118-590: Restigouche , deriving from the Míkmaq name Listuguj (in Francis-Smith orthography Listukuj ), is the name of several geographic and political features in northern New Brunswick and neighbouring Quebec : HMCS Restigouche , two naval vessels Listuguj Mi'gmaq First Nation Restigouche (federal electoral district) , a former Canadian federal electoral district Restigouche (provincial electoral district) ,
236-658: A fur trade network along the Saint John River . With the onset of the Anglo-French War (1627–1629) , de la Tour was issued a charter to govern Acadia. In 1629, Acadia was officially returned to France. As such, a new wave of French settlers arrived in Port-Royal to revitalise the colony, including Isaac de Razilly , a new governor of Acadia , and Charles de Menou d'Aulnay , his cousin. de Razilly and de la Tour's charters conflicted with each others', but
354-445: A similar vowel shift since the 1980s. Canadian English as an academic field of inquiry solidified around the time of World War II. While early linguistic approaches date back to the second half of the 19th century, the first textbook to consider Canadian English in one form or another was not published until 1940. Walter S. Avis was its most forceful spokesperson after WWII until the 1970s. His team of lexicographers managed to date
472-457: A European settlement history that dates back centuries, which explains Newfoundland's most notable linguistic regions: an Irish-settled area in the southeast (the southern Avalon Peninsula) and an English-settled area in the southwest. A well-known phonetic feature many Newfoundland speakers possess is the kit-dress merger . The mid lax /ɛ/ here is raised to the high lax stressed /ɪ/, particularly before oral stops and nasals, so consequently "pen"
590-538: A New Brunswick provincial electoral district Madawaska—Restigouche , a Canadian federal electoral district Restigouche County, New Brunswick Restigouche River Restigouche, a Míkmaq community in the Gaspe Peninsula of Quebec, Canada, across the Restigouche River from Campbellton, New Brunswick; see Listuguj Mi'gmaq First Nation Battle of Restigouche (1760), a naval battle during
708-564: A class-based sociolect known as Canadian dainty . Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian dainty was marked by the use of some features of British English pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar, but not identical, to the Mid-Atlantic accent known in the United States. This accent faded in prominence following World War II , when it became stigmatized as pretentious, and
826-468: A common North American English sound system. The mainstream Canadian accent ("Standard Canadian") is often compared to the General American accent, a middle ground lacking in noticeable regional features. Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) shows the largest dialect diversity. Northern Canada is, according to William Labov , a dialect region in formation where
944-828: A continuum between the two extremes of the Halifax variant and the Newfoundland variant. In addition, there is heavy influence of standard varieties of Canadian English on Cape Breton English, especially in the diphthongization of the goat and goose vowels and the frequent use of Canadian raising. Compared to the commonly spoken English dominating neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland English is famously distinct in its dialects and accents. Newfoundland English differs in vowel pronunciation , morphology , syntax , and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers. The dialect varies markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region. Its distinctiveness partly results from
1062-518: A dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English. Overall, First Nations Canada English dialects rest between language loss and language revitalization. British Columbia has the greatest linguistic diversity, as it is home to about half of the Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. Most of the languages spoken in the province are endangered due to the small number of speakers. To some extent,
1180-441: A great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones. Dollinger and Clarke distinguish between: The words Aboriginal and Indigenous are capitalized when used in a Canadian context. First Nations and Inuit from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages. Non-indigenous Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced
1298-470: A higher first vowel in the diphthong) and no Trap-bath split . Canadian raising is when the onsets of diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ get raised to [ ə ] or [ ʌ ] before voiceless segments. There are areas in the eastern U.S. where some words are pronounced with Canadian raising. Some young Canadians may show Goose- fronting . U.S. southern dialects have long had goose-fronting, but this goose-fronting among young Canadians and Californians
SECTION 10
#17327732742371416-675: A homogeneous English dialect has not yet formed. Labov's research focused on urban areas, and did not survey the country, but they found similarities among the English spoken in Ottawa, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton and Vancouver. Labov identifies an "Inland Canada" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies (a region in Western Canada that mainly includes Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and
1534-410: A marker of Halifax English as a distinctive variant of Canadian English. Typically, Canadian dialects have a merger of the low back vowels in palm, lot, thought and cloth. The merged vowel in question is usually /ɑ/ or sometimes the rounded variant /ɒ/. Meanwhile, in Halifax, the vowel is raised and rounded. For example, body; popped; and gone. In the homophones, caught-cot and stalk-stock, the rounding in
1652-649: A national dictionary Consortium. The Consortium comprises the Editors' Association of Canada, the UBC Canadian English Lab, and Queen's University 's Strategy Language Unit. It is quite common for Canadian English speakers to have the cot-caught merger , the father-bother merger , the Low-Back-Merger Shift (with the vowel in words such as "trap" moving backwards), Canadian raising (words such as "like" and "about" pronounced with
