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137-511: The Rocky Mountain locust ( Melanoplus spretus ) is an extinct species of grasshopper that ranged through the western half of the United States and some western portions of Canada with large numbers seen until the end of the 19th century. Sightings often placed their swarms in numbers far larger than any other locust species, with one famous sighting in 1875 estimated at 198,000 square miles (510,000 km) in size (greater than
274-438: A food chain who lose their prey. "Species coextinction is a manifestation of one of the interconnectednesses of organisms in complex ecosystems ... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one." Coextinction is especially common when a keystone species goes extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of biodiversity loss . There may be
411-669: A nautilus to the Royal Society that was more than two feet in diameter, and morphologically distinct from any known living species. Hooke theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet. While he contended that it was possible a species could be "lost", he thought this highly unlikely. Similarly, in 1695, Sir Thomas Molyneux published an account of enormous antlers found in Ireland that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area. Molyneux reasoned that they came from
548-415: A species or a population is the variety of genetic information in its living members. A large gene pool (extensive genetic diversity ) is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection . Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks ) reduces the range of adaptions possible. Replacing native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within
685-436: A viable population for species preservation and possible future reintroduction to the wild, through use of carefully planned breeding programs . The extinction of one species' wild population can have knock-on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called "chains of extinction". This is especially common with extinction of keystone species . A 2018 study indicated that the sixth mass extinction started in
822-479: A Lazarus species when extant individuals were described in 2019. Attenborough's long-beaked echidna ( Zaglossus attenboroughi ) is an example of a Lazarus species from Papua New Guinea that had last been sighted in 1962 and believed to be possibly extinct, until it was recorded again in November 2023. Some species currently thought to be extinct have had continued speculation that they may still exist, and in
959-503: A cascade of coextinction across the trophic levels . Such effects are most severe in mutualistic and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the Haast's eagle and the moa : the Haast's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast's eagle. Extinction as
1096-776: A chamber opera about the Rocky Mountain locust named Locust: The Opera premiered in Wyoming, USA. The libretto for the opera was written by professor and author Jeffrey Lockwood who adapted it from his book Locust: the Devastating Rise and Mysterious Disappearance of the Insect that Shaped the American Frontier. Extinct Extinction is the termination of a taxon by the death of its last member . A taxon may become functionally extinct before
1233-429: A common ancestor with modern horses. Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups. A Lazarus taxon or Lazarus species refers to instances where a species or taxon was thought to be extinct, but was later rediscovered. It can also refer to instances where large gaps in the fossil record of a taxon result in fossils reappearing much later, although the taxon may have ultimately become extinct at
1370-399: A fact that was accepted by most scientists. The primary debate focused on whether this turnover caused by extinction was gradual or abrupt in nature. Cuvier understood extinction to be the result of cataclysmic events that wipe out huge numbers of species, as opposed to the gradual decline of a species over time. His catastrophic view of the nature of extinction garnered him many opponents in
1507-496: A few preserved remains have been found in Knife Point Glacier , Wyoming and Grasshopper Glacier , Montana ). Rocky Mountain locusts were a part of the diet of the critically endangered or possibly extinct Eskimo curlew ( Numenius borealis ) on its spring migration and the extinction of the locust has been speculated as being a factor in the decline of the curlew. The species name was formally published with
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#17327660788261644-406: A form of grasshopper that appear when grasshopper populations reach high densities, it was theorized that M. spretus might not be extinct, that "solitary phase" individuals of a migratory grasshopper might be able to turn into the Rocky Mountain locust given the right environmental conditions; however, breeding experiments using many grasshopper species in high-density environments failed to invoke
1781-500: A higher overall number. Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. The religious affiliations of the people of Nebraska are predominantly Christian, according to a 2014 survey by the Pew Research Center. At the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute survey, 73% of the population identified as Christian. At
1918-708: A higher risk of extinction and die out faster than less sexually dimorphic species, the least sexually dimorphic species surviving for millions of years while the most sexually dimorphic species die out within mere thousands of years. Earlier studies based on counting the number of currently living species in modern taxa have shown a higher number of species in more sexually dimorphic taxa which have been interpreted as higher survival in taxa with more sexual selection, but such studies of modern species only measure indirect effects of extinction and are subject to error sources such as dying and doomed taxa speciating more due to splitting of habitat ranges into more small isolated groups during
2055-405: A large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons. Pinpointing the extinction (or pseudoextinction ) of a species requires a clear definition of that species . If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species, and from any other closely related species. Extinction of
2192-607: A later point. The coelacanth , a fish related to lungfish and tetrapods , is an example of a Lazarus taxon that was known only from the fossil record and was considered to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous Period . In 1938, however, a living specimen was found off the Chalumna River (now Tyolomnqa) on the east coast of South Africa. Calliostoma bullatum , a species of deepwater sea snail originally described from fossils in 1844 proved to be
