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138-513: The Celtaquatre was presented to the public in April 1934 and entered production a month later. Its arrival coincided with that of Citroën 's Traction Avant , and the Renault 's launch was overshadowed by Citroën 's powerful publicity machine. The car was powered by a four-cylinder 1463 cc side-valve engine, for which a maximum of 25 kW (34 hp) at 3,500 rpm was claimed. Power passed to

276-732: A confederacy . The Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by Spain until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. An important factor in the growth of the Netherlands as an economic power was the influx of groups seeking religious toleration of the Dutch Republic. In particular, it became the destination of Portuguese and Spanish Jews fleeing

414-802: A "go slow" on production of trucks for the Wehrmacht , many of which were sabotaged at the factory by putting the notch on the oil dipstick in the wrong place, which resulted in engine seizure. In 1944 when the Gestapo headquarters in Paris was sacked by the French Resistance , his name was prominent on a Nazi blacklist of the most important enemies of the Reich, to be arrested in the event of an allied invasion of France. Citroën researchers, including Paul Magès , continued their work in secret, against

552-575: A 10 HP car that would be better equipped, more robust and less costly to produce than any rival product at the time. The result was the Type A , announced to the press in March 1919, just four months after the guns fell silent. The first production Type A emerged from the factory, located at Quai de Javel , Vaugirard , Paris , at the end of May 1919 and in June it was exhibited at a show room at Number 42, on

690-477: A 38.2% share of Citroën and on 9 April 1976 they increased their stake of the then bankrupt company to 89.95%, thus creating the PSA Group (where PSA is short for Peugeot Société Anonyme ), becoming PSA Peugeot Citroën . In May 1975 Maserati was sold to De Tomaso and the new Italian owner was thereby able to exploit the sales potential of the models and technology developed by Citroën, as well as to utilise

828-586: A First World War air reconnaissance photography specialist with the French Air Force ; he was capable and efficient and finished the war with the rank of captain. He was also courageous, having been decorated with the Military Cross and the Legion of Honour. He started working for Michelin in 1918, reporting directly to Édouard Michelin , co-director and founder of the business. Boulanger joined

966-450: A company, which was being picketed by striking workers who had been blocking access to the factories for four weeks. The demonstration was successful and six days later work at the plants resumed. Jacques Lombard, one of the company's senior managers, had gone public with his concerns, criticising the strikes. PSA gradually diluted Citroën's ambitious, highly individualistic, and distinctive approach to engineering and styling. All through

1104-565: A control valve, with actuating pistons in the gearbox cover to shift the gears in the transmission , and the clutch was operated automatically by the system, so there was no clutch pedal. From 1957 the ID19 model offered a simplified hydraulic system, with manual steering and conventional manual gearshift, and a significant price reduction. From 1968, with revised front end style, the DS also introduced auxiliary driving lights, that moved directionally with

1242-700: A critical ally of the United Provinces in its ongoing war with Louis XIV of France . William was the commander of the Dutch and English armies and fleets until his death in 1702. During William's reign as King of England, his primary focus was leveraging British manpower and finances to aid the Dutch against the French. The combination continued during the War of the Spanish Succession after his death as

1380-530: A farm near Goejanverwellesluis . She was forced to return to Nijmegen. She appealed to her brother for help, and he sent some 26,000 troops to invade, led by Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick and a small contingent of British troops to suppress the rebellion . The Patriot militias could not contend with these forces, melting away. Dutch banks at this time still held much of the world's capital . Government-sponsored banks owned up to 40% of Great Britain's national debt and there were close connections to

1518-581: A forerunner of the French Revolution . The Patriot movement focused more on local political power, where they had no say in their towns' governance. Although they were able to curtail the power of the stadholder, and hold democratic elections in select towns, they were divided in their political vision, which was more local than national. Supporters were drawn from religious dissenters and Catholics in particular places, while pro-stadholder Orangists had more widespread geographical support of sections of

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1656-703: A huge fleet of 2,000 ships, initially larger than the fleets of England and France combined. Major conflicts were fought in the Eighty Years' War against Spain (from the foundation of the Dutch Republic until 1648), the Dutch–Portuguese War (1598–1663), four Anglo-Dutch Wars (the first against the Commonwealth of England , two against the Kingdom of England , and a fourth against the Kingdom of Great Britain , 1665–1667 , 1672–1674 , and 1780–1784 ),

1794-708: A model in the profitable middle range of the European market, plus the massive development costs a string of new models: the GS , GS Birotor , CX , SM , Maserati Bora , Maserati Merak , Maserati Quattroporte II , and Maserati Khamsin . Each of these models is a technological marvel in its own right. Thus, forty years after the bankruptcy related to the Traction Avant , Citroën went bankrupt again, losing its existence as an independent entity; selling Berliet and Maserati and closing Comotor. Fearing large job losses due to

1932-653: A museum of its many significant vehicles: the Conservatoire with 300 cars. In line with the severe decline in European car sales after 2009, worldwide sales of vehicles declined from 1,460,373 in 2010 to 1,435,688 in 2011, with 961,156 of these sold in Europe. In 2011, the PSA Group was close to forming a partnership with BMW, for the development of electric and hybrid vehicles, but the talks fell through, shortly after Groupe PSA, Citroën's parent company, had announced

2070-755: A new one between PSA and Toyota is now producing cars like the Citroën C1 in the Czech Republic . The China joint venture began selling cars in 1984 and building them in 1994. The range of family cars there included the C3 and Xsara and locally designed cars like the Fukang and Elysée models. By 2014 the brand had increased its Chinese sales by 30%, amid overall market growth of 11%, and ranked highest in China's 2014 JD Power satisfaction survey. Citroën

2208-652: A number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht , in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Army of Flanders . This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration , the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. Dutch colonialism began at this point, as the Netherlands was able to swipe a number of Portuguese and Spanish colonies , particularly in

2346-461: A partnership with GM, which later also failed. Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën continues growing, and has developed eight new car designs exclusively for the China market. By 2016 Citroën (and Peugeot ) faced the same challenge as Volkswagen in China: there were too many sedans and hatchbacks , but not enough models in the strong selling SUV and minivan /MPV categories. The brand ranked highest in

