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131-877: Russian–Kumyk wars ( Kumyk : Orus-Qumuq Dawlar , 16th–19th centuries, ongoing uprisings and conflicts throughout the beginning of the 20th century) — a series of military conflicts between the Russian Tsardom (and later the Russian Empire ) and the Kumyk Tarki Shamkhalate and other Kumyk states and feudal possessions (the Principality of Endirey, the Utamysh Sultanate, the Mehtuli Khanate , Kaitag Utsmiate and other Dagestani and North Caucasian entities) during

262-574: A 12th-century scripture named Codex Cumanicus , included modern Kumyk, Karachai-Balkar, Crimean Tatar, Karaim, and the language of Mamluk Kipchaks in the linguistic family of the Cuman-Kipchak language. Samoylovich also considered Cuman-Kipchak close to Kumyk and Karachai-Balkar. Amongst the dialects of the Kumyk there are Kaitag , Terek (Güçük-yurt and Braguny), Buynaksk ( Temir-Khan-Shura ) and Xasavyurt . The latter two became basis for

393-563: A common lingua franca in the multinational North Caucasus...” In 1848, a professor of the "Caucasian Tatar" (Kumyk) Timofey Makarov published the first ever grammatical book in the Russian language for one of the Northern Caucasian languages, which was international Kumyk. Makarov wrote: From the peoples speaking Tatar language I liked the most Kumyks, as for their language's distinction and precision, so for their closeness to

524-553: A concept of the art of war, then no nation could have taken up arms with them."" Having made sure that the goal of Peter I was Derbent, the ally of the Sultan of Utamysh Utsmi Ahmed-Khan of Kaitag submitted a petition to become a Russian subject. But this did not mean that Dagestani rulers settled down. On 20 September 1722 the commandant of Derbent, Andrei Junger, reported that the soldiers of Hadji Dawud, Utsmiy, Kazikumukh Khan Surkhay and Utemysh Sultan-Mahmud captured Russian redoubt on

655-810: A demand full of threats – to surrender Sheikh Mansur: Kumyk language Kumyk language belongs to the Kipchak-Cuman subfamily of the Kipchak family of the Turkic languages . It's a descendant of the Cuman language , with likely influence from the Khazar language , and in addition contains words from the Bulghar and Oghuz substratum . The closest languages to Kumyk are Karachay-Balkar , Crimean Tatar , and Karaim languages. Nikolay Baskakov , based on

786-500: A letter җ to represent the sound [ dʒ ] and distinguish said sound with the sound [ ʒ ] both written with the letter ж . None of these policies were adopted in Kumyk orthography. Below table is the Latin alphabet for Kumyk, derived from Yañalif , and having an official status between 1928 and 1938. Below table is the Latin alphabet developed for Kumyk since 1991, derived from modern Turkish orthography and

917-479: A new expedition to Dagestan. The army consisted of 10,000 Streltsy, the Yaitsk and Terek Cossacks, local vassals of Moscow (some pro-Russian Kabardian feudal lords and Okotsk murzas). The army amounted to a significant force in the region. According to a Dutch merchant Isaac Massa , a total of 50,000 people was led by voivode Ivan Mikhailovich Buturlin (this headcount estimation isn't supported by any other source and

1048-410: A new state campaign of Latinisation , a Latin alphabet was developed for Kumyk, derived from Yañalif , being officially adopted in 1928. In the 1930s, the official Soviet policy was revised and the process of Cyrillization of Soviet languages was started. In 1938 the new alphabet based on Cyrillic letters was officially adopted, which remains the official alphabet for Kumyk up till today. With

1179-478: A representative in the local and national assemblies, the Sejm . His military functions were entirely reduced to supervising a mass mobilization and in practice he ended up as little more than overseer of weights and measures. Appointments to the role were usually made until 1775 by the king. The exceptions were the voivodes of Polock and Vitebsk who were elected by a local poll of male electors for confirmation by