1770-431: A past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some isolated villages. Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping. The phonology of Maritimer English has some unique features: As with many other distinct dialects, vowels are
1888-563: A period of more than two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution , chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States —as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English . Canadian English has been developing features of its own since
2006-466: A person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section). The Atlas of North American English , while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33 Canadian speakers. Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones. The results for vocabulary and phonetics overlap to
2124-639: A sawmill. Afterwards, the family continued to acquire businesses and substantial wealth, eventually becoming the richest family in the province. Today, Irving is considered by many to exert a monopoly over New Brunswick. Towards the early 20th century, the economy began to improve somewhat. The railways and tariffs fostered the growth of new industries in the province such as textile manufacturing, iron mills, pulp and paper mills , and sugar refineries. However, many of these eventually failed to compete with their competition in Central Canada. Unemployement
2242-660: A settlement on Saint Croix Island . It was quickly abandoned due to difficult living conditions and moved to Acadia's capital, Port-Royal . There, the Micmacs helped the French survive. In 1626, Port-Royal was destroyed by the British. The British conquered Acadia shortly after and held it until 1629. James VI and I , King of Scotland, renamed it "Nova Scotia" in English. The Micmacs helped all French survivors, including Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour . Together, they established
2360-639: A significant impact on Canadian English's origins as well as again in the 20th century and since then as a result of increased cultural and economic ties between the two countries. American English terms like gasoline, truck, and apartment are commonly used in Canadian English. The growth of Canadian media, including television, film, and literature, has also played a role in shaping Canadian English. Chambers (1998) notes that Canadian media has helped to create new words and expressions that reflect Canadian culture and values. Canadian institutions, such as
2478-735: A stronger desire to build up trade within British North America. A Fenian raid in 1866 also increased public support for a potential union. On 1 July 1867, New Brunswick joined with Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) to create the Dominion of Canada. Though Confederation brought into existence the Intercolonial Railway in 1872, new barriers undermined traditional trade relations. In 1879, John A. Macdonald 's Conservatives enacted
SECTION 20
#17327732742372596-824: A written record, there is a lack of knowledge of the history of the area before the arrival of European explorers. At the time of European contact, inhabitants were the Micmac of New Brunswick's eastern coast, the Maliseet of the Wolastoq valley, and the Passamaquoddy of the St. Croix River valley. Many tribal placenames originate from their Eastern Algonquian languages , such as Aroostook , Bouctouche , Memramcook , Petitcodiac , Quispamsis , Richibucto and Shediac . The first documented European exploration of New Brunswick
2714-551: Is French speaking . New Brunswick is home to most of the cultural region of Acadia and most Acadians . New Brunswick's variety of French is called Acadian French . There are seven regional accents. New Brunswick was first inhabited by First Nations like the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet . In 1604, Acadia , the first New France colony , was founded with the creation of Port-Royal . For 150 years afterwards, Acadia changed hands multiple times due to numerous conflicts between France and
2832-514: Is Dollinger (2012, updated to 2017). Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the "language-external" history, i.e. social and political history. An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis et al. 's 1967 Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles offered real-time historical data through its quotations. Starting in the 2000s, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data. DCHP-1
2950-456: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages New Brunswick New Brunswick is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada . It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces . It is bordered by Quebec to the north, Nova Scotia to the east, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the northeast,
3068-545: Is known for its grasslands and plains), with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto. This dialect forms a dialect continuum with Western US English , sharply differentiated from Inland Northern US English of the central and eastern Great Lakes region where the Northern Cities Shift is sending front vowels in the opposite direction to the Low-Back-Merger Shift heard in Canada and California. Standard Canadian English
3186-408: Is more recent. Some young Californians also show signs of the Low-Back-Merger Shift . The cot-caught merger is perhaps not general in the U.S., but younger speakers seem more likely to have it. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists words such as "no" and "way" as having a long monophthong vowel sound, whereas American dictionaries usually have these words ending in an upglide. There may be areas of
3304-481: Is not as strong as it is in the rest of the province. In Prescott and Russell , parts of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there. In Lanark County , Western Ottawa and Leeds-Grenville and the rest of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry , the accent spoken is nearly identical to that spoken in Central Ontario and
3422-513: Is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced "Atlanna" by residents. Sometimes /ð/ is elided altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word southern is often pronounced with [aʊ] . In the area north of the Regional Municipality of York and south of Parry Sound , notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g. "probably"
