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133-546: The Pitches' repertoire is based in jazz standards and inspired by artists such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra . Songs in their repertoire include: " Whatever Lola Wants ", " It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing) ", and " My Funny Valentine ". The Pitches also perform jazz twists to popular songs, for example; an arrangement of American Boy by Estelle which they performed in Sanders Theatre Spring 2015 at their 40th Anniversary Jam. All of

266-531: A country and western -influenced album, and 30 by Ella , a series of six medleys that fulfilled her obligations for the label. During this period, she had her last US chart single with a cover of Smokey Robinson 's " Get Ready ", previously a hit for the Temptations , and some months later a top-five hit for Rare Earth . The surprise success of the 1972 album Jazz at Santa Monica Civic '72 led Granz to found Pablo Records , his first record label since

399-601: A European/indigenous mix like in other Latin American countries, while Indio describes people of skin tones between white and black and has nothing to do with native peoples. Representing 73.9% of the Dominican Republic 's population, they are by far the single largest racial grouping of the country. Mixed Dominicans are the descendants from the racial integration between the Europeans, Native Americans, and later

532-594: A Little Dream of Me ", " Cheek to Cheek ", " Into Each Life Some Rain Must Fall ", and " It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing) ". In 1993, after a career of nearly sixty years, she gave her last public performance. Three years later, she died at age 79 after years of declining health. Her accolades included 14 Grammy Awards , the National Medal of Arts , the NAACP 's inaugural President's Award , and

665-451: A Memorex cassette tape. The tape was played back and the recording also broke another glass, asking: "Is it live, or is it Memorex?" She also appeared in a number of commercials for Kentucky Fried Chicken , singing and scatting to the fast-food chain's longtime slogan: "We do chicken right!" Her last commercial campaign was for American Express , in which she was photographed by Annie Leibovitz . Ella Fitzgerald Just One of Those Things

798-428: A car accident. Fitzgerald's stepfather took care of her until April 1933 when she moved to Harlem to live with her aunt. This seemingly swift change in her circumstances, reinforced by what Fitzgerald biographer Stuart Nicholson describes as rumors of "ill treatment" by her stepfather, leaves him to speculate that Da Silva might have abused her. Fitzgerald began skipping school, and her grades suffered. She worked as

931-535: A division of negro troops of Faustin ran, and their commander, Gen. Garat, was killed. The main body, eighteen thousand troops, under the Emperor, encountered four hundred Dominicans with a field piece, and notwithstanding the disparity of force, the latter charged and caused the Haytiens to flee in every direction ... Faustin came very near falling into the enemy's hands. They were once within a few feet of him, and he

1064-413: A half years after she was born. In the early 1920s, Fitzgerald's mother and her new partner, a Portuguese immigrant named Joseph da Silva, moved to Yonkers, New York . Her half-sister, Frances da Silva, was born in 1923. By 1925, Fitzgerald and her family had moved to nearby School Street, a poor Italian area. She began her formal education at the age of six and was an outstanding student, moving through

1197-785: A lookout at a bordello and with a Mafia-affiliated numbers runner. She never talked publicly about this time in her life. When the authorities caught up with her, she was placed in the Colored Orphan Asylum in Riverdale in The Bronx . When the orphanage proved too crowded, she was moved to the New York Training School for Girls , a state reformatory school in Hudson, New York. While she seems to have survived during 1933 and 1934 in part by singing on

1330-534: A marked change in the way Puerto Ricans view themselves. This may show that Puerto Ricans are now more open to embracing all sides of their mixed-race heritage and do not view themselves as part of the standard race dynamic in the United States hence the high number of people identifying as "some other race", a similar phenomenon went on in the mainland United States with the overall US Hispanic/Latino population. Most have significant ancestry from two or more of

1463-438: A mix of mainly European and African, with lesser amounts of indigenous Taino, they can accurately be described as "Mulatto" or "Tri-racial" . Dominican Republic have several informal terms to loosely describe a person's degree of racial admixture, Mestizo means any type of mixed ancestry unlike in other Latin American countries it describes specifically a European/native mix, Indio describes mixed race people whose skin color

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1596-565: A mixed nature, of Spaniards and blackamoors) is so light, and their carriage so enticing, that many Spaniards even of the better sort (who are too too [sic] prone to venery) disdain their wives for them... Most of these are or have been slaves, though love have set them loose, at liberty to enslave souls to sin and Satan." In the late 18th century, some mixed-race persons sought legal "certificates of whiteness" ( cédulas de gracias al sacar ), in order to rise socially and practice professions. American-born Spaniards ( criollos ) sought to prevent

1729-562: A native blouse ( huipil ), sometimes silken, sometimes woolen. She wears shoes, and her natural and common language is not Spanish, but Chocho [an indigenous Mexican language], as she was brought up among Indians with her mother, from which she contracted the vice of drunkenness, to which she often succumbs, as Indians do, and from them she has also received the crime of [idolatry]." Community members were interrogated as to their understanding of her racial standing. Her mode of dress, very wavy hair and light skin confirmed for one witness that she

1862-452: A number of famous jazz musicians and soloists as sidemen over her long career. The trumpeters Roy Eldridge and Dizzy Gillespie, the guitarist Herb Ellis , and the pianists Tommy Flanagan, Oscar Peterson , Lou Levy , Paul Smith , Jimmy Rowles , and Ellis Larkins all worked with Fitzgerald mostly in live, small group settings. Fitzgerald had diabetes for several years of her later life, which led to numerous complications . Fitzgerald

1995-521: A one-off appearance alongside Sarah Vaughan and Pearl Bailey on a 1979 television special honoring Bailey. In 1980, she performed a medley of standards in a duet with Karen Carpenter on the Carpenters' television special Music, Music, Music . Fitzgerald also appeared in TV commercials, including an ad for Memorex . In the commercials, she sang a note that shattered a glass while being recorded on

2128-544: A result, they were stranded in Honolulu for three days before they could get another flight to Sydney. Although a contemporary Australian press report quoted an Australian Pan-Am spokesperson who denied that the incident was racially based, Fitzgerald, Henry, Lewis and Granz filed a civil suit for racial discrimination against Pan-Am in December 1954 and in a 1970 television interview Fitzgerald confirmed that they had won

2261-407: A sexual relationship with the master, or another male in the family, as a way of gaining distinction among the slaves, avoiding field work, and obtaining special jobs and other favored treatment for their mixed children (Reuter, 1970:129). Sexual contacts between the races also included prostitution, adventure, concubinage , and sometimes love. In rare instances, where free blacks were concerned, there