1310-581: A representative of the Council of Ministers and, on its behalf, the Prime Minister. The 1999 administrative reform in Poland reduced the numbers of voivodeships from 49 to 16 thus making each voivodeship much larger in size. This caused many discussions, also protests and conflicts and questions regarding the role of the voivodes in the system. The new act of 5 June 1998 on government administration in

1441-414: A representative of the government and the representative of the state's interests could organize control of tasks in the field of government administration, defined detailed objectives of the government's policy in the voivodeship, adapted to local conditions, coordinated the cooperation of all organizational units of government and local government administration operating on in the area of the voivodeship in

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1572-527: A single supply dispatch could reach Tarki or travel out of it safely. Meanwhile, due to hot weather and the lack of food, a fever began to develop within the Russian army. The number of sick and wounded in the clashes with Kumyks grew every day. At the same time, the Shamkhal's army was continuously replenished with the arrival of new reinforcements. The blockade ring was gradually closing in. The situation of

1703-469: A successful campaign to Kizlyar, defeating Russian troops. In 1775, Medem's campaign to Dagestan took place, again against the Utsmiy, who besieged Derbent, the center of the pro-Russian Derbent Khanate at the time. At first, the troops of Utsmiy were defeated in the area of Iran-Kharab, near Bashly. And then General Medem seized and devastated the main settlement of Bashly. Kumyks played a crucial role in

1834-508: Is comes palatinus for the principal commander of a military force, serving as a deputy for the monarch. In early Slavic, vojevoda meant the bellidux , the military leader in battle. The term has also spread to non-Slavic languages, like Romanian , Hungarian and Albanian , in areas with Slavic influence. During the Byzantine Empire it referred to military commanders mainly of Slavic-speaking populations, especially in

1965-677: Is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central , Southeastern and Eastern Europe in use since the Early Middle Ages . It primarily referred to the medieval rulers of the Romanian-inhabited states and of governors and military commanders of Poles, Hungarian , Balkan , Russian people and other Slavic-speaking populations. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , voivode

2096-558: Is most likely an exaggeration). In 1604, the tsarist troops set out on a campaign. Kumyks, as in 1594, did not engage in major clashes with the Russians, and conducted guerrilla warfare. Russian troops occupied the entire Kumyk planes and stormed Tarki. Shamkhal Surkhai II retreated to the Avar Khan's strongholds, granting the authority over his army to his enterprising nephew Sultan-Mut. Soon Buturlin encountered shortage of supplies and

2227-665: The Balkans , the Bulgarian Empire being the first permanently established Slavic state in the region. The title voevodas ( Greek : βοεβόδας ) originally occurs in the work of the 10th-century Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in his De Administrando Imperio , in reference to Hungarian military leaders. The title was used in medieval: Bohemia , Bosnia , Bulgaria , Croatia , Greece , Hungary , Macedonia , Moldavia , Poland , Rügen , Russian Empire , Ukraine , Serbia , Transylvania and Wallachia . In

2358-578: The Battle of Endirey . The attackers inflicted serious damage to the Veterani corps, rumors of defeat began to spread in the Peter's main army. Andy was soon taken and burned, but Andrei Veterani was still punished for the failure and losses. At first, Peter, upon receiving news of the victory, wrote sarcastically to Astrakhan about how his dragoons "captured provisions, and turned the village into fireworks for

2489-527: The Common Turkic alphabet . Below table is the last standard iteration of the Arabic alphabet for Kumyk language, being compiled in 1921, and being the official alphabet until 1928: Compiled from: Irchi Kazak (Ийрчы Къазакъ Yırçı Qazaq ; born 1839) is usually considered to be the greatest poet of the Kumyk language. The first regular Kumyk newspapers and magazines appeared in 1917–18 under

2620-633: The Georgian tsar Alexander II , as well as with the Kumyk Qrym-Shamkhal (Vice-Shamkhal, a relative of Shamkhal, who traditionally was considered as an heir to the throne), the Russian army of 5,000 people, under the command of voivode Khvorostinin, departed the Koisinsky fortress and began its advance towards Tarki. Shamkhal preferred not to engage in open battles against the Russians. Tarki, with its fortifications being not strong enough,