2484-568: A round trip from August to December 1925. This vehicle is now fully restored and in the collection of the National Museum of Australia . In 1924, Citroën began a business relationship with the American engineer Edward G. Budd . From 1899, Budd had worked to develop stainless steel bodies for railroad cars, for Pullman in particular. Budd went on to manufacture steel bodies for many automakers, Dodge being his first big auto client. At

2622-840: A series of three naval wars against England in 1652–1674. In 1651, England imposed its first Navigation Act , which severely hurt Dutch trade interests. An incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the First Anglo-Dutch War, which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the Treaty of Westminster (1654) , which left the Navigation Act in effect. After the English Restoration in 1660, Charles II tried to serve his dynastic interests by attempting to make Prince William III of Orange , his nephew, stadtholder of

2760-472: A single city, so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles. While the banking system evolved in the Low Countries, it was quickly incorporated by the well-connected English, stimulating English economic output. The Dutch Republic was a master of banking, often compared to 14th century Florence. The republic was a confederation of seven provinces, which had their own governments and were very independent, and

2898-663: A study to clarify and support brand differentiation within a brand portfolio". Citroën entered the Indian market in early 2021 with the launch of the C5 Aircross SUV manufactured at the Hindustan Motors Thiruvallur plant in Tamil Nadu , India. In early 2009, Citroën announced the development of the premium brand DS , for Different Spirit or Distinctive Series (although the reference to

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3036-468: A successful six-year stint working with Mors between 1908 and the outbreak of war . The decision to switch to automobile manufacturing was taken as early as 1916, which is the year when Citroën asked the engineer Louis Dufresne, previously with Panhard , to design a technically sophisticated 18HP automobile he could produce in his factory once peace returned. Long before that happened, however, he had modified his vision and decided, like Henry Ford , that

3174-766: A technological leap forward was pursued to a limited extent: in 1965 the Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow used this type of suspension, while the 1963 Mercedes-Benz 600 and Mercedes-Benz 300SEL 6.3 tried to replicate its advantages with a costly, complex and expensive to maintain, air suspension , that avoided the Citroën-patented technology. By 1975, the Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9 was finally produced with this proven system and Mercedes-Benz continues to offer variations on this technology today. During Citroën's 1968–1975 venture with Maserati ,

3312-510: A unitary body with no separate frame , four wheel independent suspension and front-wheel drive . Whereas for many decades, the vast majority of motor cars were similar in conception to the Ford Model T – a body bolted onto a ladder frame which held all the mechanical elements of the car, a solid rear axle that rigidly connected the rear wheels and rear wheel drive . The Model T school of automobile engineering proved popular because it

3450-471: A very soft, interconnected suspension, but did not have the more complex self-levelling feature . This car remained in production, with only minor changes, until 1990 and was a common sight on French roads until recently; 9 million 2CV variants were produced in the period 1948–1990. 1955 saw the introduction of the DS , the first full usage of Citroën's hydropneumatic self-levelling suspension system, tested on

3588-526: Is a global brand, except in North America, where the company has not returned since the SM was effectively banned in 1974 for not meeting U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) bumper height regulations. In 2016, Peugeot–Citroën South Africa (PCSA) announced that they were going to stop importing new Citroën models into South Africa in order to focus on increasing Peugeot's sales in

3726-538: The Dutch Republic on 2 May 1747. During this period the office of stadtholder was left vacant in the provinces of Holland , Zeeland , and Utrecht , though in other provinces that office was filled by members of the House of Nassau-Dietz (later called Orange-Nassau) during various periods. During the period, the Republic lost its Great-Power status and its primacy in world trade, processes that went hand-in-hand,

3864-594: The American Revolutionary War , broke out over British and Dutch disagreements on the legality and conduct of Dutch trade with Britain's enemies in that war. Although the Dutch Republic did not enter into a formal alliance with the United States and their allies, U.S. ambassador (and future President) John Adams managed to establish diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic, making it the second European country to diplomatically recognize

4002-515: The Asia-Pacific region. After the assassination of William of Orange on 10 July 1584, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined offers of sovereignty. However, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England ( Treaty of Nonsuch , 1585), and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became

4140-629: The Champs-Élysées in Paris which normally sold Alda cars . Citroën persuaded the owner of the Alda business, Fernand Charron , to lend him the show-room, which is still in use today. This C42 showroom is where the company organises exhibitions and shows its vehicles and concept cars. A few years later, Charron would be persuaded to become a major investor in the Citroën business. On 7 July 1919,

4278-495: The Continental Congress in April 1782. In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well. Most of the war consisted of a series of largely successful British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British and Dutch naval forces also met once off the Dutch coast . The war ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of

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4416-476: The Dutch Golden Age in the late-16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch Republic dominated world trade , conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation. When Southern Europe was experiencing poor harvests, the Dutch very profitably exported surplus grain from Poland. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world. In 1650

4554-647: The Dyane , and soon the Peugeot 104 based Citroën Visa and Citroën LNA . Peugeot was typically prudent with its own finances. Then, PSA purchased the ageing assets and substantial liabilities of Chrysler Europe for $ 1, leading to losses from 1980 to 1985. PSA resurrected the Talbot name for the Chrysler cars, but stopped producing cars with the badge in 1987 as the cars were considered unreliable and poorly-made. At

4692-490: The Faubourg Saint-Denis area of the 10th arrondissement of Paris and moved in 1912 to 31 Quai de Grenelle in the 15th arrondissement of Paris . André Citroën (1878–1935) built armaments for France during World War I ; after the war, however, he realized that unless he planned ahead he would have a modern factory without a product. Citroën was already experienced in the automotive business, thanks to

4830-854: The Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713), the War of Austrian Succession (1744–1748), and the War of the First Coalition (1792–1795) against the Kingdom of France . The republic was more tolerant of different religions and ideas than contemporary states, allowing freedom of thought to its residents. Artists flourished under this regime, including painters such as Rembrandt , Johannes Vermeer , and many others. So did scientists, such as Hugo Grotius , Christiaan Huygens , and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek . Dutch trade, science, armed forces, and art were among