2329-604: A long history of civil rights activism. Blacks encountered discrimination from other Americans in Omaha and especially from recent European immigrants who were also competing for the same jobs as well. During the early 20th century, In 1912, African Americans founded the Omaha chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People to work for improved conditions in the city and state. During
2466-594: A mathematical model that falls in all positions. By contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. When concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in Sir Martin Rees ' 2003 book Our Final Hour , those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster. Human-driven extinction started as humans migrated out of Africa more than 60,000 years ago. Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with
2603-456: A natural part of the evolutionary process. Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions . Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100. A 2018 report indicated that the phylogenetic diversity of 300 mammalian species erased during
2740-441: A new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established,
2877-528: A percentage of the total population) in the nation. Nebraska is also home to the largest Polish American population in the Great Plains. German Americans are the largest ancestry group in most of the state, particularly in the eastern counties. Thurston County (made up entirely of the Omaha and Winnebago reservations) has an American Indian majority, and Butler County is one of only two counties in
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#17327660788263014-635: A point formed by its intersection with the forty-third degree of north latitude [the Western border, which is the Panhandle]; thence east along said forty-third degree of north latitude to the Keya Paha river; thence down the middle of the channel of said river, with its meanderings, to its junction with the Niobrara River; thence down the middle of the channel of said Niobrara River, and following
3151-551: A point formed by its intersection with the twenty-fifth degree of longitude west from Washington [the Southern border]; thence north along said twenty-fifth degree of longitude, to a point formed by its intersection with the forty-first degree of north latitude; thence west along said forty-first degree of north latitude to a point formed by its intersection with the twenty-seventh degree of longitude west from Washington; thence north along said twenty-seventh degree of west longitude, to
3288-610: A population a higher chance in the short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species. Population bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make inbreeding more frequent. Extinction sometimes results for species evolved to specific ecologies that are subjected to genetic pollution —i.e., uncontrolled hybridization , introgression and genetic swamping that lead to homogenization or out-competition from
3425-428: A population of fewer than 1,000. Regional population declines have forced many rural schools to consolidate. Fifty-three of Nebraska's 93 counties reported declining populations between 1990 and 2000, ranging from a 0.06% loss ( Frontier County ) to a 17.04% loss ( Hitchcock County ). More urbanized areas of the state have experienced substantial growth. In 2000, the city of Omaha had a population of 390,007; in 2005,
3562-467: A problem in the 19th century, as farming expanded westward into the grasshoppers' favored habitat. Outbreaks of varying severity emerged in 1828, 1838, 1846, and 1855, affecting areas throughout the West. Plagues visited Minnesota in 1856–1857 and again in 1865, and Nebraska suffered repeated infestations between 1856 and 1874. The last major swarms of Rocky Mountain locust were between 1873 and 1877, when
3699-407: A race of animals to become extinct. A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, Robert Hooke presented an impression of
3836-502: A reduction in agricultural productivity. Furthermore, increased erosion contributes to poorer water quality by elevating the levels of sediment and pollutants in rivers and streams. Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness. Habitat degradation can also take
3973-529: A reference number. Metropolitan Class City (300,000 or more) Primary Class City (100,000–299,999) First Class City (5,000–99,999) Second Class Cities (800–4,999) and Villages (100–800) make up the rest of the communities in Nebraska. There are 116 second-class cities and 382 villages in the state. Metropolitan areas 2017 estimate data Micropolitan areas 2012 estimate data Other areas The 2020 United States Census reported that
4110-499: A result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , 305 million years ago. A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15–37% of land species would be "committed to extinction" by 2050. The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer
4247-479: A species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge . In ecology , extinction is sometimes used informally to refer to local extinction , in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, despite still existing elsewhere. Local extinctions may be made good by the reintroduction of individuals of that species taken from other locations; wolf reintroduction
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4384-439: A species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt . Assessing
4521-404: A species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique", write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns , "so is each extinction ... the causes for each are varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple". Most simply, any species that cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of
4658-518: A subsequent report, IPBES listed unsustainable fishing, hunting and logging as being some of the primary drivers of the global extinction crisis. In June 2019, one million species of plants and animals were at risk of extinction. At least 571 plant species have been lost since 1750, but likely many more. The main cause of the extinctions is the destruction of natural habitats by human activities, such as cutting down forests and converting land into fields for farming. A dagger symbol (†) placed next to
4795-544: A type of plow device pulled behind horses that had a shield that knocked jumping locusts into a pan of liquid poison or fuel, even sucking them into vacuum cleaner –like contraptions, but all of these were ultimately ineffective in stopping the hordes. Charles Valentine Riley , a Missouri entomologist , came up with a recipe for locusts seasoned with salt and pepper and pan-fried in butter. The recipe sold, but some stated that they "would just as soon starve as eat those horrible creatures." Farmers finally responded in force to
