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110-694: The Grail Psalms were already popular before the Second Vatican Council revised the liturgies of the Roman rite . Because the Council called for more liturgical use of the vernacular instead of Latin , and also for more singing and chanting (as opposed to the silent Low Mass and privately recited Divine Office , which were the predominantly celebrated forms of the Roman rite before the Council),

220-478: A banquet; with joyful lips, my mouth shall praise you. 7 When I remember you upon my bed, I muse on you through the watches of the night. 8 For you have been my strength; in the shadow of your wings I rejoice. 9 My soul clings fast to you; your right hand upholds me. Second Vatican Council Nine decrees: Three declarations: The Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican , commonly known as

330-550: A century earlier there were 737 Council Fathers, mostly from Europe ). At Vatican II, some 250 bishops were native-born Asians and Africans, whereas at Vatican I, there were none at all. General Congregations (§3, 20, 33, 38–39, 52–63). The Council Fathers met in daily sittings – known as General Congregations – to discuss the schemas and vote on them. These sittings took place in St. Peter's Basilica every morning until 12:30 Monday to Saturday (except Thursday). The average daily attendance

440-435: A few days to allow each national group of bishops to meet and draw up a list of its own members who might be suitable candidates. Cardinal Frings , the senior German bishop, rose to second the motion. There was loud applause and the motion was declared carried. That day's sitting was adjourned after only 15 minutes. For the next few days, Council Fathers met in national groups and drew up lists of candidates. The bishops from

550-407: A list of the bishops who had served on the preparatory commissions, as if to suggest that they elect the same people to the conciliar commissions, with the result that Curial forces would dominate the conciliar commissions as they had dominated the preparatory commissions. As the voting was about to begin, Cardinal Liénart , the senior French bishop, rose and proposed that the election be delayed for

660-405: A modest decentralization of liturgical authority to national episcopal conferences. The conservatives objected to all these proposals, especially to the downgrading of Latin. Debate dragged on for 15 days, before the vote was taken on whether the schema was acceptable in principle. To everyone's surprise, only 46 (out of 2,215) voted against. A second win for renewal. The schema was now returned to

770-535: A more literal translation of liturgical texts. This led to an interest in updating the Grail. In 2008, Conception Abbey completed a wide-scale revision in accordance with this instruction, published under the title The Revised Grail Psalms . This version is used in the edition of The Liturgy of the Hours published by Paulines Publications Africa, now promulgated for use in every Bishops' Conference of Africa. In 2010,

880-534: A number of schemas were consolidated and merged, with the result that the total number of schemas was whittled down from 70 to 22. Paragraph numbers in this section refer to the Council Regulations published in the motu proprio Appropinquante concilio , of 6 August 1962. Council Fathers (§1). All the bishops of the world, as well as the heads of the main religious orders of men, were entitled to be "Council Fathers", that is, full participants with

990-538: A platform from which they could work to further their views. Private Periti (§11). Each bishop was allowed to bring along a personal theological adviser of his choice. Known as "private periti ", they were not official Council participants and could not attend General Congregations or commission meetings. But like the official periti , they gave informal talks to groups of bishops, bringing them up to date on developments in their particular area of expertise. Karl Rahner , Joseph Ratzinger and Hans Küng first went to

1100-444: A pope after eight days, would receive water and bread only. Franciscan , Dominican , and other orders had become controversial in light of their increasing popularity. The council confirmed their privileges. Pope Gregory X approved all 31 chapters, after modifying some of them, thus clearly indicating papal prerogatives. The council met in six sessions from 7 May to 17 July 1274, under his leadership. Pope Clement V solemnly opened

1210-712: A revised edition of the Vulgate . The Council of Trent is considered one of the most successful councils in the history of the Catholic Church, firming up Catholic belief as understood at the time. It convened in Trent between 13 December 1545, and 5 December 1563, in twenty-five sessions for three periods. Council fathers met for the 1st–8th sessions in Trent (1545–1547) and for the 9th–11th sessions in Bologna (1547) during

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1320-426: A two-thirds majority. For each schema, after a preliminary discussion there was a vote whether it was considered acceptable in principle, or rejected. If acceptable, debate continued with votes on individual chapters and paragraphs. Bishops could submit amendments, which were then written into the schema if they were requested by many bishops. Votes continued in this way until wide agreement was reached, after which there

1430-406: A varying number of periti (Latin for "experts") were available for theological consultation—a group that exercised a major influence as the council went forward. Seventeen Orthodox Churches and Protestant denominations sent observers. More than three dozen representatives of other Christian communities were present at the opening session, and the number grew to nearly a hundred by the end of

1540-432: Is bétter than lífe, my líps will spéak your práise. 5 So I will bléss you áll my lífe, in your náme I will líft up my hánds. 6 My sóul shall be fílled as with a bánquet, my móuth shall praíse you with jóy. 7 On my béd I remémber yóu. On yóu I múse through the níght 8 for yóu have béen my hélp; in the shádow of your wíngs I rejóice. 9 My sóul clíngs to yóu; your ríght hand hólds me fást. for you my soul