4968-762: The House of Stuart . The stadholder had supported British policies after the American Revolution and in foreign policy, the stadholder was "little more than a pawn of the British and Prussians", so that Patriot pressure was ignored by William. This severe military response overwhelmed the Patriots and put the stadholder firmly back in control. A small unpaid Prussian army was billeted in the Netherlands and supported themselves by looting and extortion. The exercitiegenootschappen continued urging citizens to resist

5106-849: The M2 Half Track Car and M3 Half-track versions. The U.S. eventually produced more than 41,000 vehicles in over 70 versions between 1940 and 1944. After their 1940 occupation of France, the Nazis captured many of the Citroën half-track vehicles and armored them for their own use. Citroën used the Eiffel Tower as the world's largest advertising sign, as recorded in Guinness World Records . He also sponsored expeditions in Asia ( Croisière Jaune ), North America (Croisière Blanche) and Africa (Croisière Noire), demonstrating

5244-610: The Patriottentijd (1780–1787). This unrest was temporarily suppressed by a Prussian invasion in support of the stadtholder. The French Revolution and subsequent War of the First Coalition reignited these tensions. Following military defeat by France, the stadtholder was expelled in the Batavian Revolution of 1795, ending the Dutch Republic, which was succeeded by the Batavian Republic . Until

5382-728: The Pilgrim Fathers ). Many immigrants came to the cities of Holland in the 17th and 18th century from the Protestant parts of Germany and elsewhere. The number of first-generation immigrants from outside the Netherlands in Amsterdam was nearly 50% in the 17th and 18th centuries. Amsterdam, which was a hub of the Atlantic world , had a population primarily of immigrants and others not considered Dutch, if one includes second and third generation immigrants. There were also migrants from

5520-435: The Treaty of Nijmegen , although France's Spanish and German allies felt betrayed by this. In 1688, at the start of the Nine Years' War with France, the relations with England reached crisis level once again. Convinced that he needed English support against France and that he had to prevent a second Anglo-French alliance, Stadtholder William III decided he had to take a huge gamble and invade England. To this end he secured

5658-406: The head of state . This created tension between political factions: the Orangists favoured a powerful stadtholder, while the Republicans favoured a strong States General. The Republicans forced two Stadtholderless Periods , 1650–1672 and 1702–1747, with the latter causing national instability and the end of great power status. Economic decline led to a period of political instability known as

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5796-412: The stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange suddenly died; his son was a baby and the Orangists were leaderless. The regents seized the opportunity: there would be no new stadtholder in Holland for 22 years. Johan de Witt , a brilliant politician and diplomat, emerged as the dominant figure. Princes of Orange became the stadtholder and an almost hereditary ruler in 1672 and 1748. The Dutch Republic of

5934-420: The urban population of the Dutch Republic as a percentage of total population was 31.7 percent, while that of the Spanish Netherlands was 20.8 percent, of Portugal 16.6 percent, and of Italy 14 percent. In 1675 the urban population density of Holland alone was 61 percent, compared to the rest of the Dutch Republic, where 27 percent lived in urban areas. The free trade spirit of

6072-455: The 1670s one such union, that of the Trip family (the Amsterdam branch of the Swedish arms makers) with the son of Burgomaster Valckenier, extended the influence and patronage available to the latter and strengthened his dominance of the council. The oligarchy in Amsterdam thus gained strength from its breadth and openness. In the smaller towns family interest could unite members on policy decisions but contraction through intermarriage could lead to

6210-405: The 16th century, the Low Countries —corresponding roughly to the present-day Netherlands , Belgium , and Luxembourg —consisted of a number of duchies , counties, and prince-bishoprics , almost all of which were under the supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire , with the exception of the County of Flanders , most of which was under the Kingdom of France . Most of the Low Countries had come under

6348-458: The 1781 publication of a manifesto called Aan het Volk van Nederland ("To the People of the Netherlands") by Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol , who would become an influential leader of the Patriot movement. Their aim was to reduce corruption and the power held by the stadtholder , William V, Prince of Orange . Support for the Patriots came mostly from the middle class. They formed militias called exercitiegenootschappen . In 1785, there

6486-432: The 1960s, Citroën undertook a series of financial and development decisions, aiming to build on its strength of the 1950s with the successful 2CV, Type H, and DS models. Nevertheless, these maneuvers were insufficiently effective, and Citroën went bankrupt again in 1974. These measures were to address two key gaps facing the company: These steps include: The teams of Charles Marchetti and Citroën began working together on

6624-438: The 1980s, Citroën models became increasingly Peugeot-like. The 1982 BX used the hydropneumatic suspension system and had a typical Citroënesque appearance, whilst being powered by Peugeot-derived engines and using the floorpan later seen on the Peugeot 405 . In this respect PSA followed the worldwide motor industry trend of platform sharing which is a logical way to reduce costs whilst selling apparently different models. By

6762-465: The 2014 customer satisfaction survey by JD Power in China, above luxury brands like Mercedes-Benz and BMW , and above mass market brands, like Volkswagen, ranking only thirteenth and seventeenth respectively. In the first ten months of 2014 in China, the sales of Dongfeng Citroën cars increased by 30% in an overall market growth of 11%. Despite the near-death financial experience of PSA Peugeot Citroën in 2014, and financial rescue by Dongfeng Motors ,

6900-433: The 2019 Geneva International Motor Show , the manufacturer presented the Ami One concept car to celebrate its 100th anniversary. Then, in May 2019, it unveiled the Citroën 19_19 Concept at the Viva Technology show in Paris. In the early 1980s, Citroën was targeted by union action. On 25 May 1982, events led to a mass demonstration in the streets of Paris, when approximately 27,000 workers affirmed their wish to work at

7038-422: The 526,443 of 1971, and enough to lift the company past Peugeot into second place among French auto makers when ranked by sales volume. The older models continued to sell well: the peak production period of the DS was 1970, and 2CV was in 1974. As the 1970s progressed, circumstances became more unfavourable. In 1973, Fiat sold back to Michelin its 49% stake in the PARDEVI holding company that owned Citroën,

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7176-420: The Celtaquatre lost its roundness to acquire a more aerodynamic shape. Appearance of two new body types: a Cabriolet and a Coupé Cabriolet . In 1937, the Celtaquatre received an American -inspired V-shaped grill which was retained throughout the rest of the model's production. In 1938, a new bumper design appeared with straight slats. The coupé was discontinued. In 1939, after production of 44,000 units,