2751-755: The Golden Horde in 1502 opened up prospects for the Kumyk Shamkhal rulers to expand their borders to the north. Soon, the rulers of the Tyumen Khanate (Shamkhalian, or Caucasian Tyumen), a state entity with its center at the mouth of the Terek river, were under the influence of the Shamkhals. In the west, the interests of the Shamkhalate clashed with Adyghs (their Kabardian branch), in

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2882-749: The Late Middle Ages the voivode, Latin translation is comes palatinus for the principal commander of a military force, deputising for the monarch gradually became the title of territorial governors in Poland, Hungary and the Czech lands and in the Balkans. During the Ottoman administration of Greece , the Ottoman Voivode of Athens resided in the ancient Gymnasium of Hadrian. The Serbian Autonomous Province of Vojvodina descends from

3013-496: The Serbian Vojvodina , with Stevan Šupljikac as Vojvoda or Duke, that became later Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar . The transition of the voivode from military leader to a high ranking civic role in territorial administration ( Local government ) occurred in most Slavic-speaking countries and in the Balkans during the Late Middle Ages . They included Bulgaria, Bohemia, Moldavia and Poland. Moreover, in

3144-651: The Turkish-Persian War of 1623–1639 , the spheres of influence in the Caucasus were divided between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Iran, and territories from Derbent to Sunzha river fell under Safavids. In this regard, Shah Abbas II decided to campaign against the Russian fortresses on the Terek and Sunzha, relying on the forces of the Kumyk vassals (contemporaries often describe this relationship in

3275-461: The chairman of the Council of Ministers and to individual ministers. He retained a double position in the voivodeship: he was a representative of the central government in the voivodeship, as well as the head of the general administration bodies subordinated to him. As part of the first function, apart from representing the government at state ceremonies, the voivode was responsible for coordinating

3406-496: The movement of the highlanders under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur , who raised the banner of uprising in 1785. Sheikh Mansur was supported by a number of influential princes and by the population of the Northern Kumykia (Kumyk plains and Terek-Sulak interfluve). Russian documents show that colonial authorities were afraid that support provided by Kumyks could lead to serious consequences. Kumyk princes participated in

3537-542: The 16th–18th centuries. At the end of the 18th century, as well as during and after the Caucasian War , and throughout the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, conflicts continued in the form of uprisings in Shamkhalate, Northern Kumykia , Southern Kumykia, and in the form of anti-colonial protests of individual villages (societies). In the result of these wars and uprisings, some Kumyk areas and villages were destroyed several times over. The fall of

3668-681: The Caucasus. The language is present in such works of Tolstoy as " The Raid ", Cossacks , Hadji Murat , and Lermontov's - " A Hero of Our Time ", Bestuzhev-Marlinsky 's - "Molla-nur" and "Ammalat-bek". Below is the translation of the Christian Lord's Prayer in Kumyk, in a variety of scripts. "в пределах Дагестана кумыкский язык был известен также под названием «бумурман тил» "мусульманский язык", при этом данный лингвоним обозначал только кумыкский язык, в отличие от многочисленных народов, населявший горный Дагестан." ["within Dagestan,

3799-412: The Council of Ministers. The Small Constitution of 1992 did not assign any special tasks to the voivodes in the field of taking care of the development of the voivodeship or the development of its resources, because already then it was realized that the administrative division into 49 administrative units does not meet the requirements of the time and that the voivode is in fact not the host of region, but

3930-505: The Czech lands, but also in the Balkans, it was an aristocratic title corresponding to dux , Duke or Prince . Many noble families of the Illyricum still use this title despite the disputes about the very existence of nobility in the Balkans. Grand Duke of Bosnia ( Serbo-Croatian : Veliki Vojvoda Bosanski ; Latin : Bosne supremus voivoda / Sicut supremus voivoda regni Bosniae )