4932-523: Is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as Olson's Extinction . The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (K–Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period; it is best known for having wiped out non-avian dinosaurs , among many other species. According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York 's American Museum of Natural History , nearly 70% believed that
5069-444: Is an example of this. Species that are not globally extinct are termed extant . Those species that are extant, yet are threatened with extinction, are referred to as threatened or endangered species . Currently, an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species. These are reflected by the creation of the conservation status "extinct in the wild" (EW) . Species listed under this status by
5206-585: Is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct Hyracotherium , which was an early horse that shares a common ancestor with the modern horse , is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of Equus , including zebra and donkey ; however, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, one cannot say whether Hyracotherium evolved into more modern horse species or merely evolved from
5343-417: Is estimated as 100 to 1,000 times "background" rates (the average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of planet Earth), faster than at any other time in human history, while future rates are likely 10,000 times higher. However, some groups are going extinct much faster. Biologists Paul R. Ehrlich and Stuart Pimm , among others, contend that human population growth and overconsumption are
5480-414: Is estimated that there are currently around 8.7 million species of eukaryotes globally, and possibly many times more if microorganisms , like bacteria , are included. Notable extinct animal species include non-avian dinosaurs , saber-toothed cats , dodos , mammoths , ground sloths , thylacines , trilobites , golden toads , and passenger pigeons . Through evolution , species arise through
5617-559: Is not winner-take-all. Nebraska is composed of two major land regions: the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains . The Dissected Till Plains region consists of gently rolling hills and contains the state's largest cities, Omaha and Lincoln. The Great Plains region, occupying most of western Nebraska, is characterized by treeless prairie . Eastern Nebraska has a humid continental climate while western Nebraska
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5754-542: Is on the Missouri River . Nebraska was admitted into the United States in 1867, two years after the end of the American Civil War . The Nebraska Legislature is unlike any other American legislature in that it is unicameral , and its members are elected without any official reference to political party affiliation . Nebraska is one of only two states that divide electoral college votes by district, and
5891-442: Is primarily semi-arid . The state has wide variations between winter and summer temperatures; the variations decrease in southern Nebraska. Violent thunderstorms and tornadoes occur primarily during spring and summer, and sometimes in autumn. The Chinook wind tends to warm the state significantly in the winter and early spring. Indigenous peoples, including Omaha , Missouria , Ponca , Pawnee , Otoe , and various branches of
6028-592: Is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling . Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. In
6165-525: Is the most important determinant of genus extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as mass extinction arises. Limited geographic range is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental catastrophes. Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that affects evolvability , including balancing selection , cryptic genetic variation , phenotypic plasticity , and robustness . A diverse or deep gene pool gives
6302-485: Is traditionally known in Southern Germany as one of the protectors of farmers from thunderstorms and plagues of vermin, on September 6 was locally celebrated as "Grasshopper Day". The 1877 pilgrimage chapel dedicated to St. Boniface in nearby St. Augusta, Minnesota dates from the same era and was built for exactly the same reason. There is a similar local tradition of pilgrimages to the shrine on June 5th,
6439-476: The Midwestern United States . Residents in Nebraska had passed an initiative in 1934, then the first session in the unicameral was held in 1937. Kay Orr was elected Nebraska's first female governor on November 4, 1986. The state is bordered by South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, across the Missouri River ; Kansas to the south; Colorado to
6576-757: The Feast Day of St. Boniface , an English Benedictine missionary, Bishop, and martyr instrumental to the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples ; and who is still revered as the "Apostle to the Germans ", Patron Saint of the Germanosphere and the German diaspora . A fictionalized description of the devastation created by Rocky Mountain locusts in the 1870s can be found in the 1937 novel On
6713-482: The Homestead Act , thousands of settlers migrated into Nebraska to claim free land granted by the federal government. Because so few trees grew on the prairies , many of the first farming settlers built their homes of sod , as had Native Americans such as the Omaha. The first wave of settlement gave the territory a sufficient population to apply for statehood. Nebraska became the 37th state on March 1, 1867, and
6850-483: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild and are maintained only in zoos or other artificial environments. Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild. When possible, modern zoological institutions try to maintain
6987-651: The Lakota ( Sioux ) tribes, lived in the region for thousands of years before European discovery and exploration . The state is crossed by many historic trails, including that of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad through Nebraska and passage of the Homestead Acts led to rapid growth in the population of American settlers in the 1870s and 1880s and
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#17327660788267124-485: The Late Pleistocene could take up to 5 to 7 million years to restore mammal diversity to what it was before the human era. Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still extant is called pseudoextinction or phyletic extinction. Effectively, the old taxon vanishes, transformed ( anagenesis ) into a successor, or split into more than one ( cladogenesis ). Pseudoextinction
7261-399: The Missouri River ; Kansas to the south; Colorado to the southwest; and Wyoming to the west. Nebraska is the 16th-largest state by land area , with just over 77,220 square miles (200,000 km ). With a population of over 1.9 million, it is the 38th-most populous state and the eighth-least densely populated . Its capital is Lincoln , and its most populous city is Omaha , which