1650-633: Is one thing; the manner in which these truths are set forth (with their meaning preserved intact) is something else. The first working session of the council was on 13 October 1962. That day's agenda included the election of members of the 10 conciliar commissions. Each was to have 16 members elected by the Council Fathers and 8 – later 9 – members appointed by the Pope. Most bishops knew very few bishops other than those from their own country, and so did not know whom to vote for. They had been provided with

1760-480: Is thirsting. For you my flesh is pining, like a dry, weary land without water. 3 I have come before you in the sanctuary, to behold your strength and your glory. 4 Your loving mercy is better than life; my lips will speak your praise. 5 I will bless you all my life; in your name I will lift up my hands. 6 My soul shall be filled as with a banquet; with joyful lips, my mouth shall praise you. 7 When I remember you upon my bed, I muse on you through

1870-762: Is to go at least once a year on Easter to confession and to receive the Holy Eucharist . The council formally repeated Catholic teaching, that Christ is present in the Eucharist and thus clarified transubstantiation . It dealt with several heresies without naming names but intended to include the Catharists and several individual Catholic theologians. It made several political rulings as well. It met in only three sessions in November 1215 under Pope Innocent III and issued 70 chapters. The council continued

1980-645: The Second Vatican Council or Vatican II , was the 21st and most recent ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. The council met in Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City for four periods (or sessions), each lasting between 8 and 12 weeks, in the autumn of each of the four years 1962 to 1965, although it had been anticipated initially that the work of the Council would have been complete after three sessions. Pope John XXIII called

2090-740: The Catholic Church , a Church Council is ecumenical ("world-wide") if it is "a solemn congregation of the Catholic bishops of the world at the invitation of the Pope to decide on matters of the Church with him". The wider term " ecumenical council " relates to Church councils recognised by both Eastern and Western Christianity . In Catholicism, in addition to ecumenical Councils, there are "particular Councils". Current Canon Law recognizes two kinds of particular Councils: plenary councils involve

2200-556: The Eastern Orthodox Church and many Protestant denominations. The First Council of Nicaea (20 May – 25 July? 325) formulated the original Nicene Creed . Most importantly, the council defined the equality of God the Father and Christ, his son. It taught that Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father and not just merely similar. By defining the nature of the divinity of Jesus, the council did not solely rely on

2310-582: The Henri de Lubac SJ and Yves Congar OP , who were unable to teach or publish until the death of Pius XII in 1958. By the early 1960s, other theologians under suspicion included Karl Rahner SJ and the young Hans Küng . In addition, there was the unfinished business of the First Vatican Council (1869–70). When it had been cut short by the Italian Army's entry into Rome at

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2420-720: The Holy See granted recognitio of The Revised Grail Psalms with certain modifications; this modified edition is the one in force for several Bishops' Conferences including the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops . In the General Assembly of the USCCB of November 2014, the U.S. Bishops voted to adopt a further revision of the Revised Grail Psalms . In 2019 the USCCB acquired

2530-504: The World Council of Churches were represented. The observers were entitled to sit in on all general assemblies (but not the commissions) and they mingled with the Council Fathers during the breaks and let them know their reactions to speeches or to schemas. Pope Paul VI welcomed their participation "with gratitude and respect". Their presence helped to break down centuries of mistrust. Lay auditors . While not provided for in

2640-457: The celibacy of Catholic priests, clerical marriages of priests and monks, which up to 1139 were considered illegal, were defined and declared as non-existing and invalid. The council met under Pope Innocent II in April 1139 and issued 30 canons. The council established the two-thirds majority necessary for the election of a pope. This two-thirds majority existed until Pope John Paul II. His change

2750-605: The sacraments , and the Biblical canon , the council was answering Protestant disputes. The council entrusted to the pope the implementation of its work, as a result of which Pope Pius V issued in 1566 the Roman Catechism , in 1568 a revised Roman Breviary , and in 1570 a revised Roman Missal , thus initiating the Tridentine Mass (from Trent's Latin name Tridentum ), and Pope Clement VIII issued in 1592

2860-643: The "antepreparatory period". On 17 May 1959, Pope John appointed an Antepreparatory Commission to conduct a vast consultation of the Catholic world concerning topics to be examined at the council. Three groups of people were consulted: the bishops of the world, the Catholic universities and faculties of theology, and the departments of the Curia. By the following summer, 2,049 individuals and institutions had replied with 9,438 individual vota ("wishes"). Some were typical of past ways of doing things, asking for new dogmatic definitions or condemnations of errors. Others were in

2970-447: The "prophets of doom who are always forecasting disaster" for the church or world. He spoke of the advantage of separation of Church and state but also the challenge to integrate faith with public life. What is needed at the present time is a new enthusiasm, a new joy and serenity of mind in the unreserved acceptance by all of the entire Christian faith, without forfeiting that accuracy and precision in its presentation which characterized