2394-491: A take-off of the rather negative phrase that had been used to describe Radcliffe women for ages. We actually liked the resemblance to that old adage, because we wanted to be known as a group that was gutsy, tough and high quality." The Pitches choose new group members through an audition process, held in the fall and spring of each academic year and open to all Harvard undergraduates. Ella Fitzgerald Ella Jane Fitzgerald (April 25, 1917 – June 15, 1996)

2527-567: A term for people of mixed backgrounds. Many mixed-race Brazilians have varying degrees of European, Amerindian and African ancestry. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics census 2006, some 42.6% of Brazilian identify as pardo , an increase over the 2000 census. Mulattoes account for up to 5% of Haiti 's population. In Haitian history , such mixed-race people, known in colonial times as free people of color, gained some education and property before

2660-636: A variety of schools before attending Benjamin Franklin Junior High School in 1929. She and her family were Methodists and were active in the Bethany African Methodist Episcopal Church , where she attended worship services, Bible study , and Sunday school. The church provided Fitzgerald with her earliest experiences in music. Starting in third grade, Fitzgerald loved dancing and admired Earl Snakehips Tucker . She performed for her peers on

2793-532: A year later. Leclerc was succeeded by General Rochambeau . With reinforcements from France and Poland, Rochambeau began a bloody campaign against the mulattoes and intensified operations against the blacks, importing bloodhounds to track and kill them. Thousands of black POW and suspects were chained to cannonballs and tossed into the sea. Historians of the Haitian Revolution credit Rochambeau's brutal tactics for uniting black and mulatto soldiers against

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2926-544: Is mulatos . The masculine plural in Italian is mulatti and in French it is mulâtres . The feminine plurals are: English – mulattas ; Spanish and Portuguese – mulatas ; Italian – mulatte ; French – mulâtresses . Countries with the highest percentages of multi-racials who specifically have equally high European and African ancestry — Mulatto — are the Dominican Republic (74%) and Cape Verde (71%). Brazil has

3059-603: Is a racial classification that refers to people of mixed African and European ancestry only. When speaking or writing about a singular woman in English, the word is mulatta (Spanish: mulata ). The use of this term began in the United States of America shortly after the Atlantic Slave Trade began and its use was widespread, derogatory and disrespectful. After the post Civil Rights Era ,

3192-560: Is a film about her life including interviews with many famous singers and musicians who worked with her and her son. It was directed by Leslie Woodhead and produced by Reggie Nadelson. It was released in the UK in 2019. Fitzgerald's most famous collaborations were with the vocal quartet Bill Kenny & the Ink Spots , trumpeter Louis Armstrong , the guitarist Joe Pass , and the bandleaders Count Basie and Duke Ellington . Fitzgerald had

3325-472: Is apparent in the political, economic and cultural hierarchy in present-day Haiti. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been people of color. Many Haitian mulattoes were slaveholders and often actively participated in the oppression of the black majority. Some Dominican mulattoes were also slave owners. The Haitian Revolution was started by mulattoes. The subsequent struggle within Haiti between

3458-486: Is between white and black. In Dominican Republic and some other Latin American countries, it can sometimes be difficult to determine the exact number of racial groups, because the lines between whites and lighter multiracials are very blurry, which is also true between blacks and darker multiracials. As race in Dominican Republic acts as a continuum of white—mulatto—black and not as clear cut as in places like

3591-530: Is evidence that suggests that she may have married a third time. Her first marriage was in 1941, to Benny Kornegay, a convicted drug dealer and local dockworker. The marriage was annulled in 1942. Her second marriage was in December 1947, to the famous bass player Ray Brown , whom she had met while on tour with Dizzy Gillespie 's band a year earlier. Together they adopted a child born to Fitzgerald's half-sister, Frances, whom they christened Ray Brown Jr. With Fitzgerald and Brown often busy touring and recording,

3724-473: Is the offspring of a European and a Black". This earliest usage regarded "black" and "white" as discrete "species", with the "mulatto" constituting a third separate "species". According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado , the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the etymological origin of mulato . These sources specify that mulato would have been derived directly from muwallad independently of

3857-857: The African mainland to work as slaves. In the early years, mestiços began to form a third-class between the Portuguese colonists and African slaves, as they were usually bilingual and often served as interpreters between the populations. In Angola and Mozambique , the mestiço constitute smaller but still important minorities; 2% in Angola and 0.2% in Mozambique. Mulatto and mestiço are not terms commonly used in South Africa to refer to people of mixed ancestry. The persistence of some authors in using this term, anachronistically, reflects

3990-780: The American Heart Association , City of Hope, and the Retina Foundation . The primary collections of Fitzgerald's media and memorabilia reside at and are shared between the Smithsonian Institution and the US Library of Congress . Fitzgerald won 13 Grammy Awards , and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1967. In 1958 Fitzgerald became the first African-American woman to win at

4123-639: The Chick Webb Orchestra, performing across the country but most often associated with the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem . Her rendition of the nursery rhyme " A-Tisket, A-Tasket " helped boost both her and Webb to national fame. After taking over the band when Webb died, Fitzgerald left it behind in 1942 to start her solo career. Her manager was Moe Gale, co-founder of the Savoy, until she turned

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4256-533: The National Geographic Genographic Project , "the average Puerto Rican individual carries 12% Native American, 65% West Eurasian (Mediterranean, Northern European and/or Middle Eastern) and 20% Sub-Saharan African DNA." Studies have shown that the racial ancestry mixture of the average Puerto Rican (regardless of racial self-identity) is about 64% European, 21% African, and 15% Native Taino, with European ancestry strongest on

4389-595: The Presidential Medal of Freedom . Ella Jane Fitzgerald was born on April 25, 1917, in Newport News , Virginia. She was the daughter of William Ashland Fitzgerald, a transfer wagon driver from Blackstone, Virginia , and Temperance "Tempie" Henry, both described as mulatto in the 1920 census. Her parents were unmarried but lived together in the East End section of Newport News for at least two and

4522-620: The Regla del Sacar . Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar , which allowed persons of mixed ancestry to pay a fee to be classified as white, which was the opposite of " one-drop rule " in US society after the American Civil War. In the 2012 Census of Cuba, 26.6% (2.97 million) of the Cubans self-identified as mulatto or mestizo . But