7314-448: The Celtaquatre was replaced by the Juvaquatre . By 1940, most of the Celtaquatre cars remaining in stock were delivered to the French Army. In July 1941, the last 13 Celtaquatre cars were transformed into a small series of Novaquatre . The car was taxed at 8 CV. Citro%C3%ABn Citroën ( French pronunciation: [sitʁɔɛn] ) is a French automobile brand . The "Automobiles Citroën" manufacturing company

7452-439: The Citroën and DS brands worked to develop new technologies with the hope to grow 15% by 2020, according to Citroën CEO Linda Jackson and DS CEO Yves Bonnefont . In the end sales of the Citroën and DS brands in Europe and China fell by 22% by 2019, and fell even further during the 2020 COVID outbreak. In January 2020, Linda Jackson was succeeded as CEO of Citroën by the deputy CEO Vincent Cobée , and she would instead "lead

7590-431: The Citroën and Fiat joint announcement indicated that the benefits foreseen for their union in 1968 had failed to materialise. This was not in line with the tyre company's long-term strategy of ending involvements in the car manufacturing business and created a very unstable ownership situation. The company suffered another financial blow with the 1973 energy crisis . The gamble on Comotor and Maserati showed that there

7728-632: The Citroën high-pressure hydraulic system was used on several Maserati models : for power clutch operation (Bora); power pedal adjustment (Bora); pop-up headlights (Bora, Merak); brakes (Bora, Merak, Khamsin); steering (Khamsin) and the entire Quattroporte II prototype, which was a four-door Citroën SM under the skin. Citroën was one of the early pioneers of the now-widespread trend of aerodynamic automobile design, which helps to reduce fuel consumption and to improve high-speed performance, by reducing wind resistance . The DS could happily cruise at 160 km/h (100 mph) without any discomfort for

7866-482: The Dutch Republic was reluctantly drawn into the War of Austrian Succession , despite efforts to remain neutral. French attacks on Dutch fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands and occupation of the Dutch Zeelandic Flanders led to the Republic joining the Quadruple Alliance , which suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Fontenoy . The French invasion exposed the weaknesses of Dutch defenses, leading to memories of "Disaster Year" of 1672 and widespread calls for

8004-399: The Dutch countryside. People in most parts of Europe were poor and many were unemployed. But in Amsterdam there was always work. Religious toleration was important, because a continuous influx of immigrants was necessary for the economy. Travellers visiting Amsterdam reported their surprise at the lack of control over the influx. The era of explosive economic growth is roughly coterminous with

8142-434: The English economy was seriously hurt and its treasury nearly bankrupt. The greatly expanded Dutch navy was for years after the world's strongest. The Dutch Republic was at the zenith of its power. The year 1672 is known in the Netherlands as the "Disaster Year" ( Rampjaar ). England declared war on the Republic, (the Third Anglo-Dutch War ), followed by France, Münster and Cologne, which had all signed alliances against

8280-442: The French became involved in Dutch politics and the tide turned toward the Patriots. The French Revolution was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when in January 1795 the French army invaded . The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial governments, and proclaimed the Batavian Republic in Amsterdam . Stadtholder William V fled to England and the States General dissolved itself. During

8418-408: The French voluntarily retreated from the Dutch frontier. However, William IV died unexpectedly in 1751 at the age of 40. His son, William V , was 3 years old when his father died, and a long regency characterised by corruption and misrule began. His mother delegated most of the powers of the regency to Bentinck and her favorite, Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg . All power was concentrated in

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8556-487: The Inquisitions in Iberia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. and later, poorer German Jews . The Portuguese Jewish community had many wealthy merchants who, both lived openly as Jews and participated in the thriving economy on a par with wealthy Dutch merchants. The Netherlands became home to many other notable refugees, including Protestants from Antwerp and Flanders , which remained under Spanish Catholic rule ; French Huguenots ; and English Dissenters , including

8694-459: The Michelin board in 1922 and became president of Citroën in January 1938 after the death in a road accident of his friend Pierre Michelin remaining in this position until his own death in 1950. In 1938, he also had become Michelin's joint managing director. During the German occupation of France in World War II Boulanger refused to meet Dr. Ferdinand Porsche or communicate with the German authorities except through intermediaries. He organized

8832-412: The Paris Motor Show in October 1924, Citroën introduced the Citroën B10 , the first all-steel body in Europe. These automobiles were initially successful in the marketplace, but soon competitors who were still using a wooden structure for their vehicles, introduced new body designs. Citroën, who did not redesign the bodies of his cars, still sold in large quantities nonetheless, the cars' low price being

8970-410: The Republic, using some military pressure. King Charles thought a naval war would weaken the Dutch traders and strengthen the English economy and empire, so the Second Anglo-Dutch War was launched in 1665. At first many Dutch ships were captured and the English scored great victories. However, the Raid on the Medway , in June 1667, ended the war with a Dutch victory. The Dutch recovered their trade, while

9108-462: The Republic. France, Cologne and Münster invaded the Republic. Johan de Witt and his brother Cornelis, who had accomplished a diplomatic balancing act for a long time, were now the obvious scapegoats. They were lynched, and a new stadtholder , William III, was appointed. An Anglo-French attempt to land on the Dutch shore was barely repelled in three desperate naval battles under command of Admiral Michiel de Ruyter . The advance of French troops from

9246-415: The Stadtholderate in all provinces. The slow economic decline after 1730 was relative: other countries grew faster, eroding the Dutch lead and surpassing it. Wilson identifies three causes. Holland lost its world dominance in trade as competitors emerged and copied its practices, built their own ships and ports, and traded on their own account directly without going through Dutch intermediaries. Second, there

9384-448: The Traction Avant, tearing down and rebuilding the factory (in five months) and the extensive marketing efforts, were investments that resulted too costly for Citroën to do all at once, causing the financial ruin of the company. In December 1934, despite the assistance of the Michelin company, Citroën filed for bankruptcy. Within the month, Michelin , already the car manufacturer's largest creditor, became its principal shareholder. However,