3080-521: The 4th council session. The rules and practices concerning ecumenical Councils have varied over the centuries. Many of the earlier Councils were not subject to the rules currently in force, but were accepted as ecumenical by the practice of the time. Today an ecumenical council can be convoked only by the Pope, but the first eight councils (from the 4th to the 9th century) were convoked by the Christian Roman Emperor. Bishops are always

3190-536: The 5 European countries (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Austria) that spearheaded the renewal movement decided to create a single list, to which a number of renewal-minded bishops from other countries were added, for a total of 109 names. The election took place on October 16. It brought in new blood: 79 of these 109 were elected to a commission seat and 50% of the members of the very important doctrinal commission were among these 79. In addition 43% of

3300-671: The Benedictine monastery attached to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome came as a surprise to the cardinals present. He had tested the idea only ten days before with one of them, his Cardinal Secretary of State Domenico Tardini , who gave enthusiastic support to the idea. Although the pope later said the idea came to him in a flash in his conversation with Tardini, two cardinals had earlier attempted to interest him in

3410-595: The Bible but jointly gave it a binding interpretation. The council issued 20 canons and repudiated Arianism . The First Council of Constantinople defined in four canons the Nicene Creed , which is still used in the Catholic Church. Most importantly, it defined the divinity of the Holy Spirit , which is derived from Apostolic Tradition but not defined in the Bible. The council met from May until July 381 during

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3520-457: The Catholic faith, the papacy and papal infallibility . Many issues remained incomplete, such as a definition of the Church and the authority of the bishops. Many French Catholics desired the dogmatization of Papal infallibility and the assumption of Mary in the ecumenical council. Nine mariological petitions favoured a possible assumption dogma, which however was strongly opposed by some council fathers, especially from Germany . On May 8,

3630-703: The Church freedom from persecution. As a result, the Council of Jerusalem or Apostolic Council, held in Jerusalem around AD 50 and described in Acts of the Apostles chapter 15, is not an ecumenical Council, even though most Christian denominations consider that it expresses a key part of Christian doctrine and moral teaching. These comprised the hierarchs of the undivided Church (i.e. both East and West), and are accepted as authoritative, not only by Catholics, but also by

3740-647: The Council Prominent Reform-minded Bishops at the Council Prominent reform-minded theologians at the Council John XXIII opened the council on 11 October 1962 in a public session at St. Peter's Basilica and delivered his opening address Gaudet Mater Ecclesia  ("Mother Church Rejoices") before the Council Fathers and representatives of 86 governments or international groups. He criticized

3850-586: The Doctrinal Commission (representing the conservative tendency) and the Secretariat for Christian Unity (representing the renewal tendency). A third victory for renewal and a crucial turning point at the council. This innocuous schema could be boiled down to two propositions that had been said many times before: the Church must use the media to further its mission, and people must be protected against immorality and other dangers presented by

3960-673: The Grail Psalms were utilised as the official liturgical Psalter by most of the English-speaking world. The Grail Psalms were utilized by the International Commission on English in the Liturgy in their translation of The Liturgy of the Hours in 1973. They were also utilized, with some minor alterations, in a parallel translation of the Liturgy of the Hours titled The Divine Office in 1974. As these are

4070-411: The Grail Psalms, revised with inclusive language , was produced in 1986. It was expressly forbidden for liturgical use. The 1994 ICEL Psalter issued for study and comment was another alternative to the Grail Psalms, but never approved for liturgical use. The Imprimatur to this text was later revoked. In 2001, Pope John Paul II promulgated the encyclical Liturgiam authenticam , which called for

4180-725: The Holy Spirit, the litany of saints was recited and only after additional prayer did the Pope actually address the council and open it formally. He mentioned four topics, the Order of Knights Templar , the regaining of the Holy Land , a reform of public morality and freedom for the Church. Pope Clement had asked the bishops to list all their problems with the order. The Templars had become an obstacle to many bishops because they could act independently of them in such vital areas as filling parishes and other positions. Many accusations against

4290-572: The Official Regulations, a small number of lay people were invited to attend as "auditors" beginning with the Second Session. While not allowed to take part in debate, a few of them were asked to address the council about their concerns as lay people. The first auditors were all male, but beginning with the third session, a number of women were also appointed. In the very first weeks of the council proceedings, it became clear to

4400-406: The Pope and promulgated at his order. About its participants, it says: "All the bishops and only the bishops who are members of the college of bishops have the right and duty to take part in an ecumenical council with a deliberative vote." Others "can be called to an ecumenical council by the supreme authority of the Church, to whom it belongs to determine their roles in the council." Participation

4510-420: The Pope could be convinced to forget about aggiornamento . On the other side were those theologians and bishops who had been working towards a new way of doing things, some of whom had been silenced and humiliated by the Curia in the 1940s and 1950s. For them, the council came as a "divine surprise", the opportunity to convince the bishops of the world to turn away from a fortress-like defensive attitude to