3540-490: Is now available in open access. Most notably, Dollinger (2008) pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario. In 2015, Reuter confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger (2008), using a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario. Historically, Canadian English included
3658-506: Is now rare. The governor general Vincent Massey and the actor Christopher Plummer are examples of men raised in Canada, but who spoke with a British-influenced accent. Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions, the two dominant varieties, and adds some domestic idiosyncrasies. For many words, American and British spelling are both acceptable. Spelling in Canadian English co-varies with regional and social variables, somewhat more so, perhaps, than in
Restigouche - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-568: Is owned by the Irving Group of Companies . The province's 2019 output was CA$ 38.236 billion, which is 1.65% of Canada's GDP . Tourism accounts for 9% of the labour force either directly or indirectly. Popular destinations include the Hopewell Rocks , Fundy National Park , Magnetic Hill , Kouchibouguac National Park and Roosevelt Campobello International Park . On 1 January 2023, local government of New Brunswick restructured
3894-739: Is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent. Also, /ɜr/ merge with /ɛr/ to [ɛɹ] , with "were" sounding more like "wear". Residents of the Golden Horseshoe (including the Greater Toronto Area ) are known to merge the second /t/ with the /n/ in Toronto , pronouncing the name variously as [təˈɹɒɾ̃o] or [ˈtɹɒɾ̃o] . This
4012-413: Is pronounced more like "pin". Another phonetic feature more unique to Newfoundland English is TH-stopping. Here, the voiceless dental fricative /θ/ in words like myth and width are pronounced more like t or the voiced dental fricative /ð/ in words like the and these . TH-stopping is more common for /ð/, especially in unstressed function words (e.g. that, those, their, etc.). Canadian raising
4130-526: Is quite strong throughout the province of Ontario , except within the Ottawa Valley . The introduction of Canadian raising to Canada can be attributed to the Scottish and Irish immigrants who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origins of Canadian raising to Scotland and revealed that the Scottish dialects spoken by these immigrants had a probable impact on its development. This feature impacts
4248-426: Is reduced to "prolly" or "probly" when used as a response. In Greater Toronto, the diphthong tends to be fronted (as a result the word about is pronounced as [əˈbɛʊt] ). The Greater Toronto Area is linguistically diverse, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English. As a result Toronto English has distinctly more variability than Inland Canada. In Eastern Ontario , Canadian raising
4366-668: Is socially defined. Standard Canadian English is spoken by those who live in urban Canada, in a middle-class job (or one of their parents holds such employment), who are second generation or later (born and raised in Canada) and speak English as (one of their) dominant language(s) (Dollinger 2019a, adapted from Chambers 1998). It is the variety spoken, in Chambers' (1998: 252) definition, by Anglophone or multilingual residents, who are second generation or later (i.e. born in Canada) and who live in urban settings. Applying this definition, c. 36% of
4484-502: Is the third-least populous province. The census also recorded New Brunswick as being the fourth-most densely populated Canadian province, with 10.9 people per square kilometre, behind Ontario , Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island . As of September 2024, the population is estimated to be 854,355. Canadian English Canadian English ( CanE , CE , en-CA ) encompasses the varieties of English used in Canada . According to
4602-499: The 2016 census , English was the first language of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke French (20.8%) or other languages (21.1%). In the Canadian province of Quebec , only 7.5% of the population are mother tongue anglophone , as most of Quebec's residents are native speakers of Quebec French . The most widespread variety of Canadian English is Standard Canadian English , spoken in all
4720-524: The Bay of Fundy to the southeast, and the U.S. state of Maine to the west. New Brunswick is about 83% forested and its northern half is occupied by the Appalachians . The province's climate is continental with snowy winters and temperate summers. New Brunswick has a surface area of 72,908 km (28,150 sq mi) and 775,610 inhabitants (2021 census). Atypically for Canada, only about half of
4838-518: The Bay of Fundy 's tides, and by tightly knit independent communities, because they were often neglected by French authorities. During the 1690s, in King William's War , attacks were launched from the Saint John valley by Acadian militias onto New England colonists. This would create a deep English hostility against the French presence in the region. From the 1600s to mid-1700s, Acadia
Restigouche - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-668: The Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style. A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada (see The Canadian Style in Further reading below) . Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary , often along with
5074-597: The Isthmus of Chignecto . In an effort to limit British expansion into continental Acadia, the French built Fort Beauséjour at the isthmus in 1751. From 1749 to 1755, Father Le Loutre's War took place, where British soldiers fought against Acadians and Micmacs to consolidate their power over Acadia/Nova Scotia. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour , severing the Acadian supply lines to Nova Scotia, and Île-Royale. Continental Acadia thus came to be incorporated into
5192-624: The Italian campaign in 1943. After the Normandy landings they redeployed to northwestern Europe, along with The North Shore Regiment . The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan , a training program for ally pilots, established bases in Moncton, Chatham , and Pennfield Ridge , as well as a military typing school in Saint John. While relatively unindustrialized before the war, New Brunswick became home to 34 plants on military contracts from which