4655-631: The United States . The English term and spelling mulatto is derived from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato . It was a common term in the Southeastern United States during the era of slavery. Some sources suggest that it may derive from the Portuguese word mula (from the Latin mūlus ), meaning ' mule ', the hybrid offspring of a horse and a donkey . The Real Academia Española traces its origin to mulo in

4788-602: The University of Southern California , she received the USC "Magnum Opus" Award, which hangs in the office of the Ella Fitzgerald Charitable Foundation. In 1986, she received an honorary doctorate of music from Yale University. In 1990, she received an honorary doctorate of Music from Harvard University . The career history and archival material from Fitzgerald's long career are housed in

4921-465: The 18th century, according to [Joan] Corominas ". Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto . In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and Josiah Nott began to assert that mulattoes were sterile like mules. They projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollors points out that this etymology is anachronistic: "The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with

5054-586: The Africans. They have a total population of approximately 8 million. The Dominican Republic was the site of the first European settlement in the Americas, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo founded in 1493. After the arrival of Europeans and the founding of the colony, African people were imported to the island. The fusion of European, native Taino , and African influences contributed to

5187-764: The Archives Center at the Smithsonian 's National Museum of American History , while her personal music arrangements are at the Library of Congress . Her extensive cookbook collection was donated to the Schlesinger Library at Harvard University , and her extensive collection of published sheet music was donated to UCLA. Harvard gave her an honorary degree in music in 1990. Mulatto Mulatto ( / m j uː ˈ l æ t oʊ / , / m ə ˈ l ɑː t oʊ / ) (original Italian spelling)

5320-780: The Cape Colony (now known as South Africa). The Dutch East India Company's ship "Het Gelderland", which arrived at the Cape in 1671 with 174 slaves from the Canary Islands and The Portuguese ship, "Sao Jose" which was captured by the Dutch in 1713 and brought to the Cape with slaves from the Canary Islands. These enslaved people were forced to work on farms, in households, and in other industries and many were subjected to harsh conditions and treatment. The intermixing among European men and Spanish and Portuguese women's descendants are part of

5453-663: The Cape Colony Dutch and indigenous African women. The name Baster is derived from the Dutch word for 'bastard' (or 'crossbreed'). While some people consider this term demeaning, the Basters proudly use the term as an indication of their history. In the early 21st century, they number between 20,000 and 30,000 people. There are, of course, other people of mixed race in the country. As of 2018, 71% of Cape Verdeans were Mulatto or Creole. The Coloured / Cape Malay people from Africa are descendants of mixed ancestry, from

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5586-461: The Cape Colony to work on farms, in households, as they were enslaved labourers . There is a significant genetic mixture of European, African and (Indian) Asian DNA in the modern ethnic group of Coloured people. Thus forced into their own communities and therefore created a generational mix of people and are to date an ethnic group. In addition to African, European and Asian ancestry, Coloured people had some portion of Spanish or Portuguese ancestry. In

5719-516: The Cuban population is 72% European, 23% African, and 5% indigenous, though among mulatto Cubans the European and African ancestry is more even. Prior to the 20th century, majority of the Cuban population was of mixed race descent to varying degrees, with pure Spaniards or criollos being a significant minority. Between 1902 and 1933, some 750,000 Spaniards migrated to Cuba from Europe, which changed

5852-570: The Dominican population, the genetic makeup is predominantly European and Sub-Saharan African , with a lesser degree of Native American ancestry. The average Dominican DNA of the founder population is estimated to be 73% European, 10% Native, and 17% African. After the Haitian and Afro-Caribbean migrations the overall percentage changed to 57% European, 8% Native and 35% African. Due to mixed race Dominicans (and most Dominicans in general) being

5985-658: The Duke Ellington Song Book was the only Song Book on which the composer she interpreted played with her. Duke Ellington and his longtime collaborator Billy Strayhorn both appeared on exactly half the set's 38 tracks and wrote two new pieces of music for the album: "The E and D Blues" and a four-movement musical portrait of Fitzgerald. The Song Book series ended up becoming Fitzgerald's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful work, and probably her most significant offering to American culture. The New York Times wrote in 1996, "These albums were among

6118-491: The Dutch East India Company administration, Kok provided refuge to deserting soldiers, refugee slaves, and remaining members of various Khoikhoi tribes. Africans were transported by Spaniards slave traders to Mexico starting in the early 16th century. Offspring of Spaniards and African women resulted early on in mixed-race children, termed mulattoes. In Spanish law, the status of the child followed that of

6251-468: The French. In 1806, Haiti divided into a black-controlled north and a mulatto-ruled south. Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer , the son of a Frenchman and a former African slave, managed to unify a divided Haiti but excluded blacks from power. In 1847, a black military officer named Faustin Soulouque was made president, with the mulattoes supporting him; but, instead of proving a tool in the hands of

6384-662: The Ink Spots , Louis Jordan , and the Delta Rhythm Boys . Producer Norman Granz became her manager in the mid-1940s after she began singing for Jazz at the Philharmonic , a concert series begun by Granz. With the demise of the swing era and the decline of the great touring big bands , a major change in jazz music occurred. The advent of bebop led to new developments in Fitzgerald's vocal style, influenced by her work with Dizzy Gillespie 's big band. It

6517-571: The Islamic religion and manners. Specifically, the term was historically applied to the descendants of Arab or Berber Muslims and indigenous Christian Iberians who, after several generations of living among a Muslim majority, adopted their culture and religion. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century. The 1595 work Drake's Voyages first used the term in the context of intimate unions producing biracial children. The Oxford English Dictionary defined mulatto as "one who

6650-620: The Knife " in which she forgets the lyrics but improvises to compensate. Verve Records was sold to MGM in 1960 for $ 3 million and in 1967 MGM failed to renew Fitzgerald's contract. Over the next five years she flitted between Atlantic , Capitol and Reprise . Her material at this time represented a departure from her typical jazz repertoire. For Capitol she recorded Brighten the Corner , an album of hymns , Ella Fitzgerald's Christmas , an album of traditional Christmas carols , Misty Blue ,

6783-575: The Mocambo in 1952 and 1953, according to stories published at the time in Jet magazine and Billboard . Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Song Book , released in 1956, was the first of eight "Song Book" sets Fitzgerald would record for Verve at irregular intervals from 1956 to 1964. The composers and lyricists spotlighted on each set, taken together, represent the greatest part of