4061-644: The European civilization, but most importantly, I take in account that they live on the Left Flank of the Caucasian Front, where we're conducting military actions, and where all the peoples, apart from their own language, speak also Kumyk. During the Soviet era, the role of Kumyk was consolidated when in 1923, it was declared to be the state language of Dagestan ASSR due to the fact that "the majority of

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4192-524: The Fortress of the Holy Cross ended in failure. Shamkhal's allies quarreled over their intents towards Russians and left the fight. But Russians, willing to punish the Shamkhal for the attempt, embarked on another expedition. During the expedition, about 20 Kumyk villages were devastated. There were attempts of resistance (battles at Issisu, Kumtorkali, Upper Kazanysh), and Russian commanders noted that

4323-729: The Greek and Turkish residents of Athens and making powerful enemies at the Porte . In 16th-century Poland and Lithuania, the wojewoda was a civic role of senatorial rank and neither heritable nor a title of nobility . His powers and duties depended on his location. The least onerous role was in Ruthenia while the most powerful wojewoda was in Royal Prussia . The role began in the crown lands as that of an administrative overseer, but his powers were largely ceremonial. Over time he became

4454-461: The Kumyk language was also known under the name "бумурман тил" - "Muslim language", and this linguonym denoted only the Kumyk language, in contrast to the numerous peoples who inhabited mountainous Dagestan."] Voivode Voivode ( / ˈ v ɔɪ v oʊ d / VOY -vohd ), also spelled voivod , voievod or voevod and also known as vaivode ( / ˈ v aɪ v oʊ d , ˈ v eɪ -/ V(A)Y -vohd ), voivoda , vojvoda or wojewoda ,

4585-607: The Kumyks and Persians. The militia of the highlanders was joined by a couple of Chechen societies living along the Michik and Argun rivers, where they were allowed to settle by the Shamkhal for the obligation to help Shamkhal in his military endeavors. The total number of the allied army reached 12,000 people. Kumyks and Iranians met resistance of the vassal of the Russian Kingdom, Mutsal Cherkassky, and Bragunians . The siege of

4716-633: The Nogais, who were often assisted by Kumyks against the Kalmyks. A proposal to "nomadize closer to the mountains" was given by Sultan Mut to Nogais. Finally, in the late 1640s, Shamkhal Surkhai III invited to his lands a small Nogai horde led by Choban- murza Ishterek, which opposed tsar's rule over Nogai steppes. Shamkhal, explaining his help to Nogais, wrote to the Astrakhan voivodes that "..we, Kumyks, have and cherish our "kunaks" (friends and guests) from

4847-662: The Okotsk murzas, supported Moscow's expansion. Russia's intervention was also facilitated by a new request from the Georgians seeking support against the Ottoman Empire and its close regional ally Shamkhalate, which regularly carried out attacks on Iberia. Trying to take advantage of the favorable political situation (another war between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavids began), the tsar's government decided to organize

4978-577: The Orta-Bugan river (sixty versts from Derbent), "and the people on guard by the enemy are defeated." According to the Derbent naib, the three-day assault cost the attackers 400 dead, and only three people from the garrison of 128 soldiers and six Cossacks escaped hiding in the reeds. On 19 and 21 September, the highlanders stormed a retrenchment near the Rubasa river; the attack was held off, but one of

5109-465: The Presidium of National Councils were transformed into a comprehensively recognized office ( Polish : urząd ) with the help of which the voivode was to perform his tasks as state administration body. The Voivodes were to be appointed by the Prime Minister following a consultation with the respective Voivodeship National Council . Their competencies included The Voivode, providing conditions for

5240-670: The Russian Emperor Peter I set out on a campaign to seize the coast of the Caspian Sea . The formal reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the murder of Russian merchants in Shamakhi by the Dagestani Imam Hadji-Dawud, who refused to accept allegiance to Russia. On 18 July 1722 a Russian flotilla of 274 ships sailed under the command of Admiral General Count Feodor Apraksin. On 20 July

5371-520: The Russian Empire, Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Kumyk feudal possessions adhered to different political vectors. For example, Utamysh Sultanate followed pro-Crimean (pro-Ottoman) orientation, the Shamkhals of Tarki, while losing control of many feudal domains, at some point accepted personal conditional sovereignty of the Russian Empire. Willing to take advantage of the weakness and turmoil in Iran,