5310-637: The National Policy , which called for high tariffs and opposed free trade , disrupting the trading relationship between the Maritimes and New England . The economic situation was worsened by the Great Fire of Saint John of 1877, the decline of the shipbuilding industry, and the US Panic of 1893 . Many experienced workers lost their jobs and had to move west or to the United States. In 1871,
5428-709: The Prairies or Atlantic Canada and men. In the southern part of Southwestern Ontario (roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect influenced by the Inland Northern American English dialect (in part due to proximity to cities like Detroit and Buffalo, New York) though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g. "ice" vs "my"). The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario,
5546-647: The Quinte area. A linguistic enclave has also formed in the Ottawa Valley , heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the Ottawa Valley twang (or brogue). Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the cot–caught merger , two common elements of mainstream Canadian English. This accent
5664-479: The Senior Dictionary, edited by Robert John Gregg , was renamed Gage Canadian Dictionary . Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. The latest editions were published in 2009 by HarperCollins . On 17 March 2017 a second edition of DCHP, the online Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2 (DCHP-2), was published. DCHP-2 incorporates
5782-675: The World Wide Fund for Nature lists the Acadian Forest as endangered. Following the frequent large scale disturbances caused by settlement and timber harvesting, the Acadian forest is not growing back as it was, but is subject to borealization. This means that exposure-resistant species that are well adapted to the frequent large-scale disturbances common in the boreal forest are increasingly abundant. These include jack pine , balsam fir , black spruce , white birch , and poplar . Forest ecosystems support large carnivores such as
5900-473: The bobcat , Canada lynx , and black bear , and the large herbivores moose and white-tailed deer . Fiddlehead greens are harvested from the Ostrich fern which grows on riverbanks. Furbish's lousewort , a perennial herb endemic to the shores of the upper Saint John River, is an endangered species threatened by habitat destruction, riverside development, forestry, littering and recreational use of
6018-412: The hamlet of Sainte-Anne as the provincial capital. Sainte-Anne was later renamed Frederick's Town (and then later Fredericton ) after the third son of George III . In total, it is believed that around 14,000 loyalist refugees came to New Brunswick. However, 10% eventually returned to the United States. In 1785, Saint John became New Brunswick's first incorporated city. Economically, New Brunswick
SECTION 50
#17327732742376136-515: The 1780s and 1790s, some Acadians returned to Acadia, and discovered several thousand English immigrants, mostly from New England, on their former lands. In the late 1700s, the British began to make efforts to colonise the region, mostly by importing colonists from New England. Before the American Revolution, these colonists were called planters . After the revolution, the colonists were called loyalists , because only those loyal to
6254-609: The 1860s, the notion of unifying the maritime colonies of British North America was being increasingly discussed. This was due to multiple factors. For example, some felt that the American Civil War was the result of a weak central government and wished to avoid the same fate. Some also wanted to increase trade between the colonies, and be less economically tied to the US. In 1864, the Charlottetown Conference
6372-592: The Albert oil shales of southern New Brunswick. Eventually, sea water from the Panthalassic Ocean invaded the basin, forming the Windsor Sea. Once this receded, conglomerates , sandstones , and shales accumulated. The rust colour of these was caused by the oxidation of iron in the beds between wet and dry periods. Such late Carboniferous rock formed the Hopewell Rocks , which have been shaped by
6490-497: The Bay of Fundy, and on the west by the US state of Maine . The southeast corner of the province is connected to Nova Scotia at the isthmus of Chignecto. Glaciation has left much of New Brunswick's uplands with only shallow, acidic soils which have discouraged settlement but which are home to enormous forests. New Brunswick's climate is more severe than that of the other Maritime provinces, which are lower and have more shoreline along
6608-615: The British colony of Nova Scotia with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Following this, the British, unsatisfied with the Acadian's surrender because they refused to pledge allegiance, turned to capturing and exporting Acadians en masse, an ethnic cleansing event known as the Deportation of the Acadians which was ordered by Robert Monckton . From 1755 to 1763, 12,000 Acadians out of 18,000 were forcefully deported to various locations around
6726-572: The British crown settled in Nova Scotia. In 1766, planters from Pennsylvania founded Moncton , and English settlers from Yorkshire arrived in the Sackville area. In the 1770s, 10,000 loyalists settled along the north shore of the Bay of Fundy. In 1783, both Saint Andrews and Saint John were founded. Loyalists who received land allocations around the St. John River valley, the Bay of Fundy or
6844-536: The CBC and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, have also played a role in promoting and defining Canadian English. In addition to these influences, Canadian English has also been minorly shaped by Indigenous languages. Indigenous words such as moose, toboggan, and moccasin have become part of the Canadian English lexicon. Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over
6962-428: The Canadian English lexicon. An important influence on Canadian English was British English, which was brought to Canada by British settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Canadian English borrowed many words and expressions from British English, including words like lorry, flat, and lift. However, Canadian English also developed its own unique vocabulary, including words like tuque, chesterfield, and double-double. In