9522-400: The United Provinces was a true republic from 1650 to 1672 and 1702–1748. These periods are called the First Stadtholderless Period and Second Stadtholderless Period . The Republic and England were major rivals in world trade and naval power. Halfway through the 17th century the Republic's navy was the rival of Britain's Royal Navy as the most powerful navy in the world. The Republic fought

9660-502: The automobile industry only in niche brands, like Porsche and Ferrari . Citroën unveiled the Citroën 2CV or Deux Chevaux signifying two tax horsepower and initially only 9 hp (6.7 kW), at the Paris Salon in 1948. The car became a bestseller, achieving the designer's aim of providing rural French people with a motorized alternative to the horse . It was unusually inexpensive to purchase and, with its small two cylinder engine, inexpensive to run as well. The 2CV pioneered

9798-406: The basis of over 9 million Citroën cars, including the DS , SM , GS , CX , BX , XM , Xantia , C5 , and C6 . Self-levelling suspension is the principal user benefit: the car maintains a constant ride height above the road, regardless of passenger and cargo load and despite the very soft suspension. Hydropneumatic suspension is uniquely able to absorb road irregularities without disturbing

9936-483: The best post-war opportunities in auto-making would involve a lighter car of good quality, but made in sufficient quantities to be priced enticingly. In February 1917 Citroën contacted another engineer, Jules Salomon , who already had a considerable reputation within the French automotive sector as the creator, in 1909, of a little car called Le Zèbre . André Citroën's mandate was characteristically demanding and characteristically simple: to produce an all-new design for

10074-612: The body panels; it was named 2010 Car of the Year by Top Gear Magazine , and was awarded best supermini four times in a row by the JD Power Satisfaction Survey UK and second most efficient supermini (Citroën DS3 1.6 e-HDi 115 Airdream : True MPG 63.0mpg) by What car ? behind the C3 . In 2013 the DS3 was again the best-selling premium subcompact car, with 40% of the European market share, validating

10212-618: The business model of this product development. Dutch Republic The United Provinces of the Netherlands , officially the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands ( Dutch : Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden ) and commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic , was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It was a predecessor state of

10350-469: The city. Therefore, the wealthy Sephardic Jews from Portugal were welcomed and accorded all privileges except those of citizenship, but the poor Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe were far more carefully vetted and those who became dependent on the city were encouraged to move on. Similarly, provision for the housing of Huguenot immigrants was made in 1681 when Louis XIV 's religious policy was beginning to drive these Protestants out of France; no encouragement

10488-449: The clearing of obstacles, fording shallow (slow-moving) streams and changing tyres. Since Citroën was underfunded, its vehicles had the tendency to be underdeveloped at launch, with limited distribution and service networks outside France. Consequently, the early DS models experienced teething issues with the complex hydraulic system, eventually, the hydraulic seals and system component design were sorted, becoming reliable. Licensing such

10626-503: The combined Dutch, British, and Imperial armies conquered Flanders and Brabant, and invaded French territory before the alliance collapsed in 1713 due to British political infighting. The Second Stadtholderless Period ( Dutch : Tweede Stadhouderloze Tijdperk ) is the designation in Dutch historiography of the period between the death of stadtholder William III on 19 March 1702 and the appointment of William IV, Prince of Orange as stadtholder and captain general in all provinces of

10764-414: The country. The Treaty of Paris (1784) , according to Fernand Braudel , "sounded the knell of Dutch greatness." After the war with Great Britain ended disastrously in 1784, there was growing unrest and a rebellion by the anti-Orangist Patriots . Influenced by the American Revolution , the Patriots sought a more democratic form of government. The opening shot of this revolution is often considered to be

10902-601: The country. In May 2019, it was reported that PCSA would re-introduce the Citroën brand into South Africa, this was later confirmed by PCSA, in August 2019, that new Citroën models will go on sale in the middle of October 2019. From 2003 to 2010, Citroën produced the C3 Pluriel, an unusual convertible with allusions to the 1948–1990 2CV model, both in body style (such as the bonnet) and in its all-round practicality. In 2001 it celebrated its history of innovation when it opened

11040-435: The degeneration of the quality of the members. In Amsterdam the network was so large that members of the same family could be related to opposing factions and pursue widely separated interests. The young men who had risen to positions of authority in the 1670s and 1680s consolidated their hold on office well into the 1690s and even the new century. Amsterdam's regents provided good services to residents. They spent heavily on

11178-453: The development of the RE-2  [ fr ] helicopter . From a model range perspective, the 1970s started well, supported by the successful launch of the long-awaited mid-size Citroën GS , finally filling the huge gap between the 2CV and the DS – with a 1-litre, hydropneumatically suspended car. The GS went on to sell 2.5 million units; 601,918 cars were produced in 1972 alone, up from

11316-459: The express orders of the Germans, and developed the concepts that were later brought to market in three remarkable vehicles – a small car (2CV), a delivery van (Type H) and a large, swift family car (DS). These were widely regarded by contemporary journalists as avant garde , even radical, solutions to automotive design. Thus began a decades-long period of unusual brand loyalty , normally seen in

11454-452: The firm established its reputation for innovative technology with the Traction Avant . This was the world's first car to be mass-produced with front-wheel drive and four-wheel independent suspension, as well as unibody construction, omitting a separate chassis, and instead using the body of the car itself as its main load-bearing structure. In 1954, they produced the world's first hydropneumatic self-levelling suspension system; then

11592-404: The first customer took delivery of a new Citroën 10HP Type A . In the same year, it produced 30 cars daily, totaling 2,810 vehicles, with 12,244 produced in 1920. That same year, André Citroën briefly negotiated with General Motors a proposed sale of the Citroën company. The deal nearly closed, but General Motors ultimately decided that its management and capital would be too overstretched by

11730-444: The goodwill of Britain. The main focus of Dutch leaders was reducing the country's considerable budget deficits. Dutch trade and shipping remained at a fairly steady level through the 18th century, but no longer had a near monopoly and also could not match growing English and French competition. The Netherlands lost its position as the trading centre of Northern Europe to London. Although the Netherlands remained wealthy, investments for

11868-521: The government, and Philip's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government structures of the provinces. This was the start of the Eighty Years' War . During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful. Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. This period is known as the " Spanish Fury " due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities and in particular Antwerp between 1572 and 1579. In 1579,