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4620-486: The Pope's announcement of a Council, they realized that it could be the culmination of the Church's program of resistance to Protestantism , the Enlightenment and all the other perceived errors of the modern world. It was also seen as an opportunity to give the stamp of conciliar infallibility to the teachings of the most recent popes and to the Curia's vision of the role of the Church in the modern world, provided

4730-493: The Second Council of Constantinople because of the political pressures. The council repudiated Monothelitism , and reaffirmed that Christ, being both human and divine, had both human and divine wills. It met in sixteen sessions from 7 November 680, until 16 September 681. The council was held during the pontificates of Pope Agatho and Pope Leo II . It also condemned Honorius for holding to Monothelitism. In 730,

4840-659: The alleged superiority of an ecumenical council over the pope. Before the council there was the Western Schism , with three popes each claiming legitimacy. One of them, John XXIII , called for the council to take place in Constance (Konstanz), Germany, hoping it would secure him additional legitimacy. When opinion in the council moved against him in March 1415, he fled to Schaffhausen and went into hiding in several Black Forest villages such as Saig. After his flight,

4950-478: The assembled bishops. Provisions of the 1983 Code of Canon Law concerning ecumenical councils include the authority of an ecumenical council, the authority of the Pope, and participants. The college of bishops , under and with its head the Pope, is "the subject of supreme and full power over the universal Church", and exercises this power "in a solemn manner in an ecumenical council". The decisions of an ecumenical council are therefore binding on all. The Pope has

5060-615: The beginning of the council, there were 224 official periti, but their number would eventually rise to 480. They could attend the debates in the General Congregations, but could not speak. The theologians who had been silenced during the 1940s and 1950s, such as Yves Congar and Henri de Lubac, and some theologians who were under suspicion in Roman circles at the beginning of the 1960s, such as Karl Rahner and Hans Küng, were appointed periti because of their expertise. Their appointment served to vindicate their ideas and gave them

5170-673: The bishops of an episcopal conference (usually a single country), while provincial councils involve the bishops of an ecclesiastical province . The Catholic Church recognizes as ecumenical 21 councils occurring over a period of some 1900 years. The ecumenical nature of some Councils was disputed for some time but was eventually accepted, for example the  First Lateran Council  and the  Council of Basel . A 1539 book on ecumenical councils by Cardinal Dominicus Jacobazzi excluded them, as did other scholars. The first few centuries did not know large-scale councils; they were feasible only after Emperor Constantine granted

5280-410: The council as some bishop's personal theologian, and were later appointed official periti . Some notable theologians, such as Edward Schillebeeckx , remained private periti for the whole duration of the council. Observers (§18) . An important innovation was the invitation by Pope John to Orthodox and Protestant Churches to send observers to the council. Eventually 21 denominations or bodies such as

5390-458: The council because he felt the Church needed "updating" (in Italian: aggiornamento ). In order to better connect with people in an increasingly secularized world, some of the Church's practices needed to be improved and presented in a more understandable and relevant way. Support for aggiornamento won out over resistance to change, and as a result the sixteen magisterial documents produced by

5500-442: The council issued the famous declaration Haec sancta synodus , which declared that popes are below, not above, an ecumenical council. The council deposed all three popes and installed Pope Martin V , who made his peace with John XXIII by installing him as a cardinal. It also provided for future councils to be held, and signed five concordats with the major participating nations . Reforms did not materialize as hoped for, because

5610-456: The council proper. Those eligible for seats at the council were 2,908 men, referred to as council fathers, including all bishops around the world, as well as many superiors of male religious orders. In the opening session 2,540 took part, making it the largest gathering in any council in church history. (This contrasts with Vatican I, where 737 attended, mostly from Europe.) Attendance varied in later sessions from 2,100 to over 2,300. In addition,

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5720-507: The council proposed significant developments in doctrine and practice, notably The council had a significant impact on the Church due to the scope and variety of issues it addressed. Some of the most notable changes were in performance of the Mass, including that vernacular languages could be authorized as well as Latin. Pope Pius XII's 1943 encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu gave a renewed impetus to Catholic Bible studies and encouraged

5830-533: The council with a liturgy , which has been repeated since in all Catholic ecumenical councils. He entered the Cathedral in liturgical vestments with a small procession and took his place on the papal throne . Patriarchs, followed by cardinals, archbishops and bishops, were the next in rank. The Pope gave a blessing to the choir, which intoned the Veni Sancte Spiritus . The Pope issued a prayer to

5940-612: The council: aid to Jerusalem, union with the Greek Orthodox Church and reform of the Catholic Church. The council achieved a short-lived unity with the Greek representatives, who were denounced for this back home by the hierarchy and the emperor. A teaching on purgatory was defined. Papal conclaves were regulated in Ubi periculum , which specified that electors must be locked up during the conclave and, if they could not agree on

6050-549: The creed, which referred to the Holy Spirit emanating from God the Father and the Son. The council condemned Photius, who questioned the legality of the papal delegates presiding over the council, and ended the schism. The council met in ten sessions from October 869 to February 870 and issued 27 canons. All of these councils took place in the West and were attended by Western bishops. Successors of Charlemagne insisted increasingly on