7080-501: The Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census. The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation. While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it. To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting may seemingly be speaking Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such
7198-521: The French and Indian War Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Restigouche . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Restigouche&oldid=1189417159 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Mi'kmaq Hidden categories: Short description
SECTION 60
#17327732742377316-586: The Miramichi highlands south and east, leaving them as erratics when the ice receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation , along with deposits such as the eskers between Woodstock and St George, which are today sources of sand and gravel. At the 2021 Canadian census , New Brunswick had a population of 775,610, a 3.8% increase since the 2016 Canadian census . As one of the four Atlantic Provinces which are Canada's least populated provinces, New Brunswick
7434-441: The Northumberland Strait became dissatisfied with being governed from Halifax because it was so far away. Therefore, on 18 June 1784, the British government created a new province for them: New Brunswick. New Brunswick was formed from the partition of Sunbury County from the remainder of Nova Scotia. In that same year, New Brunswick formed its first elected assembly. The first governor was Thomas Carleton , and, in 1785, he chose
7552-443: The U.S. near the border where you hear the monophthong, eg. Fargo or Minnesota. The monophthong does sound stereotypically "Canadian" (listen to for example Bob and Doug McKenzie ), but not all Canadians use this pronunciation. In terms of the major sound systems ( phonologies ) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English. Some dialectologists group Canadian and American English together under
7670-427: The United Kingdom, which usually relied on the Baltic Sea for supplies, to import timber from its North American colonies. This stimulated the lumber trade in New Brunswick, as well as in Lower Canada . Between 1805 and 1812, New Brunswick annually exported 100,000 tons of squared timber. In 1819, the number exceeded 240,000 tons, and in 1825 exports reached their highest level at 417,000 tons. This also resulted in
7788-436: The United Kingdom. From 1755 to 1764, the British deported Acadians en masse, an event known as the Great Upheaval . This, along with the Treaty of Paris , solidified Acadia as British property . In 1784, following the arrival of many loyalists fleeing the American Revolution , the colony of New Brunswick was officially created, separating it from what is now Nova Scotia . In the early 1800s, New Brunswick prospered and
7906-558: The area consisting of the Counties of Huron , Bruce , Grey , and Perth , referred to as the "Queen's Bush" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century. Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist. It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: prolly (probably), goin' (going), and "Wuts goin' on tonight? D'ya wanna do sumthin'?" It
8024-513: The bedrock in the west and north derives from ocean deposits in the Ordovician that were subject to folding and igneous intrusion and that were eventually covered with lava during the Paleozoic , peaking during the Acadian orogeny . During the Carboniferous period, about 340 million years ago, New Brunswick was in the Maritimes Basin , a sedimentary basin near the equator. Sediments, brought by rivers from surrounding highlands, accumulated there; after being compressed, they produced
8142-480: The c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English. In 1997, the ITP Nelson Dictionary of the Canadian English Language was another product, but has not been updated since. In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled The Oxford Canadian Dictionary . A second edition, retitled The Canadian Oxford Dictionary ,
8260-454: The chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English , and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references. (See Further reading below.) Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, color as opposed to the British-based colour . Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010) and Grue (2013). The use of such spellings
8378-405: The coat of arms was assigned. In 2005, the Court of Queen's Bench approved a ruling allowing for the legalization of same-sex marriage . At the beginning of 2023, the provincial government implemented a local governance reform , reducing the number of entities from 340 to 89. Roughly square, New Brunswick is bordered on the north by Quebec, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by
8496-471: The country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage. While Canadian English has borrowed many words and expressions from other languages, it has also developed its own unique vocabulary and pronunciation that reflects the country's distinct identity. Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare. Yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged. An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work,
8614-408: The dialects reflect the historical contexts where English has been a major colonizing language. The dialects are also a result of the late stages of depidginization and decreolization , which resulted in linguistic markers of Indigenous identity and solidarity. These dialects are observed to have developed a lingua franca due to the contact between English and Indigenous populations, and eventually,
8732-499: The early 19th century. The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors of Canada , who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens. Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910, 1960, and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change from around
8850-478: The early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from Central and Eastern Europe who were not anglophones. At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had British , Irish , or Loyalist ancestry, or some mixture of these. Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent anglicization and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media. American English also had