7398-678: The Niobrara River flows through the northern part, and the Republican River runs across the southern part. The first Constitution of Nebraska in 1866 described Nebraska's boundaries as follows (The description of the Northern border is no longer accurate, since the Keya Paha River and the Niobrara River no longer form the boundary of the state of Nebraska. Instead, Nebraska's Northern border now extends east along
7535-465: The Omaha Race Riots in 1919 , many white rioters protested throughout Omaha due to there being an incident in which a black man was accused of sexually assaulting a white women. The Great Depression also had greatly affected the residents of Nebraska at the time. From 1930 to 1936 the dust bowl was common in the state due to there being a drought, wind, and dirt being dug up throughout all of
7672-499: The Rocky Mountains provide a temporary moderating effect on temperatures in the state's western portion during the winter. Thus, average January maximum temperatures are highest at around 43 °F or 6.1 °C in southwestern Dundy County , and lowest at about 30 °F or −1.1 °C around South Sioux City in the northeast. Average annual precipitation decreases east to west from about 31.5 inches (800 mm) in
7809-476: The United Methodist Church (109,283). Nebraska has a progressive income tax . The portion of income from $ 0 to $ 2,400 is taxed at 2.56%; from $ 2,400 to $ 17,500, at 3.57%; from $ 17,500 to $ 27,000, at 5.12%; and income over $ 27,000, at 6.84%. The standard deduction for a single taxpayer is $ 5,700; the personal exemption is $ 118. Nebraska has a state sales and use tax of 5.5%. In addition to
7946-595: The Wildcat Hills . Panorama Point , at 5,424 feet (1,653 m), is Nebraska's highest point; though despite its name and elevation, it is a relatively low rise near the Colorado and Wyoming borders. A past tourism slogan for the state of Nebraska was "Where the West Begins" (it has since been changed to "Honestly, it's not for everyone"). Locations given for the beginning of the "West" in Nebraska include
8083-410: The slender-billed curlew ( Numenius tenuirostris ), not seen since 2007. As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa. A variety of causes can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of
8220-488: The strata of the Paris basin. They saw alternating saltwater and freshwater deposits, as well as patterns of the appearance and disappearance of fossils throughout the record. From these patterns, Cuvier inferred historic cycles of catastrophic flooding, extinction, and repopulation of the earth with new species. Cuvier's fossil evidence showed that very different life forms existed in the past than those that exist today,
8357-494: The 1690s, Spain established trade connections with the Apache , whose territory then included western Nebraska. By 1703, France had developed a regular trade with native peoples along the Missouri River in Nebraska, and by 1719 had signed treaties with several of these peoples. After war broke out between the two countries, Spain dispatched an armed expedition to Nebraska under Lieutenant General Pedro de Villasur in 1720. The party
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#17327660788268494-639: The 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only 6 were "partially achieved" by the deadline of 2020. The report warned that biodiversity will continue to decline if the status quo is not changed, in particular the "currently unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, population growth and technological developments". In a 2021 report published in the journal Frontiers in Conservation Science , some top scientists asserted that even if
8631-792: The 2014 Pew Research Center's survey, 20% of the population were religiously unaffiliated; in 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute determined 22% of the population became religiously unaffiliated. The largest single denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church (372,838), the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (112,585), the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (110,110) and
8768-456: The 2016 American Community Survey , 10.2% of Nebraska's population were of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race): Mexican (7.8%), Puerto Rican (0.2%), Cuban (0.2%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (2.0%). The largest ancestry groups were: German (36.1%), Irish (13.1%), English (7.8%), Czech (4.7%), Swedish (4.3%), and Polish (3.5%). Nebraska has the largest Czech American and non-Mormon Danish American population (as
8905-451: The Aichi Biodiversity Targets set for 2020 had been achieved, it would not have resulted in a significant mitigation of biodiversity loss. They added that failure of the global community to reach these targets is hardly surprising given that biodiversity loss is "nowhere close to the top of any country's priorities, trailing far behind other concerns such as employment, healthcare, economic growth, or currency stability." For much of history,
9042-581: The Banks of Plum Creek by Laura Ingalls Wilder . Her description was based on actual incidents in western Minnesota during the summers of 1874 and 1875 as the locusts destroyed her family's wheat crop. Another vivid portrayal of the depredations of the locust can be found in Ole Edvart Rølvaag 's Giants in the Earth , based in part on his own experiences and those of his wife's family. In 2018,
9179-566: The Earth is currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction, known as the Holocene extinction . In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20% of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of Science declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human-driven mass species extinctions. A 2020 study published in PNAS stated that
9316-475: The Latin binomial Caloptenus spretus in 1866 by B.D. Walsh as named by "Mr. Uhler , without describing it," adding that "The name 'spretus' means 'despised', and refers apparently to its having been hitherto despised or overlooked by Entomologists". Walsh does not provide a description of the species, except for female wing length, as well as some aspects of biology, ecology, and control. Some entomologists credit
9453-712: The Missouri River, the intersection of 13th and O Streets in Lincoln (where it is marked by a red brick star), the 100th meridian , and Chimney Rock . Areas under the management of the National Park Service include: Areas under the management of the National Forest Service include: Two major climatic zones are represented in Nebraska. The eastern two-thirds of the state has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ), although