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6916-493: The Pitch arrangements are done specifically for the group by current and previous members of the group and friends of the group. The group's founders were Radcliffe College undergraduates who wanted to sing in a close harmony setting. The original Pitches chose their group's name from a number of entries in a campus naming contest. In the words of co-founder Kathy Manning (Radcliffe College Class of 1978): "We finally settled on

7049-523: The Revolution. In some cases, their white fathers arranged for multiracial sons to be educated in France and join the military, giving them an advance economically. Free people of color gained some social capital and political power before the Revolution, were influential during the Revolution and since then. The people of color have retained their elite position, based on education and social capital, that

7182-585: The United States. And many times in the same family, there can be people of different colors and racial phenotypes who are blood related, this is due to the large amounts of interracial mixing for hundreds of years in Dominican Republic and the Spanish Caribbean in general, allowing for high amounts of genetic diversity. The majority of the Dominican population is tri-racial, with nearly all Dominicans having Taíno Native American ancestry along with European and African ancestry. European ancestry in

7315-468: The affair was quickly forgotten when Larsen was sentenced to five months' hard labor in Sweden for stealing money from a young woman to whom he had previously been engaged. Fitzgerald was notoriously shy. Trumpet player Mario Bauzá , who played behind Fitzgerald in her early years with Chick Webb , remembered that "she didn't hang out much. When she got into the band, she was dedicated to her music...She

7448-472: The albums being, respectively, Ella Loves Cole and Nice Work If You Can Get It . A later collection devoted to a single composer was released during her time with Pablo Records , Ella Abraça Jobim , featuring the songs of Antônio Carlos Jobim . While recording the Song Books and the occasional studio album, Fitzgerald toured 40 to 45 weeks per year in the United States and internationally, under

7581-549: The approval of such petitions, since the "purity" of their own whiteness would be in jeopardy. They asserted their "purity of blood" ( limpieza de sangre ) as white persons who had "always been known, held and commonly reputed to be white persons, Old Christians of the nobility, clean of all bad blood and without any mixture of commoner, Jew, Moor, Mulatto, or converso in any degree, no matter how remote." Spaniards both American- and Iberian-born discriminated against pardos and mulattoes because of their "bad blood." One Cuban sought

7714-980: The band recorded for Decca and appeared at the Roseland Ballroom , where they received national exposure on NBC radio broadcasts. She recorded nearly 150 songs with Webb's orchestra between 1935 and 1942. In addition to her work with Webb, Fitzgerald performed and recorded with the Benny Goodman Orchestra. She had her own side project, too, known as Ella Fitzgerald and Her Savoy Eight. In 1942, with increasing dissent and money concerns in Fitzgerald's band, Ella Fitzgerald and Her Famous Orchestra, she started to work as lead singer with The Three Keys, and in July her band played their last concert at Earl Theatre in Philadelphia. While working for Decca Records , she had hits with Bill Kenny &

7847-414: The border regions. Although the average Puerto Rican is of mixed-race, few actually identified as multiracial ("two or more races") in the 2010 census; only 3.3% did so. They more often identified with their predominant heritage or phenotype. However, in the 2020 census, the amount of Puerto Ricans identifying as multiracial went up to 49.8% and an additional 25.5% identified as "some other race", showing

7980-416: The chance to perform at the Apollo for a week but, seemingly because of her disheveled appearance, the theater never gave her that part of her prize. In January 1935, Fitzgerald won the chance to perform for a week with the Tiny Bradshaw band at the Harlem Opera House . Later that year, she was introduced to drummer and bandleader Chick Webb by Bardu Ali . Although "reluctant to sign her...because she

8113-406: The child was largely raised by his mother's aunt, Virginia. Fitzgerald and Brown divorced in 1953, due to the various career pressures both were experiencing at the time, though they would continue to perform together. In July 1957, Reuters reported that Fitzgerald had secretly married Thor Einar Larsen, a young Norwegian, in Oslo . She had even gone as far as furnishing an apartment in Oslo, but

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8246-702: The colonial and post-revolutionary slavery times by white men in power: planters, their sons before marriage, overseers, etc., which resulted in many multiracial children born into slavery. Starting with Virginia in 1662, colonies adopted the principle of partus sequitur ventrem in slave law, which said that children born in the colony were born into the status of their mother. Thus, children born to slave mothers were born into slavery, regardless of who their fathers were and whether they were baptized as Christians. Children born to white mothers were free, even if they were mixed-race. Children born to free mixed-race mothers were also free. Paul Heinegg has documented that most of

8379-444: The colony took the status of their mothers. This meant that multi-racial children born to white women were born free. The colony required them to serve lengthy indentures if the woman was not married, but nonetheless, numerous individuals with African ancestry were born free, and formed more free families. Over the decades, many of these free people of color became leaders in the African-American community; others married increasingly into

8512-409: The cultural canon known as the Great American Songbook . Her song selections ranged from standards to rarities and represented an attempt by Fitzgerald to cross over into a non-jazz audience. The sets are the most well-known items in her discography and by 1956 Fitzgerald's recordings were showcased nationally by Ben Selvin within the RCA Thesaurus transcription library. Ella Fitzgerald Sings

8645-452: The decade....Where other singers, most notably Louis Armstrong, had tried similar improvisation, no one before Miss Fitzgerald employed the technique with such dazzling inventiveness." Her bebop recording of " Oh, Lady Be Good! " (1947) was similarly popular and increased her reputation as one of the leading jazz vocalists. Fitzgerald made her first tour of Australia in July 1954 for the Australian-based American promoter Lee Gordon . This

8778-466: The decline in her voice. "She frequently used shorter, stabbing phrases, and her voice was harder, with a wider vibrato", one biographer wrote. Plagued by health problems, Fitzgerald made her last recording in 1991 and her last public performances in 1993. Fitzgerald played the part of singer Maggie Jackson in Jack Webb 's 1955 jazz film Pete Kelly's Blues . The film costarred Janet Leigh and singer Peggy Lee . Even though she had already worked in

8911-413: The development of present-day Dominican culture. From the start of the colonial period in the 1500s, Miscegenation ( Mestizaje) , intermixing of races particularly Spanish settlers, native Tainos, and imported Africans (free or enslaved), was very strong. In fact, colonial Santo Domingo had higher amount of mixing and lesser racial tensions in comparison to other colonies, even other Spanish colonies, this

9044-429: The diverse Coloured communities in South Africa. It is however important to note that Spanish and Portuguese ancestry is not a dominant feature amongst the Coloured identity in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Individual family histories and ancestry may vary widely while the African, European and Asian ancestry is dominant amongst Coloured people from Africa. Based on the Population Registration Act to classify people,