8968-692: The east or the Bay of Fundy to the south. These watersheds include lands in Quebec and Maine. The highest point in New Brunswick is Mount Carleton , 817 m (2,680 ft). New Brunswick and the rest of the Maritime Peninsula was covered by thick layers of ice during the last glacial period (the Wisconsinian glaciation ). It cut U-shaped valleys in the Saint John and Nepisiguit River valleys and pushed granite boulders from
9086-626: The emergence of a shipbuilding market. These industries were then bolstered by the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and demand from the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865. St. Martins became the third most productive shipbuilding town in the Maritimes and produced over 500 vessels. From 1800 to 1851, New Brunswick's population grew from 25,000 to 200,000, and it saw large-scale immigration from Ireland and Scotland. In 1848, responsible home government
9204-546: The entities (admin level 4) throughout the province. The previous 340 entities were replaced by 77 local governments and 12 rural districts. New Brunswick was named in 1784 in honour of George III , King of Great Britain , King of Ireland , and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (until 1806) in what is now Germany. Upon its split from Nova Scotia , it
9322-474: The extreme tidal range of the Bay of Fundy. In the early Triassic , as Pangea drifted north it was rent apart, forming the rift valley that is the Bay of Fundy. Magma pushed up through the cracks, forming basalt columns on Grand Manan . New Brunswick lies entirely within the Appalachian Mountain range . The rivers of New Brunswick drain into either the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to
9440-649: The government introduced free education, banning catechism , the cassock and French in public schools in the process. Though contested by the Acadians and the Irish, the law was deemed constitutional. Following a riot in Caraquet in 1875, and political pressure, the bans were lifted in 1877. The Irving Group of Companies , founded by the Irving family , officially began in 1881 in Bouctouche when James Irving bought
9558-613: The issue earlier in 1997. The Star had always avoided using recognized Canadian spelling, citing the Gage Canadian Dictionary in their defence. Controversy around this issue was frequent. When the Gage Dictionary finally adopted standard Canadian spelling, the Star followed suit. Some publishers, e.g. Maclean's , continue to prefer American spellings. The first series of dictionaries of Canadian English
9676-713: The liquids or fricatives found in the standard form. Dene Suline , on the other hand, has more phonological contrasts, resulting in the use of features not seen in the standard form. The language has 39 phonemic consonants and a higher proportion of glottalized consonants. Many in the Maritime provinces – Nova Scotia , New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island – have an accent that sounds more like Scottish English and, in some places, Irish English than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as
9794-400: The merged vowel is also much more pronounced here than in other Canadian varieties. The Canadian Shift is also not as evident in the traditional dialect. Instead, the front vowels are raised. For example, the vowel in had is raised to [hæed]; and camera is raised to [kæmra]. Although it has not been studied extensively, the speech of Cape Breton specifically seems to bear many similarities with
9912-453: The moderating sea. New Brunswick has a humid continental climate , with slightly milder winters on the Gulf of St. Lawrence coastline. Elevated parts of the far north of the province have a subarctic climate . Evidence of climate change in New Brunswick can be seen in its more intense precipitation events, more frequent winter thaws , and one quarter to half the amount of snowpack . Today,
10030-619: The more numerous English speakers to the south. The population of French origin grew dramatically after Confederation, from about 16 per cent in 1871 to 34 per cent in 1931. Government services were often not available in French, and the infrastructure in Francophone areas was less developed than elsewhere. In 1960 Premier Louis Robichaud embarked on the New Brunswick Equal Opportunity program , in which education, rural road maintenance, and healthcare fell under
10148-544: The nearby island of Newfoundland, which is often why Westerners can have a hard time differentiating the two accents. For instance, they both use the fronting of the low back vowel. These similarities can be attributed to geographic proximity, the fact that about one-quarter of the Cape Breton population descends from Irish immigrants - many of whom arrived via Newfoundland - and the Scottish and Irish influences on both provinces. The speech of Cape Breton can almost be seen as
10266-417: The ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s. Standard Canadian and General American English share identical or near-identical phonemic inventories, though their exact phonetic realizations may sometimes differ. Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly since Standard Canadian and Western United States English have been undergoing
10384-421: The population grew rapidly. In 1867, New Brunswick decided to join with Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada (now Quebec and Ontario ) to form Canada. After Confederation , shipbuilding and lumbering declined, and protectionism disrupted trade with New England . From the mid-1900s onwards, New Brunswick was one of the poorest regions of Canada, a fact eventually mitigated by transfer payments . However,
10502-554: The population lives in urban areas - predominantly in Moncton , Saint John and Fredericton . In 1969, New Brunswick passed the Official Languages Act which began recognizing French as an official language , along with English. New Brunswickers have the right to receive provincial government services in the official language of their choice. About two thirds of the population are English speaking and one third