9590-584: The North American moose and that the animal had once been common on the British Isles . Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe. The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct deer Megaloceros . Hooke and Molyneux's line of thinking
9727-522: The Paris basin, could be formed by a slow rise and fall of sea levels . The concept of extinction was integral to Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species , with less fit lineages disappearing over time. For Darwin, extinction was a constant side effect of competition . Because of the wide reach of On the Origin of Species , it was widely accepted that extinction occurred gradually and evenly (a concept now referred to as background extinction ). It
9864-522: The United States government, to force the removal of Native Americans , many of whom relied on the bison for food. Nebraska Nebraska ( / n ə ˈ b r æ s k ə / nə- BRASS -kə ) is a landlocked state in the Midwestern region of the United States . It borders South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, both across
10001-520: The United States illegally as children (also known as Dreamers). The state legislature lifted the ban in December 2016. Mexico , India , China , Guatemala , and El Salvador are top countries of origin for Nebraska's immigrants. As of 2011, 31.0% of Nebraska's population younger than age one were minorities. Note: For 2013–2015, births in table don't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving
10138-429: The accumulation of slightly deleterious mutations , then a population will go extinct. Smaller populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to fix in small populations; the resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can cause mutational meltdown . Limited geographic range
10275-459: The area of California ), weighing 27.5 million tons and consisting of some 12.5 trillion insects, the greatest concentration of animals ever speculatively guessed, according to Guinness World Records . Less than 30 years later, the species was apparently extinct. The last recorded sighting of a live specimen was in 1902 in southern Canada. As a creature so ubiquitous was not expected to become extinct, very few specimens were ever collected (though
10412-535: The authority for the binomial Caloptenus spretus to C. Thomas , but fails on the Principle of Priority . The treatment under the genus Melanoplus began in 1878 in publications by S. H. Scudder who pointed out the difference between the genus Caloptenus that he noted as being more correctly spelled Calliptenus and Melanoplus . The species is reported to have descended from the Rocky Mountains to
10549-539: The capital was moved from Omaha to the center at Lancaster, later renamed Lincoln after the recently assassinated President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln . The battle of Massacre Canyon , on August 5, 1873, was the last major battle between the Pawnee and the Sioux . During the 1870s to the 1880s, Nebraska experienced a large growth in population. Several factors contributed to attracting new residents. The first
10686-568: The city's estimated population was 414,521 (427,872 including the recently annexed city of Elkhorn ), a 6.3% increase over five years. The 2010 census showed that Omaha has a population of 408,958. The city of Lincoln had a 2000 population of 225,581 and a 2010 population of 258,379, a 14.5% increase. As of the 2010 census, there were 530 cities and villages in the state of Nebraska. There are five classifications of cities and villages in Nebraska, which are based upon population. All population figures are 2017 Census Bureau estimates unless flagged by
10823-600: The consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar , Hawaii (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted from
10960-418: The contemporary extinction crisis "may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it is irreversible." Biologist E. O. Wilson estimated in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one-half of all plant and animal species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years. More significantly, the current rate of global species extinctions
11097-487: The conversion of its grassland habitat to agriculture . Assumption Chapel in Cold Spring, Minnesota , was established as a Christian pilgrimage shrine ( German : Wallfahrtsort ) ( German : Gnadenkapelle ) in 1877 by German-American Catholic pioneer farmers, supposedly to keep away future locust plagues similar to those they had faced in both the 1850s and the 1870s. The Feast Day of St. Magnus of Füssen , who
11234-483: The current states of Colorado , North Dakota , South Dakota , Wyoming , and Montana . The territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha . Late 19th century In the 1860s, after the U.S. government forced many of the American Indian tribes to cede their lands and settle on reservations , it opened large tracts of land to agricultural development by European immigrants and American settlers . Under
11371-541: The death of its last member if it loses the capacity to reproduce and recover. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa , where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record ) after a period of apparent absence. More than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth , amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to have died out. It
11508-476: The deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous viruses , and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to poaching or because they were "undesirable", or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the American bison , which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by
11645-555: The development of a large agriculture sector for which the state is known to this day. Nebraska's name is the result of anglicization of the archaic Otoe Ñí Brásge (contemporary Otoe: Ñíbrahge ; pronounced [ɲĩbɾasꜜkɛ] ), or the Omaha Ní Btháska , (pronounced [nĩbɫᶞasꜜka] ), meaning "flat water", after the Platte River which flows through the state. Indigenous peoples lived in
11782-635: The early summer, before locusts were able to migrate. These new agricultural practices effectively reduced the threat of locusts and greatly contributed to the species' downfall. It has been hypothesized that plowing and irrigation by settlers as well as trampling by cattle and other farm animals near streams and rivers in the Rocky Mountains destroyed their eggs in the areas they permanently lived, which ultimately caused their demise. For example, reports from this era suggest that farmers killed over 150 egg cases per square inch while plowing, harrowing or flooding. It appeared that this species lived and reproduced in