6160-619: The emperor outlawed pictorial presentations of Christ and the saints. The Pope argued against the first iconoclasm and convened in 731 a local council in Rome to no avail. The Second Council of Nicaea discussed and restored the veneration of icons using the Bible and tradition of the Church as arguments. Pictures of Christ, the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Saints were used to stimulate piety and imitation. The council met in eight sessions from 24 September until 23 October 787, during

6270-485: The end of Italian unification , the only topics that had been completed were the theology of the papacy and the relationship of faith and reason , while the theology of the episcopate and of the laity were left unaddressed. The role of the Second Vatican Council in continuing and completing the work of the first was noted by Pope Paul VI in his encyclical letter Ecclesiam Suam (1964). At

6380-507: The fathers rejected a dogmatization at that time, a decision shared by Pope Pius IX. The concept of co-redemptrix was also discussed but left open. In its support, council fathers highlighted the divine motherhood of Mary and called her the mother of all graces. But by the time of Vatican II it was passed over for reasons given and later avoided because of its ambiguity. The council met in four sessions from 8 December 1869, to 18 July 1870. The Second Vatican Council, also known as Vatican II,

6490-498: The foundations of Catholic doctrine". Without citing specific individuals, he criticized those who advocated new schools of theology. It was generally understood that the encyclical was directly against the nouvelle théologie as well as developments in ecumenism and Bible studies. Some of these works were placed on the Index of Prohibited Books , and some of the authors were forbidden to teach or to publish. Those who suffered most were

6600-554: The fourth is not accepted by the Oriental Orthodox Church . The council again dealt with the issue of the two natures of Christ, as monophysitism had spread through Christianity despite the decisions of Chalcedon. The council met from 5 May until 2 June 553, in eight sessions during the pontificate of Pope Vigilius , who was imprisoned during the council by the emperor. It condemned "Three Chapters" of Nestorian writings. Several Catholic provinces refused to accept

6710-444: The idea. They were two of the most conservative, Ernesto Ruffini and Alfredo Ottaviani , who had already in 1948 proposed the idea to Pius XII and who put it before John XXIII on 27 October 1958. Over the course of the next 3 years, the Pope would make many statements describing the results he expected from the council. They formed something like 3 concentric circles: Two less solemn statements are attributed to John XXIII about

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6820-621: The liturgy commission to deal with many proposed amendments. This schema from the preparatory theological commission took the conservative position on all questions currently being discussed by theologians. Reformers were particularly opposed to two claims: that there were revealed truths in Tradition that were not contained in Scripture and that every assertion in the Bible was free of error. The debate lasted six days. The dramatic vote on acceptance in principle came on November 20. The question

6930-404: The media. There was little interest in pursuing the discussion. On November 27, the council decided the schema should contain only essential principles, leaving detailed practical matters to be dealt with after the council. The schema was accepted in principle and returned to its commission to be abridged. Catholic ecumenical councils God Schools Relations with: According to

7040-608: The medieval city of 10,000 created dramatic monetary inflation: the German poet Oswald von Wolkenstein wrote, "Just thinking of Constance, my purse begins to hurt." The council continued debate on conciliarism. The papal delegate opened the council in Basel on 23 July 1431, without a single bishop present. When he tried to close it later, bishops insisted on citing the pope to the council, which he refused. The council continued on its own and issued several decrees on Church reform. Most of

7150-408: The modern world and set off in a new direction towards a renewed theology of the Church and of the laity, ecumenism and the reform of the liturgy. The council was officially summoned by the apostolic constitution Humanae Salutis on 25 December 1961. Preparation for the council took over three years, from the summer of 1959 to the autumn of 1962. The first year was known officially as

7260-508: The newly elected commission members had not been on any preparatory commission. This was a first success for renewal. On 22 October, the first schema to be discussed was the one from the very reform-minded preparatory commission for liturgy. It had 8 chapters: It proposed many reforms, including active participation of the congregation, communal singing, a partial replacement of Latin by vernacular languages, communion under both kinds, concelebration, adaptation of liturgy to local cultures and

7370-479: The one son, our lord Jesus Christ to be fully God and fully human." It met in 17 sessions from 8 October until November 451 during the pontificate of Pope Leo the Great. It issued 28 canons, the last one defining equality of the bishops of Rome and Constantinople, which was rejected by the papal delegates and Pope Leo the Great . The first three of these are recognized as ecumenical by both Catholics and Orthodox, but

7480-589: The only two officially recognized Roman Catholic translations of the canonical hours in English, the Grail became the de facto liturgical Psalter. Some Episcopal Conferences , such as that of England and Wales , also adopted the Grail for the Responsorial Psalms in the Lectionary for Mass. The Ruthenian Catholic Church adopted the Grail Psalms for chanting in 2007. A separate edition of

7590-470: The order were not accepted as the Pope ruled that confessions under torture were inadmissible. He withdrew canonical support for the order but refused to turn over its properties to the French king. The council fathers discussed another crusade , but were convinced instead by Raimundus Lullus that knowledge of foreign languages is the only way to Christianize Muslims and Jews . He successfully proposed