12006-504: The government. They distributed pamphlets, formed "Patriot Clubs" and held public demonstrations . The government responded by pillaging those towns where opposition continued. Five leaders were sentenced to death, forcing them to flee. Lynchings also occurred. For a while, no one dared appear in public without an orange cockade to show their support for Orangism . Many Patriots, perhaps around 40,000 in all, fled to Brabant, France (especially Dunkirk and St. Omer ) and elsewhere. Before long

12144-585: The hands of an unaccountable few, including the Frisian nobleman Douwe Sirtema van Grovestins . Still a teenager, William V assumed the position of stadtholder in 1766, the last to hold that office. In 1767, he married Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia , the daughter of Augustus William of Prussia , niece of Frederick the Great . The position of the Dutch during the American War of Independence (1775–1783)

12282-575: The historical Citroën DS is evident), to run in parallel to its mainstream cars. The slogan of the DS car marque is "Spirit of avant-garde". This new series of cars started early in 2010, with the DS3 , a small car based on the floorpan of the new C3. The DS3 is based on the concept that preceded the C3 Pluriel production model and the Citroën DS Inside concept car. The DS3 is customisable with various roof colours contrasting with

12420-466: The image of the Maserati brand in a downward brand extension to sell 40,000 of the newly designed Bi-Turbo models. The truck manufacturing company Berliet was sold to Renault . This new PSA venture was a financial success from 1976 to 1979. Citroën had two successful new designs in the market, the GS and CX . In the wake of the oil crisis, the brand also had resurgent sales for the 2CV and

12558-452: The impoverished nation grew restless under William's rule. An English historian summed him up uncharitably as "a Prince of the profoundest lethargy and most abysmal stupidity." And yet he would guide his family through the difficult French-Batavian period and his son would be crowned king. The Fourth Anglo–Dutch War (1780–1784) was a conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic . The war, tangentially related to

12696-452: The late 1980s, many of the distinctive features of the brand had been removed or altered. Peugeot's conventional switchgear replaced Citroën's quirky but ergonomic Lunule designs, complete with self-cancelling indicators that Citroën had refused to adopt on ergonomic grounds. The cars were "more banal and conventional", but also able to break into new markets, like fleet vehicles in the UK. In

12834-463: The latter causing the former. Though the economy declined considerably, causing deindustrialization and deurbanization in the maritime provinces, a rentier -class kept accumulating a large capital fund that formed the basis for the leading position the Republic achieved in the international capital market. A military crisis at the end of the period caused the Orangist revolution and the restoration of

12972-411: The list price for a Celtaquatre with a standard "berline" ( saloon ) body was given as ₣16,900 francs, while the Peugeot 301 "berline normale" was priced at ₣20,500 francs. In 1935, adjustments were made to the bonnet , with horizontal chrome-lined openings in place of the earlier three shutters. Two-tone paintwork was standard. A supplement of ₣400 francs was required for a single colour . In 1936,

13110-591: The lower classes, the Dutch Reformed clergy, and the Jewish community. In 1785 the stadholder left The Hague and moved his court to Nijmegen in Guelders , a city remote from the heart of Dutch political life. In June 1787, his energetic wife Wilhelmina (the sister of Frederick William II of Prussia ) tried to travel to The Hague . Outside Schoonhoven , she was stopped by Patriot militiamen and taken to

13248-537: The main selling point, which factor however caused Citroën to experience heavy losses. In 1927, the bank Lazard helped Citroën by bringing new much-needed funds, as well as by renegotiating its debt—for example, by buying out the Société de Vente des Automobiles Citroën (SOVAC). It went even further by entering in its capital and being represented on the board; the three directors sent by Lazard were Raymond Philippe, Andre Meyer and Paul Frantzen. André Citroën perceived

13386-684: The meantime Citroën expanded into many new global markets. Beyond existing manufacturing plants in Argentina , Chile , Vietnam , and Yugoslavia , it added Iran , Greece , Romania , and China . In the late 1970s, the firm developed a small car for production in Romania known as the Oltcit , which it sold in Western Europe as the Citroën Axel . That joint venture has now ended, but

13524-579: The mid-1660s Amsterdam had reached the optimum population (about 200,000) for the level of trade, commerce and agriculture then available to support it. The city contributed the largest quota in taxes to the States of Holland which in turn contributed over half the quota to the States General. Amsterdam was also one of the most reliable in settling tax demands and therefore was able to use the threat to withhold such payments to good effect. Amsterdam

13662-466: The most acclaimed in the world during much of the 17th century, a period which became known as the Dutch Golden Age . The republic was a confederation of provinces, each with a high degree of independence from the federal assembly, known as the States General . In the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the republic gained approximately 20% more territory, located outside the member provinces, which

13800-408: The nation's money became more difficult to find. Some investment went into purchases of land for estates, but most went to foreign bonds and Amsterdam remained one of Europe's banking capitals. Dutch culture also declined both in the arts and sciences. Literature for example largely imitated English and French styles with little in the way of innovation or originality. The most influential intellectual

13938-476: The need to differentiate his product, to avoid the low price competition surrounding his conventional rear drive models in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In 1933 he introduced the Rosalie, the first commercially available passenger car with a diesel engine , developed with Harry Ricardo . The Traction Avant is a car that pioneered the mass production of three revolutionary features that are still in use today:

14076-429: The occupants and is often compared to riding on a magic carpet for this reason. These vehicles shared the distinguishing feature of rising to operating ride height when the engine was turned on, like a "mechanical camel" (per Car & Driver magazine). A lever ( later replaced by an electronic switch ) beside the driver's seat allowed the driver to adjust the height of the car; this height adjustability allows for

14214-464: The occupants. The firm began using a wind tunnel in the 1950s, helping them to create highly streamlined cars, like the DS, that were years ahead of their competitors, and so good were the aerodynamics of the CX model, that it took its name – c x {\displaystyle \mathbf {c} _{\mathrm {x} }\,} – from the mathematical term used to measure the drag coefficient. In