11919-403: The endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the abundant domestic water buffalo ). Such extinctions are not always apparent from morphological (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionary process; nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare species' existence. The gene pool of
12056-591: The event of rediscovery would be considered Lazarus species. Examples include the thylacine , or Tasmanian tiger ( Thylacinus cynocephalus ), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the Japanese wolf ( Canis lupus hodophilax ), last sighted over 100 years ago; the American ivory-billed woodpecker ( Campephilus principalis ), with the last universally accepted sighting in 1944; and
12193-443: The extinction crisis. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define "recent" extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004. If adaptation increasing population fitness is slower than environmental degradation plus
12330-475: The extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting , pollution , habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species (such as new predators and food competitors ), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human population growth and increasing per capita consumption are essential drivers of
12467-520: The famous insect. The status of M. spretus as a distinct species was confirmed by a 2004 DNA analysis of North American species of the genus Melanoplus . Melanoplus spretus was formally declared extinct by the IUCN in 2014. It has been suggested that the now critically endangered Eskimo curlew fed on the locust during its spring migration and that its extinction may have added to the pressures on already declining curlew populations including hunting and
12604-540: The field of zoology , and biology in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the Worldwide Fund for Nature , have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. Governments have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and pollution . While many human-caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in
12741-739: The first U.S. Army post west of the Missouri River, just east of present-day Fort Calhoun . The army abandoned the fort in 1827 as migration moved further west. European-American settlement was scarce until 1848 and the California Gold Rush . On May 30, 1854, the U.S. Congress created the Kansas and the Nebraska territories, divided by the Parallel 40° North , under the Kansas–Nebraska Act . The Nebraska Territory included parts of
12878-435: The form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example
13015-468: The forty-third degree of north latitude until it meets the Missouri River directly.): The State of Nebraska shall consist of all the territory included within the following boundaries, to-wit: Commencing at a point formed by the intersection of the western boundary of the State of Missouri, with the fortieth degree of north latitude; extending thence due west along said fortieth degree of north latitude, to
13152-419: The grass and valuable crops, but also leather, wood, sheep's wool, and—in extreme cases—even clothes off peoples' backs. Trains were sometimes brought to a halt after skidding over large numbers of locusts run over on the rails. As the swarms worsened, farmers attempted to control them using gunpowder , fires (sometimes dug in trenches to burn as many of the locusts as possible), smearing them with "hopperdozers",
13289-580: The habitat retreat of taxa approaching extinction. Possible causes of the higher extinction risk in species with more sexual selection shown by the comprehensive fossil studies that rule out such error sources include expensive sexually selected ornaments having negative effects on the ability to survive natural selection , as well as sexual selection removing a diversity of genes that under current ecological conditions are neutral for natural selection but some of which may be important for surviving climate change. There have been at least five mass extinctions in
13426-676: The heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region and the Caribbean Basin . These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species. Climate change has also been found to be a factor in habitat loss and desertification . Studies of fossils following species from the time they evolved to their extinction show that species with high sexual dimorphism , especially characteristics in males that are used to compete for mating, are at
13563-447: The history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event that released large quantities of tephra particles into the atmosphere is considered to be one likely cause of the " Permian–Triassic extinction event " about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species then existing. There
13700-475: The human era since the Late Pleistocene would require 5 to 7 million years to recover. According to the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES , the biomass of wild mammals has fallen by 82%, natural ecosystems have lost about half their area and a million species are at risk of extinction—all largely as a result of human actions. Twenty-five percent of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction. In
13837-431: The introduced ( or hybrid ) species. Endemic populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is likeliest for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones; interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example,
13974-439: The locust caused $ 200 million in crop damage in Colorado , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Nebraska and other states. One farmer reported that the locusts seemed "like a great, white glistening cloud, for their wings caught the sunshine on them and made them look like a cloud of white vapor" while another described the experience as "a big snowstorm, where the air was filled with enormous-size flakes.” The locusts ate not only
14111-488: The main drivers of the modern extinction crisis. In January 2020, the UN's Convention on Biological Diversity drafted a plan to mitigate the contemporary extinction crisis by establishing a deadline of 2030 to protect 30% of the Earth's land and oceans and reduce pollution by 50%, with the goal of allowing for the restoration of ecosystems by 2050. The 2020 United Nations ' Global Biodiversity Outlook report stated that of
14248-521: The meanderings thereof to its junction with the Missouri River [the Northern border]; thence down the middle of the channel of said Missouri River, and following the meanderings thereof to the place of beginning [the Eastern border, which is the Missouri River]. Nebraska is composed of two major land regions: the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains . The easternmost portion of the state