7700-431: The participants that there were two "tendencies" among the Council Fathers, those who were supporters of aggiornamento and renewal, and those who were not. The two tendencies had already appeared in the deliberations of the Central Preparatory Commission before the opening of the council. In addition to popes John XXIII and Paul VI , these were the prominent actors at the council: Prominent Conservative Bishops at

7810-640: The participants were theologians; bishops made only ten percent of the eligible voters. The Pope moved the council to Ferrara , where he achieved a major success, when the Greek Orthodox Church agreed to unity with Rome. But conciliarism continued to be the politically correct trend, as "reform" and "council" were seen as inseparable. Formally, the Council of Basel was never closed. The council decreed in 1439 (a short-lived) union with Greek, Armenian, and Jacobite Churches (1442). The council had 25 sessions from July 1431 until April 1442. It met under Pope Eugene IV in Basel, Germany, and Ferrara and Florence, Italy. It

7920-526: The people ." The issue was reform and numerous small reforms were approved by the council, such as selection of bishops, taxation issues, religious education, training of priests, improved sermons, etc., but the larger issues were not covered and Pope Leo X was not particularly reform-minded. The council condemned as illegal a previous meeting in Pisa. The council met from 1512–1517 in twelve sessions under Pope Julius II and his successor Pope Leo X. This

8030-557: The political rulings of the previous council by deposing Frederick II , as German king and as emperor. Frederick was accused of heresy, treason and arresting a ship with about 100 prelates willing to attend a meeting with the pope. Frederick outlawed attendance at the council and blocked access to Lyon from Germany. Therefore, the majority of council fathers originated from Spain, France and Italy. The council met in three sessions from 28 June 1245, and issued 22 chapters all approved by Pope Innocent IV . Pope Gregory X defined three aims for

8140-466: The pontificate of Pope Adrian I . It issued twenty canons. This was the last ecumenical council to be accepted by both Eastern and Western churches. With the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800, his new title as Patricius Romanorum, and the handing over of the keys to the Tomb of Saint Peter , the papacy had acquired a new protector in the West. This freed the pontiffs to some degree from

8250-553: The pontificate of Pope Damasus I and issued four canons. The Council of Ephesus proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos (Greek Η Θεοτόκος, "Mother of God" or "God-bearer"). The council met in seven sessions during the pontificate of Pope Celestine I from 22 June until 17 July 431. It rejected Nestorianism . The Council of Chalcedon defined the two natures (divine and human) of Jesus Christ. "We teach unanimously that

8360-409: The pontificate of Pope Paul III . Under Pope Julius III , the council met in Trent (1551–1552) for the 12th–16th sessions. Under Pope Pius IV the 17th–25th sessions took place in Trent (1559–1565). The council, also known as Vatican I, was convened by Pope Pius IX in 1869 and had to be prematurely interrupted in 1870 because of advancing Italian troops. In the short time, it issued definitions of

8470-532: The power of the emperor in Constantinople, but it also led to a schism , because the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople interpreted themselves as the true descendants of the Roman Empire dating back to the beginnings of the Church. Pope Nicholas I had refused to recognize Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople , who in turn had attacked the pope as a heretic, because he kept the filioque in

8580-473: The preparatory commission for theology, dominated by officials of the Holy Office (the curial department for theological orthodoxy) showed no signs of aggiornamento at all. The two notable exceptions were the preparatory commission for liturgy and the Secretariat for Christian unity, whose schemas were very much in the spirit of renewal. In addition to these specialist commissions and secretariats, there

8690-465: The preparatory period, continued to exist under its president Cardinal Augustin Bea throughout the 4 years of the council, with the same powers as a commission. The commissions were tasked with revising the schemas as Council Fathers submitted amendments. They met in the afternoons or evenings. Procedure was more informal than in the general assemblies: there was spontaneous debate, sometimes heated, and Latin

8800-538: The preparatory period, they were 10 in number, each covering the same area of Church life as a particular curial department and chaired by the cardinal who headed that department: Each commission included 25 Council Fathers (16 elected by the council and 9 appointed by the Pope) as well as consultors (official periti appointed by the pope). In addition, the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity , appointed during

8910-401: The press and television, and the Pope was present. There were 10 public sessions in the course of the council: the opening day of each of the council's four periods, 5 days when the Pope promulgated Council documents, and the final day of the council. Commissions (§5–6, 64–70). Much of the detailed work of the council was done in these commissions. Like the preparatory commissions during

9020-500: The primary participants at councils, but a variety of other people have attended different Councils: for instance 800 abbots – outnumbering the bishops -- and some secular rulers took part in the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). Today, the Pope decides on the matters to be discussed and the procedure to be followed at an ecumenical council, but at all councils except the last two (Vatican I and II), these were decided by