9177-497: The early 17th Century European colonizers namely Dutch, British and French intermixed with the indigenous Khoisan and Bantu tribes of that region, as well as intermixing with Asian slaves from Indonesia, Malaysia and India. The intermixing of different races began in the Cape province of South Africa during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch east India company brought enslaved people from Asian regions, including; Indonesia , Malaysia and India these individuals were brought to

9310-445: The early 19th century some immigrants from Brazil arrived in South Africa as sailors, traders or refugees, and some intermarried with local mixed race (Coloured) communities. Also The (Canary Islands) Spain off the northwest coast of Africa, were a Spanish colony, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch east India Company and other European powers brought enslaved people from the Canary Islands to South Africa, particularly to

9443-414: The failure of the Dominican campaign, Soulouque caused himself to be proclaimed emperor on 26 August 1849, under the name of Faustin I . He was called a rey de farsa (clown emperor) by the Dominicans. Toward the close of 1855, he invaded the Dominican Republic again at the head of an army of 30,000 men, but was again defeated by Santana, and barely escaped being captured. His treasure and crown fell into

9576-590: The first centuries of the Spanish colonial period the island was overwhelmingly racially mixed. Under Spanish rule, mass immigration shifted the ethnic make-up of the island, as a result of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. Puerto Rico went from being two-thirds black and mulatto in the beginning of the 19th century, to being nearly 80% white by the middle of the 20th century. This was compounded by more flexible attitudes to race under Spanish rule, as epitomized by

9709-500: The first pop records to devote such serious attention to individual songwriters, and they were instrumental in establishing the pop album as a vehicle for serious musical exploration." Days after Fitzgerald's death, The New York Times columnist Frank Rich wrote that in the Song Book series Fitzgerald "performed a cultural transaction as extraordinary as Elvis ' contemporaneous integration of white and African-American soul. Here

9842-658: The founding source populations of Spaniards, Africans, and Tainos, although Spanish ancestry is predominant in a majority of the population. Similar to many other Latin American ethnic groups, Puerto Ricans are multi-generationally mixed race, though most are European dominant in ancestry, Puerto Ricans who are "evenly mixed" can accurately be described " Mulatto ", " Quadroon ", or Tri-racial very similar to mixed populations in Cuba and Dominican Republic. Overall, Puerto Ricans are European-dominant Tri-racials, however there are many with near even European and African ancestry. According to

9975-426: The four members of Fitzgerald's entourage – Fitzgerald, her pianist John Lewis , her assistant (and cousin) Georgiana Henry, and manager Norman Granz – all had first-class tickets on their scheduled Pan-American Airlines flight from Honolulu to Australia, they were ordered to leave the aircraft after they had already boarded and were refused permission to re-board the aircraft to retrieve their luggage and clothing. As

10108-572: The free people of color listed in the 1790–1810 censuses in the Upper South were descended from unions and marriages during the colonial period in Virginia between white women, who were free or indentured servants, and African or African American men, servant, slave or free. In the early colonial years, such working-class people lived and worked closely together, and slavery was not as much of a racial caste. Slave law had established that children in

10241-654: The government passed laws prohibiting mixed marriages. Many people who classified as belonging to the "Asian" category could legally intermarry with "mixed-race" people because they shared the same nomenclature. The use of the term Coloured has changed over the course of history. For instance, in the first census after the South African war (1912), Indians were counted as 'Coloured'. Before and after this war, they were counted as 'Asiatic'. Zimbabwean Coloureds were descended from Shona or Ndebele mixing with British and Afrikaner settlers and Arab slaves. Griqua , on

10374-486: The grant of his petition in order to practice as a surgeon, a profession from which he was barred because of his mulatto designation. Royal laws and decrees prevented pardos and mulattoes from serving as a public notary, lawyer, pharmacist, ordination to the priesthood, or graduation from university. Mulattas declared white could marry a Spaniard. According to the IBGE 2000 census, 38.5% of Brazilians identified as pardo ,

10507-544: The hands of the enemy. Soulouque was ousted in a military coup led by mulatto General Fabre Geffrard in 1858–59. In the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola , the mulattoes were an ever-growing majority group, and in essence they took over the entire Dominican Republic, with no organized black opposition. Many of its rulers and famous figures were mulattoes, such as Gregorio Luperón , Ulises Heureaux , José Joaquín Puello , Matías Ramón Mella , Buenaventura Báez , and Rafael Trujillo . The Dominican Republic has been described as

10640-481: The implication of being born of Arab and non-Arab parents. Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD (Arabic: ولد , direct Arabic transliteration : waw , lam , dal ) and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means 'descendant, offspring, scion; child; son; boy; young animal, young one'. In al-Andalus , muwallad referred to the offspring from parents of Arab Muslim origin and non-Arab Muslim people who adopted

10773-732: The inaugural show. Other major awards and honors she received during her career were the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts Medal of Honor Award , National Medal of Art , first Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award (named "Ella" in her honor), Presidential Medal of Freedom , and the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, UCLA Spring Sing , and the UCLA Medal (1987). Across town at

10906-644: The knee due to the effects of diabetes. Her eyesight was affected as well. She died in her home from a stroke on June 15, 1996, at the age of 79. A few hours after her death, the Playboy Jazz Festival was launched at the Hollywood Bowl . In tribute, the marquee read: "Ella We Will Miss You." Her funeral was private, and she was buried at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood, California. Fitzgerald married at least twice, and there

11039-525: The landing of marines from the men-of-war in the harbor. Soulouque considered the neighbouring Dominican Republic 's white and mulatto rulers as his "natural" enemies. He invaded the Dominican Republic in March 1849, but was defeated at the Battle of Las Carreras by Pedro Santana near Ocoa on 21 April and compelled to retreat. Haitian strategy was ridiculed by the American press: [At the first encounter] ...