14385-421: The modern understanding of extinction as the end of a species was incompatible with the prevailing worldview. Prior to the 19th century, much of Western society adhered to the belief that the world was created by God and as such was complete and perfect. This concept reached its heyday in the 1700s with the peak popularity of a theological concept called the great chain of being , in which all life on earth, from
14522-490: The name of a species or other taxon normally indicates its status as extinct. Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct include: A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over
14659-444: The nation with a Czech-American plurality. In recent years, Nebraska has become home to many refugee communities. In 2016, it welcomed more refugees per capita than any other state. Nebraska, and in particular Lincoln, is the largest home of Yazidis refugees and Yazidi Americans in the United States. Notably, Nebraska was the last of all 50 states to maintain a ban on the issuance of driver's licenses to adults who had entered
14796-476: The native peoples of Nebraska. Spain dispatched two trading expeditions up the Missouri River in 1794 and 1795; the second, under James Mackay, established the first European settlement in Nebraska near the mouth of the Platte River. Later that year, Mackay's party built a trading post, dubbed Fort Carlos IV (Fort Charles), near present-day Homer . In 1819, the United States established Fort Atkinson as
14933-469: The natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition , inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as
15070-410: The newly emerging school of uniformitarianism . Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , a gradualist and colleague of Cuvier, saw the fossils of different life forms as evidence of the mutable character of species. While Lamarck did not deny the possibility of extinction, he believed that it was exceptional and rare and that most of the change in species over time was due to gradual change. Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck
15207-399: The original population, thereby increasing the chance of extinction. Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl , logging, mining, and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that
15344-496: The placement in the genus Melanoplus and the distinctiveness as a species (i.e., not a migratory form of an extant species). It also identified the closest living relative as Melanoplus bruneri rather than M. sanguinipes as had been earlier surmised. The Rocky Mountain locust occurred along both sides of the Rocky Mountains and in most of the prairie areas. Breeding in sandy areas and thriving in hot and dry conditions, it has been hypothesized that they may have depended on
15481-486: The population of Nebraska was 1,961,504 on April 1, 2020, a 7.4% increase since the 2010 United States census . The center of population of Nebraska is in Polk County , in the city of Shelby . According to HUD 's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report , there were an estimated 2,246 homeless people in Nebraska . The table below shows the racial composition of Nebraska's population as of 2022. According to
15618-565: The prairie in large numbers only in certain years, particularly in dry seasons, following westward wind currents. Outbreaks usually lasted two consecutive years. Although a great number of eggs were laid on the prairie during outbreak years, individuals hatched from these eggs usually did not thrive, a condition that has been attributed to the lack of adaptation of this species to prairie habitats. A 2004 molecular phylogenetic study that used mitochondrial DNA from specimens obtained from museums and fragments preserved in frozen glacial deposits confirms
15755-524: The prairie only temporarily during swarming years, with each generation being smaller than the previous one and swarming ever further from the Rocky Mountains, while the permanent breeding grounds of this species seemed to be restricted to an area somewhere between 3 and 3,000 square miles (7.8 and 7,770.0 square kilometres) of sandy soils near streams and rivers in the Rockies, which coincided with arable and pastoral lands exploited by settlers. As locusts are
15892-702: The process of speciation —where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche —and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition . The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils , survive with little to no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years. Mass extinctions are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions of species and clades are quite common, and are
16029-406: The region of present-day Nebraska for thousands of years before European colonization . The historic tribes in the state included the Omaha , Missouria , Ponca , Pawnee , Otoe , and various branches of the Lakota ( Sioux ), some of which migrated from eastern areas into the region. When European exploration, trade, and settlement began, both Spain and France sought to control the region. In
16166-410: The relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture . The question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by competition or by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of Modeling Extinction , argues for
16303-533: The southeast corner of the state to about 13.8 inches (350 mm) in the Panhandle. Humidity also decreases significantly from east to west. Snowfall across the state is fairly even, with most of Nebraska receiving between 25 and 35 inches (0.64 and 0.89 m) of snow each year. Nebraska's highest-recorded temperature was 118 °F (48 °C) in Minden on July 24, 1936. The state's lowest-recorded temperature
16440-638: The southwest of this region may be classed as a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) using the −3 °C or 26.6 °F near the Kansas state line, analogous to the predominantly humid subtropical climate of Kansas and Oklahoma . Western Nebraska, including The Panhandle and adjacent areas bordering Colorado have a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk ). The entire state experiences wide seasonal variations in both temperature and precipitation. Average temperatures are fairly uniform across Nebraska, with hot summers and generally cold winters. However, chinook winds from
16577-644: The southwest; and Wyoming to the west. The state has 93 counties and is split between two time zones , with the majority of the state observing Central Time and the Panhandle and surrounding counties observing Mountain Time . Three rivers cross the state from west to east. The Platte River , formed by the confluence of the North Platte and the South Platte , runs through the state's central portion,
16714-460: The species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic , or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species. Habitat destruction, particularly the removal of vegetation that stabilizes soil, enhances erosion and diminishes nutrient availability in terrestrial ecosystems. This degradation can lead to