9130-625: The proceedings of the Council of Trent and the First Vatican Council. What is needed, and what everyone imbued with a truly Christian, Catholic and apostolic spirit craves today, is that this doctrine shall be more widely known, more deeply understood, and more penetrating in its effects on men's moral lives. What is needed is that this certain and immutable doctrine, to which the faithful owe obedience, be studied afresh and reformulated in contemporary terms. For this deposit of faith, or truths which are contained in our time-honored teaching

9240-463: The production of new Bible translations from the original languages. This led to a pastoral attempt to get ordinary Catholics to re-discover the Bible, to read it, to make it a source of their spiritual life. This found a response in very limited circles. By 1960, the movement was still in its infancy. By the 1930s, mainstream theology based on neo-scholasticism and papal encyclicals was being rejected by some theologians as dry and uninspiring. Thus

9350-445: The public. Council Fathers were under an obligation not to reveal anything that went on in the daily sittings (§26). Secrecy soon broke down, and much information about the daily General Congregations was leaked to the press. The Pope did not attend General Congregations, but followed the deliberations on closed-circuit television. Public Sessions (§2, 44–51). These were similar to General Congregations, except that they were open to

9460-494: The purpose of the council. One is about opening the windows of the Church to let in some fresh air; the other about shaking off the imperial dust accumulated on the throne of St. Peter. The source for the second statement is Cardinal Léger of Montréal, as reported by Congar. The first statement has been repeated so many times as to be extremely difficult to verify. Once the officials of the Curia had recovered from their shock at

9570-506: The reformers disagreed among themselves. John Hus , a Bohemian reformer, was issued an imperial guarantee for safe conduct to and from the council. However, after he contravened the agreement by saying Mass and preaching in public, he was arrested, tried for heresy, and burned at the stake by the civil authorities in 1415. The Council of Constance was one of the longest in Church history, meeting in 45 sessions from 4 November 1414 until 22 April 1418. The influx of 15,000 to 20,000 persons into

9680-526: The right to appoint bishops on their own, which led to the Investiture Controversy with the popes. The Concordat of Worms signed by Pope Calixtus II included a compromise between the two parties, by which the pope alone appoints bishops as spiritual head while the emperor maintains a right to give secular offices and honors. Pope Calixtus invoked the council to ratify this historic agreement. There are few documents and protocols left from

9790-513: The right to speak and vote. Their number was about 2,900, though some 500 of them would be unable to attend, either for reasons of health or old age, or because the Communist authorities of their country would not let them travel. The Council Fathers in attendance represented 79 countries: 38% were from Europe, 31% from the Americas, 20% from Asia & Oceania, and 10% from Africa. (At Vatican I

9900-551: The rights to the Revised Grail from the monks of Conception Abbey, and released a new revision titled Abbey Psalms and Canticles , which "will gradually be incorporated into the Church’s official liturgical books." From Psalm 63 (62):2–9. for yóu my sóul is thírsting. My bódy pínes for yóu like a drý, weary lánd without wáter. 3 So I gáze on yóu in the sánctuary to sée your stréngth and your glóry. 4 For your lóve

10010-414: The same area of responsibility as one of the main departments of the Curia and was chaired by the cardinal who headed that department. From the 9,438 proposals, a list of topics was created, and these topics were parcelled out to these commissions according to their area of competence. Some commissions prepared a separate schema for each topic they were asked to treat, others a single schema encompassing all

10120-455: The same time, the world's bishops were facing challenges driven by political, social, economic, and technological change. Some of these bishops were seeking new ways of addressing those challenges. John XXIII gave notice of his intention to convene an ecumenical council on 25 January 1959, less than three months after his election in October 1958. His announcement in the chapter hall of

10230-492: The sessions and 25 canons approved. The council met from 18 March to 5 April 1123. After the death of Pope Honorius II (1124–1130), two popes were elected by two groups of cardinals. Sixteen cardinals elected Pope Innocent II , while others elected antipope Anacletus II who was called the Pope of the Ghetto, in light of his Jewish origins. The council deposed the antipope and his followers. In important decisions regarding

10340-401: The sole authority "to convoke an ecumenical council, preside over it personally or through others, transfer, suspend or dissolve a council, and to approve its decrees". It belongs to the Pope to "determine the matters to be treated in a council and establish the order to be observed in a council". The decrees of an ecumenical council do not have obligatory force unless they have been approved by

10450-429: The spirit of aggiornamento , asking for reforms and new ways of doing things. The next two years (known officially as the "preparatory period") were occupied with preparing the drafts, called schemas , that would be submitted to the bishops for discussion at the council. On 5 June 1960, ten Preparatory Commissions were created, to which a total of 871 bishops and experts were appointed. Each preparatory commission had

10560-400: The teaching of Greek , Hebrew , and Arabic languages in Catholic universities. With this the council is considered to have begun modern missionary policies. In the three sessions, the council discussed further Franciscan poverty ideals. It met from October 1311 until May 1312. All of these councils were called to reform the Church. The first three were involved in an ongoing debate about