11172-753: The largest Mulatto population by definition, numbering between 60–90 million (30–45% of the country), as majority of the people who identify as Pardo (brown or mixed) have high amounts of both European and African ancestries, many can be considered Mulatto, Quadroon , or Tri-racial , smaller numbers of other Brazilians –especially those who self identify as black– can be considered 'Mulatto' due to having high levels of both African and European blood. Mulattos in many Latin American countries, aside from predominately European and African ancestry, usually also have slight indigenous admixture. "Race-mixing" has been strong in Latin America for centuries, since

11305-471: The mixed population typically ranges between 50% and 60% on average, while African ancestry ranges between 30% and 40%, and the Native ancestry usually ranges between 5% and 10%. European and Native ancestry tends to be strongest in cities and towns of the north-central Cibao region, and generally in the mountainous interior of the country. African ancestry is strongest in coastal areas, the southeast plain, and

11438-559: The more common plantation slavery at the time. By the 1700s, the majority of the population was mixed race, forming the basis of the Dominican ethnicity as a distinct people well before independence was achieved. During colonial times, mixed-race/mulatto Dominicans had a lot of influence, they were instrumental in the independence period and the founding of the nation. Many Dominican presidents were mulatto, and mulatto Dominicans have had influence in every aspect of Dominican culture and society. According to recent genealogical DNA studies of

11571-482: The mother, so that despite having a Spanish parent, their offspring were enslaved. The label mulatto was recorded in official colonial documentation, so that marriage registers, censuses, and court documents allow research on different aspects of mulattoes’ lives. Although some legal documents simply label a person a mulatto/a , other designations occurred. In the sales of casta slaves in 17th-century Mexico City , official notaries recorded gradations of skin color in

11704-541: The movies (she sang two songs in the 1942 Abbott and Costello film Ride 'Em Cowboy ), she was "delighted" when Norman Granz negotiated the role for her, and, "at the time ... considered her role in the Warner Brothers movie the biggest thing ever to have happened to her." Amid The New York Times pan of the film when it opened in August 1955, the reviewer wrote, "About five minutes (out of ninety-five) suggest

11837-487: The mulattoes led by André Rigaud and the black Haitians led by Toussaint Louverture devolved into the War of Knives . With secret aid from the United States, Toussaint eventually won the conflict and made himself ruler of the entire island of Hispaniola. Napoleon ordered for Charles Leclerc and a substantial army to put down the rebellion; Leclerc seized Toussaint in 1802 and deported him to France, where he died in prison

11970-405: The old-school essentialist views of race as a de facto biological phenomenon, and the 'mixing' of race as legitimate grounds for the creation of a 'new race'. This disregards cultural, linguistic and ethnic diversity and/or differences between regions and globally among populations of mixed ancestry. In Namibia , an ethnic group known as Rehoboth Basters , descend from historic liaisons between

12103-707: The only true mulatto country in the world. Pervasive Dominican racism , based on rejection of African ancestry, has led to many assaults against the large Haitian immigrant community, the most lethal of which was the 1937 parsley massacre . Approximately 5,000–67,000 men, women, children, babies and elderly, who were selected by their skin color, were massacred with machetes, or were thrown to sharks. Mixed Dominicans, also referred to as mulatto , mestizo or historically quadroon , are Dominicans who are of mixed racial ancestry. Dominican Republic has many racial terms and some are used differently than in other countries, for example Mestizo signifies any racial mix and not solely

12236-474: The other hand, are descendants of Khoisan and Afrikaner trekboers . The Griqua were subjected to an ambiguity of other creole people within Southern African social order. According to Nurse and Jenkins (1975), the leader of this "mixed" group, Adam Kok I, was a former slave of the Dutch governor. He was manumitted and provided land outside Cape Town in the eighteenth century. With territories beyond

12369-423: The owner for the booking. The booking was instrumental in Fitzgerald's career. Bonnie Greer dramatized the incident as the musical drama, Marilyn and Ella , in 2008. It had previously been widely reported that Fitzgerald was the first black performer to play the Mocambo, following Monroe's intervention, but this is not true. African-American singers Herb Jeffries , Eartha Kitt , and Joyce Bryant all played

12502-437: The percentage multiracial/mulatto make up varies widely, from as low as 26% to as high as 51%. Unlike, the two other Spanish Caribbean islands (Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico) where nearly everyone even most self-proclaimed whites and blacks are mixed to varying degrees, in Cuba there are significant pure or nearly pure European and African populations. Multi-racials/Mulattos are widespread throughout Cuba. The DNA average for

12635-740: The picture this might have been. Take the ingenious prologue ... [or] take the fleeting scenes when the wonderful Ella Fitzgerald, allotted a few spoken lines, fills the screen and sound track with her strong mobile features and voice." After Pete Kelly's Blues , she appeared in sporadic movie cameos, in St. Louis Blues (1958) and Let No Man Write My Epitaph (1960). She made numerous guest appearances on television shows, singing on The Frank Sinatra Show , The Carol Burnett Show , The Andy Williams Show , The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom    [ d ] , and alongside other greats Nat King Cole , Dean Martin , Mel Tormé , and many others. She

12768-442: The proportions showed significant variation. Depending on individuals, although often correlating with their self-identified race, African ancestry ranged from less than 10% to over 50%, while European ancestry ranged from under 20% to over 80%. Amerindian ancestry showed less fluctuation, generally hovering between 5% and 20% irrespective of self-identified race. Many Spaniard men took indigenous Taino and West African wives and in

12901-590: The racial demographics of the region rapidly. Many of the newly arrived Spanish migrants did not intermix with the native Cuban population, unlike the earlier colonial settlers and conquistadors who intermixed with Tainos and Africans at large scale rates. Self identified “white” Cubans with colonial roots on the island usually have Amerindian and or African admixture to varying degrees, as well as self identified “black” Cubans with colonial roots having varying degrees of European and or Amerindian admixture. Historians have documented sexual abuse of enslaved women during

13034-456: The rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word 'Mulatto'." Of São Tomé and Príncipe 's 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço , or mixed race. 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such. The great majority of their current populations descend from unions between the Portuguese, who colonized the islands from the 15th century onward, and black Africans they brought from

13167-714: The related word muladí , a term that was applied to Iberian Christians who had converted to Islam during the Moorish governance of Iberia in the Middle Ages . The Real Academia Española (Spanish Royal Academy) casts doubt on the muwallad theory. It states, "The term mulata is documented in our diachronic data bank in 1472 and is used in reference to livestock mules in Documentacion medieval de la Corte de Justicia de Ganaderos de Zaragoza , whereas muladí (from mullawadí ) does not appear until

13300-596: The rest of her career over to Norman Granz , who founded Verve Records to produce new records by Fitzgerald. With Verve, she recorded some of her more widely noted works, particularly her interpretations of the Great American Songbook . Fitzgerald also appeared in films and as a guest on popular television shows in the second half of the twentieth century. Outside her solo career, she created music with Louis Armstrong , Duke Ellington , and The Ink Spots . These partnerships produced songs such as " Dream