10620-474: The pronunciation of the /aɪ/ sound in "right" and the /aʊ/ sound in "lout". Canadian Raising indicates a scenario where the start of the diphthong is nearer to the destination of the glide before voiceless consonants than before voiced consonants. The Canadian Shift is also a common vowel shift found in Ontario. The retraction of /æ/ was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from
10738-439: The proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain. One of the earliest influences on Canadian English was the French language, which was brought to Canada by the French colonists in the 17th century. French words and expressions were adopted into Canadian English, especially in the areas of cuisine, politics, and social life. For example, words like beavertail, and toque are uniquely Canadian French terms that have become part of
10856-584: The province has seen the highest eastward migration in 45 years in both rural and urban areas, as people from Ontario and other parts of Canada migrate to the area. As of 2002, the provincial GDP was derived as follows: services (about half being government services and public administration) 43%; construction, manufacturing, and utilities 24%; real estate rental 12%; wholesale and retail 11%; agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting, mining, oil and gas extraction 5%; transportation and warehousing 5%. A powerful corporate concentration of large companies in New Brunswick
10974-484: The province received over $ 78 million. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , who had promised no conscription, asked the provinces if they would release the government of said promise. New Brunswick voted 69.1% yes. The policy was not implemented until 1944, too late for many of the conscripts to be deployed. There were 1808 NB fatalities among the armed forces. The Acadians in northern New Brunswick had long been geographically and linguistically isolated from
11092-526: The request of the government of Richard Hatfield , this right became part of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and therefore part of the Constitution of Canada . The flag of New Brunswick , based on the coat of arms, was adopted in 1965. The conventional heraldic representations of a lion and a ship represent colonial ties with Europe, and the importance of shipping at the time
11210-425: The revenue gathering powers, the provinces had many expenditure responsibilities such as healthcare, education, and welfare, which were becoming increasingly expensive. The Commission recommended the creation of equalization payments , which were eventually implemented in 1957. After Canada joined World War II , 14 NB army units were organized, in addition to The Royal New Brunswick Regiment , and first deployed in
11328-542: The river to the site of present-day Fredericton . Other settlements in the southeast extended from Beaubassin , near the present-day border with Nova Scotia, to Baie Verte , and up the Petitcodiac , Memramcook , and Shepody Rivers. The descendants of Acadia's French colonists became the Acadians . Acadians developed a unique society characterised by dyking technology, which allowed them to cultivate marshes left by
11446-463: The riverbank. Many wetlands are being disrupted by the highly invasive Introduced species purple loosestrife . The deer population in the province has dropped by 70% since 1985. The widespread use of glyphosate may have contributed to this. Since 2014, the New Brunswick government has allowed forestry companies to harvest 20 percent more wood there than before. Bedrock types range from 1 billion to 200 million years old. Much of
11564-444: The sea level is about 30 cm (1 ft) higher than it was 100 years ago, and it is expected to rise twice that much again by the year 2100. Most of New Brunswick is forested with secondary forest or tertiary forest. At the start of European settlement, the Maritimes were covered from coast to coast by a forest of mature trees, giants by today's standards. Today less than one per cent of old-growth Acadian forest remains, and
11682-531: The sole jurisdiction of a provincial government that insisted on equal coverage throughout the province, rather than the former county-based system. In 1969 the Robichaud government adopted the Official Languages Act making the province officially bilingual and establishing the right of New Brunswickers to obtain provincial government services in the official language of their choice. In 1982 at
11800-684: The term "Canadian English" to a speech by a Scottish Presbyterian minister, the Reverend Archibald Constable Geikie, in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857 (see DCHP-1 Online , s.v. "Canadian English", Avis et al., 1967). Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect", in comparison with what he considered
11918-719: The two dominant varieties of English, yet general trends have emerged since the 1970s. Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, Canada's automobile industry has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of tire (hence, " Canadian Tire ") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, truck instead of lorry , gasoline instead of petrol , trunk instead of boot ). Canada's political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canada's first prime minister , John A. Macdonald , once advised
12036-524: The two maintained an amicable relationship. In 1635, de Razilly died, triggering tensions between de la Tour, who governed from the Saint John valley, and d'Aulnay, who governed from Port-Royal. In the 1630s, this erupted into the Acadian Civil War . d'Aulnay managed to expel de la Tour in 1644. But, following d'Aulnay's death in 1650, de la Tour married his widow in 1653, essentially overturning his success. Over time, French settlement extended up
12154-618: The various dialects began to converge with standard English. Certain First Nations English have also shown to have phonological standard Canadian English, thus resulting in a more distinct dialect formation. Plains Cree, for instance, is a language that has less phonological contrasts compared to standard Canadian English. Plains Cree has no voicing contrast. The stops /p/ , /t/ , and /k/ are mostly voiceless and unaspirated, though they may vary in other phonetic environments from voiceless to voiced. Plains Cree also does not have