Russian–Kumyk Wars - Misplaced Pages Continue

5502-503: The Russians managed to repel all the attacks, with huge damage to the attackers. The besieged also suffered heavy losses. Seeing the futility of further struggle, the parties began negotiations. They resulted in an agreement on safe departure of the Russian army to the Terki. However, the people of Kumykia and Dagestan, after recognizing the devastation of their lands and many killed countrymen, pushed Sultan-Mut to take decisive action against

5633-497: The Shamkhal, desperately resisted the united Russian-Kabardian invasion. However, in 1588 Streltsy founded the fortress of Terki in the very center of Tyumen Khanate on the river Terek. Two years later, an attack was made on the lands of the Shamkhals, but the attack was repulsed by the Kumyks. The lands of the Tyumen Khanate were finally conquered and annexed by the Russian Tsardom in 1594. After reaching agreements with

5764-664: The Sunzha prison ended without any major success. During 1652, the Shah was preparing a second campaign. Shamkhal Surkhai and Kazan-Alp with their troops were standing on Aktash, preparing to march on Sunzha. The Russian government was fortifying the Sunza fortress. On the eve of the second campaign, the squadrons of Kabardian Murza Urus Khan Yansokhov's and of his son Shangirey were ordered by Prince Mutsal Cherkassky to reinforce fortress' Russian garrison. This time Mutsal himself remained outside

5895-427: The Terek and Sunzha disrupted Shah's plans. In 1651, Khosrow Khan of Shamakhi received a Shah's decree – to lead the campaign of the Persian army to Sunzha and Terek. The objectives of the campaign were broader than just gaining stronghold on Sunzha river. As Khosrow Khan put it, he received an order from Shah Abbas to cease Sunzha fortress, destroy it, and then "go to Astrakhan without delay" . Khosrow Khan entrusted

6026-408: The Utamysh Sultanate was burned down along with its other settlements. Sultan-Mahmud's possessions were transferred to the Tarki Shamkhal, who this time didn't cause any trouble to Russians. Peter I and other participants of the campaign noted the incredible bravery of the Kumyks of the Utamysh Sultanate. Peter I wrote: "It was amazing how the barbarians fought.." In the diary of the participant of

6157-404: The Utamysh Sultanate), with an offer to pledge allegiance to Russia. Sultan-Mahmud not only refused, but also killed Cossack envoys, telling Peter I that this would happen to everyone from Peter's army who would fall into his hands. Later their forces clashed in the Battle on the Inche River , in which the Russians defeated the troops of Sultan Mahmud and his ally Ahmed-Khan of Kaitag. The capital of

6288-409: The Utsmiy's lands were burned and destroyed. The losses of Russian troops during the assault amounted to 400 people. Only 1 person was taken prisoner from the Bashlynians, because, as Russian participants noted, the locals had a "barbaric" custom of not surrendering alive. In 1773, Ali-Sultan of Dzhengutay, the ruler of Kumyk Mekhtulu Khanate, in support of the Kabardian princes who opposed Russia, made

6419-426: The Voivodeship National Council to perform its statutory tasks, participated in its sessions and meetings of its presidium, ensured the implementation of the WRN resolutions and decisions of the presidium and submitted reports on their implementation, presented the WRN with draft plans for the social and economic development of the voivodeship and the budget, submitted reports from their implementation and cooperated with

6550-428: The activities of each body conducting administrative enforcement for a specified period of time. On the other hand, the non-combined administration bodies ( Polish : Administracja niezespolona ) were obliged to agree with the voivode on the drafts of local law enacted by them, in order to ensure compliance of their activities with the voivode's orders and to submit annual information to the voivode on their activities in

6681-486: The activities of each body conducting administrative enforcement for a specified period of time. Special administration bodies and municipal bodies, within the scope of government administration tasks performed by them, were obliged to provide the voivode, at his request, with explanations in every case conducted in the voivodeship. The voivode also issued opinions on the appointment and dismissal of heads of special administration and appointed and dismissed, in consultation with