14352-507: The patent for very little money, leading to the invention that is credited to Citroën: double helical gears. In 1901, at the age of 23, André Citroën partnered with André Boas and Jacques Hinstin, whom he had known since their days at Lycée Condorcet . Together, they invested a significant portion of Citroën's inheritance to found the company "Citroën, Hinstin et Cie," a manufacturing business specializing in gears, particularly V-shaped helical gears. The company started with about ten workers in

14490-633: The patrician merchants. The former—the Orangists—were soldiers and centralizers who seldom spoke of compromise with the enemy and looked for military solutions. They included many rural gentry as well as ordinary folk attached to the banner of the House of Orange . The latter group were the Republicans, led by the Grand Pensionary (a sort of prime minister) and the regents stood for localism, municipal rights, commerce, and peace. In 1650,

14628-491: The period of social and cultural bloom that has been called the Dutch Golden Age , and that actually formed the material basis for that cultural era. Amsterdam became the hub of world trade, the center into which staples and luxuries flowed for sorting, processing, and distribution, and then reexported around Europe and the world. During 1585 through 1622 there was the rapid accumulation of trade capital, often brought in by refugee merchants from Antwerp and other ports. The money

14766-451: The poor cash flow situation and the unstable ownership structure, the French government arranged talks between Citroën and Michelin culminating in the merger of Automobiles Citroën and Automobiles Peugeot into a single company. Thus, one year after the break with Fiat, on 24 June 1974 Citroën announced the new partnership, this time with Peugeot. to whom Michelin agreed to transfer control of the business. In December 1974 Peugeot S.A. acquired

14904-534: The population during the 18th century and enjoyed greater tolerance, even as they continued to be outside the political system. They became divided by the feud between moralistic Jansenists (who denied free will) and orthodox believers. One group of Jansenists formed a splinter sect, the Old Catholic Church in 1723. The upper classes willingly embraced the ideas of the Enlightenment, tempered by

15042-497: The potential for motor vehicles equipped with the Kégresse track system to cross inhospitable regions. These expeditions conveyed scientists and journalists . Demonstrating extraordinary toughness, a 1923 Citroën that had already travelled 48,000 km (30,000 mi) was the first car to be driven around Australia. The car, a 1923 Citroën 5CV Type C Torpedo, was driven by Neville Westwood from Perth , Western Australia , on

15180-750: The present-day Netherlands and the first independent Dutch nation state . The republic was established after seven Dutch provinces in the Spanish Netherlands revolted against Spanish rule , forming a mutual alliance against Spain in 1579 (the Union of Utrecht ) and declaring their independence in 1581 (the Act of Abjuration ). The seven provinces it comprised were Groningen (present-day Groningen ), Frisia (present-day Friesland ), Overijssel (present-day Overijssel ), Guelders (present-day Gelderland ), Utrecht (present-day Utrecht ), Holland (present-day North Holland and South Holland ), and Zeeland (present-day Zeeland ). Although

15318-418: The rapid growth of the nonagricultural labor force and the increase in real wages during the same time. In the half-century between 1570 and 1620 this labor supply increased 3 percent per annum, a truly phenomenal growth. Despite this, nominal wages were repeatedly increased, outstripping price increases. In consequence, real wages for unskilled laborers were 62 percent higher in 1615–1619 than in 1575–1579. By

15456-481: The rear suspension of the Traction in 1954. The DS was also the first production car with modern disc brakes . A single high-pressure hydraulic system was used to actuate the power steering , the suspension and brakes; the brakes were fully powered, not power assisted, as pedal force was not a component of braking power. The gearshift, (semi- automatic transmission ) was also powered by the hydraulic system through

15594-534: The rear wheels via a classic three speed transmission. The suspension was based on rigid axles front and back, which was seen as a rather minimalist at a time when competitor vehicles from volume automakers such as the Peugeot 301 were being delivered with independent front suspension. However, the 8CV Celtaquatre was also much more aggressively priced than the 8CV 301: At the Paris Motor Show in October

15732-406: The restoration of the stadtholderate . William IV, Prince of Orange , seized this opportunity to consolidate power and place loyal officials in strategic government positions to wrest control from the regenten . The struggle involved religious, anti-Catholic, and democratic elements, as well as mob violence and political agitation. The war concluded with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) , and

15870-430: The revolutionary DS , the first mass-produced car with modern disc brakes , in 1955; and in 1967 they introduced in several of their models swiveling headlights that allowed for greater visibility on winding roads. These cars have received various national and international awards, including three European Car of the Year awards. Born to a Dutch father and a Polish mother, both of Jewish heritage, André Citroën

16008-635: The rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg . In 1549, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction , which further unified the Seventeen Provinces under his rule. Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain . In 1568, the Netherlands, led by William I of Orange , together with Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn , and Lamoral, Count of Egmont revolted against Philip II because of high taxes, persecution of Protestants by

16146-420: The south was halted by a costly inundation of its own heartland, by breaching river dikes. With the aid of friendly German princes, the Dutch succeeded in fighting back Cologne and Münster , after which the peace was signed with both of them, although some territory in the east was lost forever. Peace was signed with England as well, in 1674 ( Second Treaty of Westminster ). In 1678, peace was made with France at

16284-554: The state was small and had only around 1.5 million inhabitants, it controlled a worldwide network of seafaring trade routes . Through its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (GWC), it established a Dutch colonial empire . The income from this trade allowed the Dutch Republic to compete militarily against much larger countries. It amassed

16422-472: The steering, improving visibility at night. Production from 1956 to 1975 totalled almost 1.5 million cars. The streamlined car was remarkable for its era and had a remarkable sounding name – in French, DS is pronounced [de.ɛs] , which sounds the same as déesse , which means Goddess . It placed third in the 1999 Car of the Century competition. This high-pressure hydraulic system would form

16560-465: The styles of the old masters. Life for the average Dutchman became slower and more relaxed in the 18th century. The upper and middle classes continued to enjoy prosperity and high living standards. The drive to succeed seemed less urgent. Unskilled laborers remained locked in poverty and hardship. The large underclass of unemployed required government and private charity to survive. During Anthonie van der Heim 's tenure as Grand Pensionary (1737–1746),

