decolonization to be guided by the United Nations , the Algerian government under Houari Boumédiènne in 1975 committed to assisting
15327-466: The territory, including all major cities and most natural resources. The UN considers the Polisario Front the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people , and maintains the Sahrawis have a right to self-determination . Western Sahara is the last African colonial state yet to achieve independence and has been dubbed "Africa's last colony". Since a UN-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991, most of
15458-424: The time of the fighting, only twelve were in service. Ironically, at least four AMX-13s had also been donated by Morocco a year earlier. The Soviet Union supplied Algeria with ten T-34 tanks, but these were equipped for clearing minefields and were delivered without turrets or armament. The Algerian army also lacked trucks, aircraft, and jeeps. In 1963, the size of the Algerian army was 48,000 troops and it had
15589-528: The town of Usada, 10 km from Zedgu, however, both of these attacks were repulsed. The Algerian army launched another counterattack against Hassi Beida with heavy material, however it withdrew after being repulsed, leaving almost a hundred dead on the ground. Despite internal discontent with the Algerian government, most of the country supported the war effort, which Algerians generally perceived as an act of Moroccan aggression. Even in regions where Ben Bella's regime remained deeply unpopular, such as Kabylia ,
15720-422: The town's airport. Surrounded by Algerians, the town was assaulted with Algerian infantry and artillery. The Moroccans claimed to have beaten them off. The town has been under heavy shell fire and the number of dead civilians was reported to be at least 60. Fighting continued for two days after a cease-fire was to have taken effect, and Morocco reportedly pressed for the United Nations Security Council to consider
15851-645: The twentieth century, from World War I , to the recent Central African Republic conflict . The Moroccan army has existed continuously since the rising of Almoravid Empire in the 11th-century. During the protectorate period (1912–1955), large numbers of Moroccans were recruited for service in the Spahi and Tirailleur regiments of the French Army of Africa ( French : Armée d'Afrique ). Many served during World War I . During World War II more than 300,000 Moroccan troops (including goumier auxiliaries) served with
15982-482: The two leaders set up a commission to demarcate the border and examine prospects for joint efforts to mine iron ore in the disputed region. Morocco finally abandoned all claims to Algerian territory in 1972 with the Accord of Ifrane, though Morocco refused to ratify the agreement until 1989. The governments of both Morocco and Algeria used the war to describe opposition movements as unpatriotic. The Moroccan UNFP and
16113-595: The venue for Exercise "Jebel Sahara" since September 2000, taken 10 times since, and gathering elements from 33 Squadron, 230 Squadron, 18 Squadron, 27 Squadron, Joint Helicopter Force HQ from RAF Benson, 1st Battalion Royal Gibraltar Regiment and 2nd Brigade d'Infanterie Parachutiste of the Royal Moroccan Army. The aim of the Exercise was to increase the Support Helicopter warfighting capability in desert 'hot and high' conditions and foster good relations between
16244-404: The war peacefully. Multiple actors, including the Arab League , Tunisia 's Habib Bourguiba , Libya 's King Idris , and Ethiopia 's Emperor Haile Selassie , sought to moderate negotiations. President of Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser , sent a letter to Hassan II urging him to stop the fighting. In his message, he condemned the Moroccan attack and justified his support for Algeria, and suggested
16375-458: Was a border conflict between Algeria and Morocco fought from September 25 to October 30, 1963, although a formal peace treaty was not signed until February 20, 1964. It resulted largely from the Moroccan government's claim to portions of Algeria's Tindouf and Béchar provinces. The Sand War led to heightened tensions between the two countries for several decades. Full-blown confrontation began on September 25, 1963 once Moroccan forces occupied
16506-403: Was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory but still explicitly refused any referendum on independence. As of January 2007, the plan had not been made public, though the Moroccan government claimed that it was more or less complete. Polisario has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of
16637-492: Was home to more than 12,000 people. In November 2010, Moroccan security forces entered Gadaym Izik camp in the early hours of the morning, using helicopters and water cannon to force people to leave. The Polisario Front said Moroccan security forces had killed a 26-year-old protester at the camp, a claim denied by Morocco. Protesters in Laayoune threw stones at police and set fire to tires and vehicles. Several buildings, including
16768-406: Was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three ways by the inclusion of an unspecified " autonomy ", further undermining
16899-650: Was part of the Inter-African Force deployed on the Zaire border, contributing about 1,500 troops. The Armed Forces also took part in the Gulf War with a Mechanized Battalion and an infantry battalion in the Omar and Tariq Task Forces. In the 1990s, Moroccan troops went to Angola with the three UN Angola Versification Missions, UNAVEM I , UNAVEM II , and UNAVEM III . They were also in Somalia, with UNOSOM I ,
17030-435: Was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. The stalemating of the Moroccan proposal options has led the UN in the recent "Report of the UN Secretary-General" to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. In October 2010, Gadaym Izik camp was set up near Laayoune as a protest by displaced Sahrawi people about their living conditions. It
17161-638: Was still attempting to rebuild the country after the enormous damage caused by the Algerian War and was already pre-occupied with an insurgency by the FFS led by Hocine Aït Ahmed opposed to Ben Bella's autocratic rule. Algerian authorities suspected that Morocco was inciting the revolt, while Hassan was anxious about his own opposition's reverence for Algeria, escalating tensions between the nations. These factors prompted Hassan to begin moving troops towards Tindouf. The Algerian military , recently formed from
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