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6812-542: The activities of the entire state administration in the voivodeship in accordance with the basic political line of the government. The Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN) in its Manifesto of 22 July 1944, referred to the March Constitution of 1921 , but at the same time stated that it exercises power through voivodeship, poviat, city and commune national councils and through authorized representatives. Where national councils do not exist, democratic organizations are obliged to establish them immediately. According to

6943-405: The basic rights and duties of the voivode as the representative of the government, the executive and managing body of the Voivodeship National Council and the local state administration body at the voivodeship level." An important competence of the voivode in this function was to exercise control over the implementation of voters' postulates and motions. The voivode, on the basis of the guidelines of

7074-406: The besieged became catastrophic, and Khvorostinin decided to withdraw from Tarki. On a dark night, Russian troops set out to move back towards the Koisinsky fortress. At first, retreating troops managed to withstand scattered attacks of the Dagestanis, but the arrival of the main forces led by Shamkhal himself forced the Russians to abandon their heavy loads and wounded. In the end, only a quarter of

7205-472: The campaign, Henry Bruce, he cites Peter I about the soldiers of Sultan Mahmud: "Another prisoner, when he was brought to the tent (of Admiral Apraksin), did not want to answer any of the questions that were addressed to him, then they gave the order to strip him and beat him with whips. Having received the first blow, he snatched the sword from the officer standing next to him, ran to the admiral's tent and probably would have killed him if two sentries standing at

7336-436: The capital of Tarki Shamkhalate — Tarki . Russian troops managed to take the city, but did not try to hold it, being satisfied with just burning it. The Shamkhal did not stop involving in the affairs of the Kabardian princes. The general battle between allied Temryuk Idarovich's and the tsar's army, from one sine, and the Shamkhal Buday and his also Kabardian ally Pshimkhao Kaitukin, from the other, took place in 1566, ending in

7467-456: The communal and living needs of the population. It was also specified that the voivode performed and organized the performance of tasks in the voivodeship resulting from the provisions of generally applicable law, orders of the Prime Minister and resolutions of the WRN. Voivodes also controlled the performance by units subordinated and not subordinated to national councils of tasks resulting from laws and other acts of law. In this regard, they had

7598-411: The competent Voivodeship National Council. The dismissal of a voivode by the appointing authority required a request from the minister of public administration. The voivode's resignation could be demanded by the voivodeship national council on its own initiative or on the initiative of one of the poviat national councils. The tasks of the voivode with the help of the voivodeship departments: From 1946

7729-408: The competent minister, heads of services, inspections and other organizational units. However, in relation to state-owned companies, the voivode issued opinions on candidates for members of supervisory bodies appointed by the representative of the state treasury and had the right to nominate candidates for members of the company's supervisory body. The position of voivodes at that time was justified by

7860-400: The construction of a Russian fortress in his possessions (which was a violation of the agreements leading him not to oppose Peter's campaign), decided to break with the Russian government. After calling other mountainous rulers of Dagestan to join the campaign, Adil-Girey gathered an army of 20,000 people. The Kaitag Utsmiy Ahmed-Khan promised to join the campaign, but never arrived. The siege of

7991-443: The council and elected by it), reporting to the provincial national council in this regard. In according to statue of 20 March 1950, the institution of the Voivode was abolished and his competences was transferred to the Voivodeship National Council and it's presidium. As part of the 1972-1975 administrative reform, the Voivode position was reintroduced according to the law published on 22 November 1973. receiving powers which were at

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8122-502: The council of ministers, also prepared draft plans for the socio-economic development of the voivodeship and draft budgets, implemented the plan and budget adopted by the voivodeship national council and performed other tasks related to the comprehensive development of the voivodeship and meeting the needs of society, focusing on key problems, especially concerning the complex of agriculture and food economy, improving market supply, housing construction and housing management, as well as meeting