16698-751: The support from the Dutch States-General and from Protestant British nobles feuding with William's father-in-law the Catholic James II of England . This led to the Glorious Revolution and cemented the principle of parliamentary rule and Protestant ascendency in England. James fled to France, and William ascended to the English throne as co-monarch with his wife Mary, James' eldest daughter. This manoeuvre secured England as

16836-552: The takeover, thus, Citroën remained independent until 1935. Between 1921 and 1937, Citroën produced half-track vehicles for off-road and military uses, using the Kégresse track system. In the 1920s, the U.S. Army purchased several Citroën-Kégresse vehicles for evaluation followed by a licence to produce them. This resulted in the United States Army Ordnance Department building a prototype in 1939. In December 1942, it went into production with

16974-468: The technologically advanced Traction Avant had met with market acceptance, and the basic philosophy of cutting-edge technology used as a differentiator, continued until the late 1990s. Pierre Michelin became the chairman of Citroën early in 1935. Pierre-Jules Boulanger , his deputy, became the vice-president and chief of the engineering and design departments. In 1935, the founder André Citroën died from stomach cancer. Pierre-Jules Boulanger had been

17112-415: The time was augmented by the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company , while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands. The Dutch East-India Company exchange went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in

17250-438: The tolerance that meant less hostility to organized religion compared to France. Dutch universities declined in importance, no longer attracting large numbers of foreign students. The Netherlands remained an important hub of intellectual exchange, creating reviews of foreign publications that made scholars aware of new works in French, German, and English. Dutch painting declined, no longer being innovative, with painters pursuing

17388-406: The water-ways and other essential infrastructure, as well as municipal almshouses for the elderly, hospitals and churches. Amsterdam's wealth was generated by its commerce, which was in turn sustained by the judicious encouragement of entrepreneurs whatever their origin. This open door policy has been interpreted as proof of a tolerant ruling class. But tolerance was practiced for the convenience of

17526-625: Was Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), a Protestant refugee from France who settled in Rotterdam where he wrote the massive Dictionnaire Historique et Critique ( Historical and Critical Dictionary , 1696). It had a major impact on the thinking of The Enlightenment across Europe, giving an arsenal of weapons to critics who wanted to attack religion. It was an encyclopaedia of ideas that argued that most "truths" were merely opinions, and that gullibility and stubbornness were prevalent. Religious life became more relaxed as well. Catholics grew from 18% to 23% of

17664-494: Was a serious flaw with the plan particularly for companies producing engines with high fuel consumption. In 1974, the carmaker withdrew from North America due to U.S. design regulations that outlawed core features of Citroën cars (see Citroën SM ). Huge losses at Citroën were caused by the failure of the Comotor rotary engine venture added to the strategic management error of going the 15 years from 1955 to 1970 without

17802-534: Was an open Patriot rebellion, which took the form of an armed insurrection by local militias in certain Dutch towns, Freedom being the rallying cry. Herman Willem Daendels attempted to organise an overthrow of various municipal governments ( vroedschap ). The goal was to oust government officials and force new elections. "Seen as a whole this revolution was a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations", wrote French historian Fernand Braudel , who saw it as

17940-436: Was born in Paris on February 5, 1878. At the age of 7 his father committed suicide as a result of a failed business venture. Citroën was a graduate of the École Polytechnique in 1900. In that year he visited Poland, the homeland of his mother, who had recently passed away. During that holiday, he saw a carpenter working on a set of gears with a fish bone structure. These gears were less noisy, and more efficient. Citroën bought

18078-623: Was considered cheap to build, although it did pose dynamic defects as automobiles were becoming more capable, and resulted in heavier cars, which is why today cars are more like the Traction Avant than the Model T under the skin. In 1934 Citroën commissioned the American Budd Company to create a prototype, which evolved into the 7 fiscal horsepower ( CV ), 32 hp (24 kW) Traction Avant. Achieving quick development of

18216-738: Was founded on 4 June 1919 by André Citroën . Citroën has been owned by Stellantis since 2021 and previously was part of the PSA Group after Peugeot acquired 89.95% share in 1976. Citroën's head office is located in the Stellantis Poissy Plant in Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine since 2021 (previously in Rueil-Malmaison) and its offices studies and research in Vélizy-Villacoublay, Poissy (CEMR), Carrières-sous-Poissy and Sochaux-Montbéliard. In 1934,

18354-604: Was given to the dispossessed Dutch from the countryside or other towns of Holland. The regents encouraged immigrants to build churches and provided sites or buildings for churches and temples for all except the most radical sects and the Catholics by the 1670s (although even the Catholics could practice quietly in a chapel within the Beguinhof). During the wars a tension had arisen between the Orange-Nassau leaders and

18492-404: Was governed by a body of regents, a large, but closed, oligarchy with control over all aspects of the city's life, and a dominant voice in the foreign affairs of Holland. Only men with sufficient wealth and a long enough residence within the city could join the ruling class. The first step for an ambitious and wealthy merchant family was to arrange a marriage with a long-established regent family. In

18630-441: Was no growth in manufacturing, due perhaps to a weaker sense of industrial entrepreneurship and to the high wage scale. Third the wealthy turned their investments to foreign loans. This helped jump-start other nations and provided the Dutch with a steady income from collecting interest, but leaving them with few domestic sectors with a potential for rapid growth. After the Dutch fleet declined, merchant interests became dependent on

18768-494: Was one of neutrality . William V, leading the pro-British faction within the government, blocked attempts by pro-independence, and later pro-French, elements to drag the government to war. However, things came to a head with the Dutch attempt to join the Russian-led League of Armed Neutrality , leading to the outbreak of the disastrous Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780. After the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783) ,

18906-476: Was ruled directly by the States General as Generality Lands . Each province was led by an official known as the stadtholder ( Dutch for 'steward'); this office was nominally open to anyone, but most provinces appointed a member of the House of Orange . The position gradually became hereditary, with the Prince of Orange simultaneously holding most or all of the stadtholderships, making him effectively

19044-566: Was typically invested in high-risk ventures like pioneering expeditions to the East Indies to engage in the spice trade . These ventures were soon consolidated in the Dutch East India Company (VOC). There were similar ventures in different fields however, like the trade on Russia and the Levant . The profits of these ventures were ploughed back in the financing of new trade, which led to its exponential growth. Rapid industrialization led to

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