13433-512: The sale of Verve. Fitzgerald recorded some 20 albums for the label. Ella in London recorded live in 1974 with pianist Tommy Flanagan , guitarist Joe Pass, bassist Keter Betts and drummer Bobby Durham, was considered by many to be some of her best work. The following year she again performed with Joe Pass on German television station NDR in Hamburg . Her years with Pablo Records also documented

13566-489: The senators, he showed a strong will, and, although by his antecedents belonging to the mulatto party, he began to attach the blacks to his interest. The mulattoes retaliated by conspiring; but Soulouque began to decimate his enemies by confiscation, proscriptions, and executions. The black soldiers began a general massacre in Port-au-Prince, which ceased only after the French consul, Charles Reybaud, threatened to order

13699-504: The sense of hybridity; originally used to refer to any mixed race person. The term is now generally considered outdated and offensive in non-Spanish and non-Portuguese speaking countries, and was considered offensive even in the 19th century. Jack D. Forbes suggests it originated in the Arabic term muwallad , which means 'a person of mixed ancestry'. Muwallad literally means 'born, begotten, produced, generated; brought up', with

13832-519: The start of the European colonization of the Americas in many cases. Many Latin American multiracial families (including mulatto) have been mixed for several generations. In the 21st century, multiracials now frequently have unions and marriages with other multiracials. Other countries and territories with notable mulatto populations in percentage and/or total number include Cuba , Puerto Rico , Venezuela , Panama , Colombia , South Africa , and

13965-545: The streets of Harlem , Fitzgerald debuted at the age of 17 on November 21, 1934, in one of the earliest Amateur Nights at the Apollo Theater . She had intended to go on stage and dance, but she was intimidated by a local dance duo called the Edwards Sisters and opted to sing instead. Performing in the style of Connee Boswell , she sang "Judy" and "The Object of My Affection" and won first prize. She won

14098-419: The suit and received what she described as a "nice settlement". Fitzgerald was still performing at Granz's Jazz at the Philharmonic (JATP) concerts by 1955. She left Decca, and Granz, now her manager, created Verve Records around her. She later described the period as strategically crucial, saying: "I had gotten to the point where I was only singing be-bop. I thought be-bop was 'it', and that all I had to do

14231-543: The term zambo was more consistently used for that racial mixture. Dominican friar Thomas Gage spent over a decade in the Viceroyalty of New Spain in the early 17th century; he converted to Anglicanism and later wrote of his travels, often disparaging Spanish colonial society and culture. In Mexico City, he observed in considerable detail the opulence of dress of women, writing that "The attire of this baser sort of people of blackamoors and mulattoes (which are of

14364-652: The term is now considered to be both outdated and offensive in America. In other Anglophone countries (the English-speaking world ) such as the British Isles, the Caribbean, and English and Dutch-speaking West Indian countries, the word mulatto is still used. The use of this word does not have the same negative associations found among English speakers. Among Latinos in both the US and Latin America,

14497-768: The transactions. These included mulato blanco or mulata blanca ('white mulatto'), for light-skinned slave. These were usually American-born slaves. Some said categorized persons i.e. mulata blanca used their light skin to their advantage if they escaped their unlawful and brutal incarceration from their criminal slave owners, thus 'passing' as free persons of color. Mulatos blancos often emphasized their Spanish parentage, and considered themselves and were considered separate from negros or pardos and ordinary mulattoes. Darker mulatto slaves were often termed mulatos prietos or sometimes mulatos cochos . In Chile, along with mulatos blancos , there were also españoles oscuros ('dark Spaniards'). There

14630-473: The tutelage of Norman Granz. Granz helped solidify her position as one of the leading live jazz performers. In 1961 Fitzgerald bought a house in the Klampenborg district of Copenhagen, Denmark, after she began a relationship with a Danish man. Though the relationship ended after a year, Fitzgerald regularly returned to Denmark over the next three years and even considered buying a jazz club there. The house

14763-484: The way to school and at lunchtime. Fitzgerald listened to jazz recordings by Louis Armstrong , Bing Crosby , and The Boswell Sisters . She loved the Boswell Sisters' lead singer Connee Boswell , later saying: "My mother brought home one of her records, and I fell in love with it...I tried so hard to sound just like her." In 1932, when Fitzgerald was 15 years old, her mother died from injuries sustained in

14896-472: The west side of the island and West African ancestry strongest on the east side, and the levels of Taino ancestry (which, according to some research, ranges from about 5%-35%) generally highest in the southwest of the island. A study of a sample of 96 healthy self-identified White Puerto Ricans and self-identified Black Puerto Ricans in the U.S. showed that, although all carried a contribution from all 3 ancestral populations (European, African, and Amerindian),

15029-561: The white community. His findings have been supported by DNA studies and other contemporary researchers as well. A daughter born to a South Asian father and Irish mother in Maryland in 1680, both of whom probably came to the colony as indentured servants, was classified as a "mulatto" and sold into slavery. Historian F. James Davis says, Rapes occurred, and many slave women were forced to submit regularly to white males or suffer harsh consequences. However, slave girls often courted

15162-459: The word is used in every day speech and its meaning is a source of racial and ethnic pride. In four of the Latin-based languages, the default, masculine word ends with the letter "o" and is written as follows: Spanish and Portuguese – mulato ; Italian – mulatto . The French equivalent is mulâtre . In English, the masculine plural is written as mulattoes while in Spanish and Portuguese it

15295-420: Was a black woman popularizing urban songs often written by immigrant Jews to a national audience of predominantly white Christians." Frank Sinatra , out of respect for Fitzgerald, prohibited Capitol Records from re-releasing his own recordings in separate albums for individual composers in the same way. Fitzgerald also recorded albums exclusively devoted to the songs of Porter and Gershwin in 1972 and 1983;

15428-712: Was a civil rights activist. She was awarded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Equal Justice Award and the American Black Achievement Award. In 1949, Norman Granz recruited Fitzgerald for the Jazz at the Philharmonic tour. The Jazz at the Philharmonic tour would specifically target segregated venues. Granz required promoters to ensure that there was no "colored" or "white" seating. He ensured Fitzgerald