16851-418: The state tax, some Nebraska cities assess a city sales and use tax, in 0.5% increments, up to a maximum of 1.5%. Dakota County levies an additional 0.5% county sales tax. Food and ingredients that are generally for home preparation and consumption are not taxable. All real property within the state of Nebraska is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. Since 1992, only depreciable personal property
16988-430: The sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its pollinator , or to predators in
17125-855: The swarm's destruction; an 1877 Nebraska law said that anyone between the ages of 16 and 60 had to work at least two days eliminating locusts at hatching time or face a $ 10 fine. That same year Missouri offered a bounty of $ 1 a bushel for locusts collected in March, 50 cents a bushel in April, 25 cents in May, and 10 cents in June. Other Great Plains states made similar bounty offers. In the 1880s, farmers had recovered sufficiently from their locust woes to be able to send carloads of corn to flood victims in Ohio . They also switched to such resilient crops as winter wheat, which matured in
17262-627: The tall grass prairie plants during drier spells. The destruction of the prairie habitat and the incursion of new flora and fauna along with agricultural practices may have led to the extinction of the species. Large numbers of grasshoppers including a large number of Rocky Mountain locusts entombed in the ice in the Rocky Mountains gave their name to the Grasshopper Glacier . Rocky Mountain locusts caused farm damage in Maine from 1743 to 1756 and Vermont in 1797–1798. The locusts became more of
17399-412: The tiniest microorganism to God, is linked in a continuous chain. The extinction of a species was impossible under this model, as it would create gaps or missing links in the chain and destroy the natural order. Thomas Jefferson was a firm supporter of the great chain of being and an opponent of extinction, famously denying the extinction of the woolly mammoth on the grounds that nature never allows
17536-567: The total extinction of the dodo and the extirpation of indigenous horses to the British Isles. He similarly argued against mass extinctions , believing that any extinction must be a gradual process. Lyell also showed that Cuvier's original interpretation of the Parisian strata was incorrect. Instead of the catastrophic floods inferred by Cuvier, Lyell demonstrated that patterns of saltwater and freshwater deposits , like those seen in
17673-581: The wider scientific community of his theory. Cuvier was a well-regarded geologist, lauded for his ability to reconstruct the anatomy of an unknown species from a few fragments of bone. His primary evidence for extinction came from mammoth skulls found in the Paris basin . Cuvier recognized them as distinct from any known living species of elephant, and argued that it was highly unlikely such an enormous animal would go undiscovered. In 1812, Cuvier, along with Alexandre Brongniart and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire , mapped
17810-714: Was attacked and destroyed near present-day Columbus by a large force of Pawnee and Otoe, both allied with the French. The massacre ended Spanish exploration of the area for the remainder of the 18th century. In 1762, during the Seven Years' War , France ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain. This left Britain and Spain competing for dominance along the Mississippi River; by 1773, the British were trading with
17947-491: Was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply "hiding" in unexplored regions of the Earth. Georges Cuvier is credited with establishing the modern conception of extinction in a 1796 lecture to the French Institute , though he would spend most of his career trying to convince
18084-621: Was founded in Nebraska City by territorial governor J. Sterling Morton . The National Arbor Day Foundation is still headquartered in Nebraska City , with some offices in Lincoln. In the late 19th century, African Americans migrated from the South to Nebraska as part of the Great Migration . Eventually, they lived primarily to Omaha which offered working-class jobs in meat packing , the railroads and other industries. Omaha has
18221-430: Was not until 1982, when David Raup and Jack Sepkoski published their seminal paper on mass extinctions, that Cuvier was vindicated and catastrophic extinction was accepted as an important mechanism . The current understanding of extinction is a synthesis of the cataclysmic extinction events proposed by Cuvier, and the background extinction events proposed by Lyell and Darwin. Extinction is an important research topic in
18358-726: Was scoured by Ice Age glaciers ; the Dissected Till Plains were left after the glaciers retreated. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of gently rolling hills; Omaha and Lincoln are in this region. The Great Plains occupy most of western Nebraska, with the region consisting of several smaller, diverse land regions, including the Sandhills , the Pine Ridge , the Rainwater Basin , the High Plains and
18495-571: Was skeptical that catastrophic events of a scale large enough to cause total extinction were possible. In his geological history of the earth titled Hydrogeologie, Lamarck instead argued that the surface of the earth was shaped by gradual erosion and deposition by water, and that species changed over time in response to the changing environment. Charles Lyell , a noted geologist and founder of uniformitarianism , believed that past processes should be understood using present day processes. Like Lamarck, Lyell acknowledged that extinction could occur, noting
18632-473: Was that the vast prairie land was perfect for cattle grazing. This helped settlers to learn the unfamiliar geography of the area. The second factor was the invention of several farming technologies. New agricultural innovations such as barbed wire, windmills, and the steel plow, combined with fair weather, enabled settlers to transform Nebraska into prime farming land. By the 1880s, Nebraska's population had soared to more than 450,000 people. The Arbor Day holiday
18769-680: Was −47 °F (−44 °C) in Camp Clarke on February 12, 1899. Nebraska is located in Tornado Alley . Thunderstorms are common during both the spring and the summer. Violent thunderstorms and tornadoes happen primarily during those two seasons, although they also can occur occasionally during the autumn. Eighty-nine percent of the cities in Nebraska have fewer than 3,000 people. Nebraska shares this characteristic with five other Midwestern states: Kansas , Oklahoma , North Dakota and South Dakota , and Iowa . Hundreds of towns have
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