8253-419: The death of Shamkhal Buday, his brother Surkhai and their Kabardian ally. The battle was of great importance, as the western possessions fell away from Shamkhalate, while it is mentioned that in the 16th century Shamkhals collected "yasaq" (tributes) from the areas stretching to Balkaria and Karachay . The Idarovs then directed the tsarist campaigns to the Tyumen Khanate, whose ruler Soltaney, in alliance with

8384-425: The decades, proposals to further improve the Cyrillic script have been raised. For example, it was proposed to have the digraphs гъ , гь , къ , нг , оь/ё , and уь/ю with single letters ғ , һ , қ , ң , ө , and ү respectively; it was also to introduce a letter ў to represent the sound [ β ] and distinguish said sound with the sound [ v ] both written with the letter в ; and to introduce

8515-411: The decree of the Polish Committee of National Liberation of 21 August 1944, these "authorised representatives" were voivodes and starostes. The provincial department ( Polish : Wydział wojewódzki ), introduced for the first time in Poland, was the executive body of the Voivodeship National Council. The chairman was the voivode or his deputy. Voivodes were initially appointed by the PKWN at the request of

8646-424: The editorship of Kumyk poet, writer, translator, and theatre figure Temirbolat Biybolatov (Temirbolat Biybolat). Currently, the newspaper Ёлдаш ( Yoldash , "Companion"), the successor of the Soviet-era Ленин ёлу ( Lenin yolu , "Lenin's Path"), prints around 5,000 copies 3 times a week. The Kumyk language was learned by Russian classical authors such as Leo Tolstoy and Mikhail Lermontov , both of whom served in

8777-456: The enemy "acted fiercely" and the regular troops and buckshot cannons had to be used. Nevertheless, Tarki and Shamkhal's palace were destroyed. As noted by commander Eropkin, Russians destroyed another 6,000 courts (households) in the vicinity of Tarki. Trying to keep his lands safe from yet another devastating invasion, Adil-Girey surrendered, was exiled to the Kola fortress of the Arkhangelsk Governorate , where his days ended. The Shamkhal title

8908-399: The fact that there was no self-government voivodeship, and the administrative voivodeship was strictly governmental in nature and was headed by the voivode as the land manager, who, together with the local government assembly, represented the voivodeship outside. However, its position was not as strong as before 1990, because the Constitutional Act of 1992 clearly indicated that local government

9039-449: The fall of the Soviet Union, with an increased prospect in international connection among Turkic peoples, a project to develop Latin alphabet again, but derived from modern Turkish orthograhpy was undertaken. Several online publications, as well as many individuals using social media, have adopted this script as well. Below is the Kumyk Cyrillic alphabet, adopted in 1938, and remaining in use in its original composition up till today. Over

9170-435: The field of preventing threats to human life and health, environmental threats, maintaining public order and state security, protecting civil rights, preventing natural disasters, preventing threats as well as combating and removing their effects. The voivode also coordinated tasks in the field of defense and state security in the voivodeship, represented the government at state ceremonies and performed other tasks commissioned by

9301-495: The first attack on the Russian garrison in Kizlyar, organized by Sheikh Mansur. Those were Chapalav Anji-Murtazali, Makhach Uruskhan, Hamza Alish, along with their uzdens . The Kumyks made a decision that: "...if there are traitors among them and they will inform the Russian authorities about the course of the uprising, then such a person will be killed and his house will be destroyed". Sheikh Mansur found support mostly in Chechen and Kumyk villages. The Russian authorities have issued

9432-651: The fleet entered the Caspian Sea and followed the western coast for a week. On 23 July, Peter I sent corps under the command of Andrei Veterani to the hostile mountainous area Andy. He was joined by the prince of the Kabarda Elmurza Cherkassky, as well as by Mutsal Cherkassky. On the outskirts of Endirey, the Russians were attacked by the Endirey princes Aidemir Bardykhanov and Chapan-shawkhal, and their subject Chechen troops in what resulted in