10670-431: The topics they were handed. These were the preparatory commissions and the number of schemas they prepared: Two secretariats – one the offshoot of an existing Vatican office, the other a new body – also had a part in drafting schemas: The total number of schemas was 70. As most of these preparatory bodies were predominantly conservative, the schemas they produced showed only modest signs of updating. The schemas drafted by

10780-541: The watches of the night. 8 For you have been my strength; in the shadow of your wings I rejoice. 9 My soul clings fast to you; your right hand upholds me. for you my soul is thirsting. For you my flesh is pining, like a dry, weary land without water. 3 I have come before you in the sanctuary, to behold your strength and your glory. 4 Your loving mercy is better than life; my lips will speak your praise. 5 I will bless you all my life; in your name I will lift up my hands. 6 My soul shall be filled as with

10890-544: The work of the bishops and to prepare for the next session. Sessions were held in Latin in St. Peter's Basilica , with secrecy kept as to discussions held and opinions expressed. Speeches (called interventions ) were limited to ten minutes. Much of the work of the council, though, went on in a variety of other commission meetings (which could be held in other languages), as well as diverse informal meetings and social contacts outside of

11000-400: Was a Central Preparatory Commission , to which all the schemas had to be submitted for final approval. It was a large body of 108 members from 57 countries, including two thirds of the cardinals. As a result of its work, 22 schemas were eliminated from the conciliar agenda, mainly because they could be dealt with during a planned revision of the 1917 Code of Canon Law after the council, and

11110-579: Was a final vote on a document. This was followed some days later by a public session where the Pope promulgated the document as the official teaching of the council, following another, ceremonial, vote of the Council Fathers. There was an unwritten rule that, in order to be considered official Church teaching, a document had to receive an overwhelming majority of votes, somewhere in the area of 90%. This led to many compromises, as well as formulations that were broad enough to be acceptable by people on either side of an issue. All General Congregations were closed to

11220-421: Was about 2,200. Stands with tiers of seats for all the Council Fathers had been built on both sides of the central nave of St. Peter's. During the first session, a council of presidents, of 10 cardinals, was responsible for presiding over the general assemblies, its members taking turns chairing each day's sitting (§4). During the later sessions, this task belonged to a council of 4 Moderators. All votes required

11330-656: Was born the movement called ressourcement , the return to the sources: basing theology directly on the Bible and the Church Fathers . Some theologians also began to discuss new topics, such as the historical dimension of theology, the theology of work, ecumenism, the theology of the laity and the theology of "earthly realities". These writings, whose new style came to be called la nouvelle théologie ('the new theology'), attracted Rome's attention, and in 1950 Pius XII published Humani generis , an encyclical "concerning some false opinions threatening to undermine

11440-428: Was condemned as a heresy . This council is well documented: Reports include the saga of an Irish bishop whose income consisted in the milk from three cows. If one of the cows would stop giving milk, the faithful were obliged to donate another animal. The council met in March 1179 in three sessions and issued 27 chapters, which were all approved by Pope Alexander III . The council mandated every Christian in serious sin

11550-420: Was convoked by Pope John XXIII and met from 1962 to 1965. Unlike most previous councils, it did not issue any condemnations, as its objective was pastoral. Despite this, it issued 16 magisterial documents: The general sessions of the council were held in the autumns of four successive years (in four periods ) 1962 through 1965. During the other parts of the year special commissions met to review and collate

11660-463: Was moved to Rome in 1442. The Fifth Council of the Lateran opened under the leadership of the Pope in Rome. It taught that the soul of a human being lives forever (but see the current understanding of eternal life ). As previous councils, it condemned heresies stating the opposite without mentioning names. The opening sermon included the sentence: "People must be transformed by holiness not holiness by

11770-406: Was not the only language used. Like the General Congregations, they were closed to the public and subject to the same rules of secrecy. Official Periti (§9–10). These experts in theology, canon law and other areas were appointed by the Pope to advise the Council Fathers, and were assigned as consultors to the commissions, where they played an important part in re-writing the council documents. At

11880-432: Was phrased in terms of rejection: Should the schema be rejected? Yes: 1,360. No: 822. This was 102 votes short of the two-thirds majority required by Council regulations, and so the council would have to continue discussing a schema that 62% of the participants rejected. Resolution of the impasse came the next day (November 21): Pope John announced the schema would be revised by a special joint commission made up of members of

11990-521: Was reverted to the old two-thirds majority by Pope Benedict XVI in his Moto Proprio, De Aliquibus Mutationibus, from June 11, 2007. Still valid today are the regulations that outlawed simony , and the elevation to Episcopal offices for anyone under thirty. The council also ruled it illegal to sell arms or goods which could assist armaments to Muslim powers. Saracens and Jews were forbidden from keeping Christian slaves. All cathedrals were to appoint teachers for indigent and low-income children. Catharism

12100-645: Was the first council to have a representative from the New World, Alessandro Geraldini , the Archbishop of Santo Domingo , attend. The council issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies and it defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin , Justification , Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints . It issued numerous reform decrees. By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation ,

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