12272-860: The western and central provinces of Canada (varying little from Central Canada to British Columbia ), plus in many other provinces among urban middle- or upper-class speakers from natively English-speaking families. Standard Canadian English is distinct from Atlantic Canadian English , its most notable subset being Newfoundland English , and from Quebec English . Accent differences can also be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings. While Canadian English tends to be close to American English in most regards, classifiable together as North American English , Canadian English also possesses elements from British English as well as some uniquely Canadian characteristics. The precise influence of American English, British English, and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been
12390-456: The world during the current period of globalization . The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary, with words such as tuque and portage , to the English of Upper Canada . Overall, the history of Canadian English is a reflection of
12508-531: The world, though 8000 died before arrival. The remaining 6000 Acadians escaped the British by fleeing North to the present Acadia , or to Canada . From 1755 to 1757, most Acadians were deported to the Thirteen Colonies . From 1758 to 1762, most were sent to France. Between 1763 and 1785, many deported Acadians relocated to join their compatriots in Louisiana . Their descendants became Cajuns . In
12626-590: Was a poor environment for agriculture and mining. Its fishery was also far inferior to that of Nova Scotia's. New Brunswick's forests were rich in wood, but as wood is a bulky and low-value commodity, accessible markets were limited. Essentially, in the late 1700s, New Brunswick was a peripheral corner of the British Empire and North American world. Geopolitical events in Europe would change this situation. In 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte 's continental blockade forced
12744-436: Was granted. The 1850s saw the emergence of political parties largely organised along religious and ethnic lines. From the late 1700s to mid 1800s, Acadians became a minority, and they lived largely on the fringes of society, fearful of the English. They were mostly illiterate due to laws preventing them from opening schools. They were also not part of the economic boom, and had troubles asserting their land rights. During
12862-475: Was held to discuss a possible Maritime Union between Nova Scotia , New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island . However, the Province of Canada , caught wind of the conference and decided to send representatives to attend. They asked that the agenda be expanded to discuss a union that would also include them. In 1866, the United States cancelled the Reciprocity Treaty, leading to a loss of trade and
12980-619: Was high for a long time and increased during the Great Depression of the 1930s. By the end of the Great Depression, the New Brunswick standard of living was much lower than the Canadian average. In 1937, New Brunswick had the highest infant mortality and illiteracy rates in Canada. In 1940, the Rowell–Sirois Commission reported grave flaws in the Canadian constitution. While the federal government had most of
13098-462: Was initially named New Ireland; it was not long until the name was then changed to New Brunswick. The original Brunswick is known as Braunschweig , but also Brunswiek (in Low German ), and also Bronswiek (in the local dialect). Paleo-Indians are believed to have been the first humans on the land of New Brunswick, settling there roughly 10,000 years ago. Because their descendants did not leave
13216-514: Was made by Jacques Cartier in 1534, when his party set foot in Miscou and explored the coasts of Chaleur Bay . They made contact with aboriginals, who from this point on began to trade with Europeans. This also exposed them to Old World diseases. Acadia , a colonial division of New France covering the Maritimes , was founded in 1604 by Samuel de Champlain and Pierre Dugua de Mons with
13334-707: Was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided. In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as -our endings, notably with The Globe and Mail changing its spelling policy in October 1990. Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the Southam newspaper chain's conversion in September 1998. The Toronto Star adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted
13452-449: Was published and completed the first edition of Gage's Dictionary of Canadian English Series. The DCHP documents the historical development of Canadian English words that can be classified as "Canadianisms". It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, and bluff, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car. Many secondary schools in Canada use the graded dictionaries. The dictionaries have regularly been updated since:
13570-504: Was published by Gage Ltd. under the chief-editorships of Charles J. Lovell (1907–1960) and Walter S. Avis (1919–1979) as of 1960 and the " Big Six " editors plus Faith Avis . The Beginner's Dictionary (1962), the Intermediate Dictionary (1964) and, finally, the Senior Dictionary (1967) were milestones in Canadian English lexicography. In November 1967 A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP)
13688-438: Was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether colour or color was the more popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available. Since 2022, the Editors' Association of Canada has been leading the writing of a new Canadian English Dictionary within
13806-515: Was routinely a war zone between the French and the English and would often change hands. However, Acadia would definitively fall into British hands following Queen Anne's War , a conquest of most of the Acadian peninsula, formalized by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 . After the war, Acadia was reduced to Île Saint-Jean ( Prince Edward Island ) and Île-Royale ( Cape Breton Island ), with the ownership of continental Acadia (New Brunswick) being disputed between France and Britain, with an informal border on
13924-492: Was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II . The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which movable type was set manually. Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, so it
#236763