15561-642: Was a lonely girl around New York, just kept herself to herself, for the gig." When, later in her career, the Society of Singers named an award after her, Fitzgerald explained, "I don't want to say the wrong thing, which I always do but I think I do better when I sing." From 1949 to 1956, Fitzgerald resided in the St. Albans neighborhood of Queens, New York , an enclave of prosperous African Americans where she counted among her neighbors Illinois Jacquet , Count Basie , Lena Horne , and other jazz luminaries. Fitzgerald

15694-462: Was a mulatta. Ultimately though, her rootedness in the indigenous community persuaded the Inquisition that she was an India , and therefore outside of their jurisdiction. Even though the accused had physical features of a mulatta, her cultural category was more important. In colonial Latin America, mulato could also refer to an individual of mixed African and Native American ancestry, but

15827-453: Was also frequently featured on The Ed Sullivan Show . Perhaps her most unusual and intriguing performance was of the "Three Little Maids" song from Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operetta The Mikado alongside Joan Sutherland and Dinah Shore on Shore's weekly variety series in 1963. A performance at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in London was filmed and shown on the BBC. Fitzgerald also made

15960-407: Was an American singer, songwriter and composer, sometimes referred to as the "First Lady of Song", "Queen of Jazz", and "Lady Ella". She was noted for her purity of tone, impeccable diction , phrasing, timing, intonation , absolute pitch , and a "horn-like" improvisational ability, particularly in her scat singing . After a tumultuous adolescence, Fitzgerald found stability in musical success with

16093-525: Was considerable malleability and manipulation of racial labeling, including the seemingly stable category of mulatto. In a case that came before the Mexican Inquisition , a woman publicly identified as a mulatta was described by a Spanish priest, Diego Xaimes Ricardo Villavicencio, as "a white mulata with curly hair, because she is the daughter of a dark-skinned mulata and a Spaniard, and for her manner of dress she has flannel petticoats and

16226-427: Was due to the fact that for most of its colonial period, Santo Domingo was a poorer colony where even the majority of the white Spanish settlers were poor, which helped foster a relatively peaceful racial atmosphere, allowing for growth in its mixed race population and racial fluidity. Santo Domingo as a colony was used a military base and had an economy based on Cattle ranching , which was a far less labor-intensive than

16359-562: Was gawky and unkempt, a 'diamond in the rough,'" after some convincing by Ali, Webb offered her the opportunity to test with his band at a dance at Yale University . Met with approval by both audiences and her fellow musicians, Fitzgerald was asked to join Webb's orchestra and gained acclaim as part of the group's performances at Harlem's Savoy Ballroom . Fitzgerald recorded several hit songs, including "Love and Kisses" and " (If You Can't Sing It) You'll Have to Swing It (Mr. Paganini) ". But it

16492-560: Was go some place and sing bop. But it finally got to the point where I had no place to sing. I realized then that there was more to music than bop. Norman ... felt that I should do other things, so he produced Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Song Book with me. It was a turning point in my life." On March 15, 1955, Ella Fitzgerald opened her initial engagement at the Mocambo nightclub in Hollywood, after Marilyn Monroe lobbied

16625-421: Was her 1938 version of the nursery rhyme, " A-Tisket, A-Tasket ", a song she co-wrote, that brought her public acclaim. "A-Tisket, A-Tasket" became a major hit on the radio and was also one of the biggest-selling records of the decade. Webb died of spinal tuberculosis on June 16, 1939, and his band was renamed Ella Fitzgerald and Her Famous Orchestra, with Fitzgerald taking on the role of bandleader. Ella and

16758-612: Was hospitalized in 1985 briefly for respiratory problems, in 1986 for congestive heart failure , and in 1990 for exhaustion. In March 1990, she appeared at the Royal Albert Hall in London, England, with the Count Basie Orchestra for the launch of Jazz FM , plus a gala dinner at the Grosvenor House Hotel at which she performed. In 1993, she had to have both of her legs amputated below

16891-420: Was in this period that Fitzgerald started including scat singing as a major part of her performance repertoire. While singing with Gillespie, Fitzgerald recalled: "I just tried to do [with my voice] what I heard the horns in the band doing." Her 1945 scat recording of " Flying Home " arranged by Vic Schoen would later be described by The New York Times as "one of the most influential vocal jazz records of

17024-467: Was marriage (Bennett, 1962:243–68). Historically in the American South , the term mulatto was also applied at times to persons with mixed Native American and African American ancestry. For example, a 1705 Virginia statute reads as follows: "And for clearing all manner of doubts which hereafter may happen to arise upon the construction of this act, or any other act, who shall be accounted

17157-512: Was only saved by Thirlonge and other officers of his staff, several of whom lost their lives. The Dominicans pursued the retreating Haytiens some miles until they were checked and driven back by the Garde Nationale of Port-au-Prince, commanded by Robert Gateau, the auctioneer. The Haitians were unable to ward off a series of Dominican navy reprisal raids along Haiti's south coast, launched by Dominican president Buenaventura Báez. Despite

17290-706: Was recognized as a "cultural ambassador", receiving the National Medal of Arts in 1987 and America's highest non-military honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1993, Fitzgerald established the Ella Fitzgerald Charitable Foundation focusing on charitable grants for four major categories: academic opportunities for children, music education, basic care needs for the less fortunate, medical research revolving around diabetes, heart disease, and vision impairment. Her goals were to give back and provide opportunities for those "at risk" and less fortunate. In addition, she supported several nonprofit organizations like

17423-596: Was sold in 1963, and Fitzgerald permanently returned to the United States. There are several live albums on Verve that are highly regarded by critics. At the Opera House shows a typical Jazz at the Philharmonic set from Fitzgerald. Ella in Rome and Twelve Nights in Hollywood display her vocal jazz canon. Ella in Berlin is still one of her best-selling albums; it includes a Grammy-winning performance of " Mack

17556-506: Was the first of Gordon's famous "Big Show" promotions and the "package" tour also included Buddy Rich , Artie Shaw and comedian Jerry Colonna . Although the tour was a big hit with audiences and set a new box office record for Australia, it was marred by an incident of racial discrimination that caused Fitzgerald to miss the first two concerts in Sydney , and Gordon had to arrange two later free concerts to compensate ticket holders. Although

17689-624: Was to receive equal pay and accommodations regardless of her sex and race. If the conditions were not met shows were cancelled. Bill Reed, author of Hot from Harlem: Twelve African American Entertainers , referred to Fitzgerald as the "Civil Rights Crusader", facing discrimination throughout her career. In 1954 on her way to one of her concerts in Australia she was unable to board the Pan American flight due to racial discrimination. Although she faced several obstacles and racial barriers, she

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