9563-459: The fortification walls collapsed, and the garrison had to be withdrawn. Major General Kropotov reported that the soldiers of Sultan Mahmud and Utsmiy attacked his rearguard near Buinak. The roads have become so dangerous that the commander of the Agrakhan fortification, Colonel Maslov, on 28 August received an order not to send anyone towards the army, since "it is impossible to pass the land among

9694-553: The fun of its owners". However, after the news of the losses, joy was replaced by annoyance. The tsar understood how important it was to start any campaign successfully. Prior to the start of the Persian Campaign, he ordered Veterani to be careful and act "without mischief, so that in the beginning of this matter we would not be disgraced." On 27 July, Russian infantry landed at the Agrakhan Cape, 4 Versts below

9825-490: The general administration authorities in the regions were voivodes. Contrary to the provisions of the Act of 1919, the competences of the voivode according to the new legislation was much more wide-ranging. It granted the voivode special supervisory and intervention powers in relation to non-combined administration ( Polish : Administracja niezespolona ). It could convene meetings of heads of non-combined administration bodies for

9956-569: The hands of the Presidium of the Voivodeship National Councils . Thus, the model of the collegial structure of administrative bodies was abandoned. Although the presidiums were left in the system of national councils, their role and position was reduced to the internal organ of the council, representing the council outside. Since the publishing of the law amending the Act on National Councils of 1973, departments and other organizational units previously subordinated directly to

10087-542: The intertribal language of communication among various Muslim communities of the region. The historian Georgi Derluguian made the following analogy with regards to the role of Turkic languages in the Caucasus and beyond: “... For almost a thousand years, the Turkic languages that dominated the peoples of the steppe – Kumyk and Tatar – served, like Swahili in East Africa or French among the aristocracies of Europe, as

10218-521: The language of education and inter-ethnic communication in Dagestan. Today, more than 90% of the Kumyks, according to 2010 census, also speak Russian, and those in Turkey and the Levant speak Turkish and Arabic . Kumyk has been used as a lingua franca in Dagestan and Caucasus for some time. The historic literary culture of Kumyks and the entire region of Dagestan, North Caucasus , and Southern Ukraine

10349-537: The legal basis for establishing voivodeships and restoring the institution of the voivode was the Act of 2 August 1919. The Ordinance of the President of the Republic of Poland of 19 January 1928 did not depart from the voivodeships and the voivodes who headed them. internal affairs, adopted by the Council of Ministers ), from 14 December 1922, President of the Republic of Poland. Pursuant to the Act of 2 August 1919,

10480-407: The level of the fortress wall. The most important Russian footholds were two upper towers, which had wide firing range. A huge powder charge was laid under one of the tower . After the explosion the "best squads" of Moscow Streltsy were killed, and the janissaries and Dagestani forces stormed the stronghold. Part of the fortress wall was destroyed, and large storming forces poured into the gap. However,

10611-566: The literary language. Kumyk had been a lingua-franca of the bigger part of the Northern Caucasus, from Dagestan to Kabarda , until the 1930s and was an official language of communication between the North-Eastern Caucasian nations and the Russian administration. The language was known in Dagestan as simply Muslim language ( Kumyk : бусурман тил , busurman til , بوسورمان تیل) due to its domniant role as

10742-593: The local electorate but as representatives/emissaries of the central government's Council of Ministers . They are appointed by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and among their main tasks are budgetary control and supervision of the administrative code. Following the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , the rank of Vojvoda was continued in the Independent State of Croatia as Vojskovodja . The rank

10873-636: The minister of public administration. The Voivode was appointed and dismissed by the PKWN, from 31 December 1944, the Provisional Government did so at the request of the minister of public administration, and after the adoption of the Small Constitution of 1947 the President of the Republic of Poland at the request of the minister of public administration in consultation with the president of the Council of Ministers after consulting

11004-560: The monarch. In 1791, it was decided to adopt the procedure throughout the country but the 18th-century Partitions of Poland put a stop to it. Polish voivodes were subject to the Law of Incompatibility (1569) which prevented them from simultaneously holding ministerial or other civic offices in their area. Following the declaration of independence and the establishment of the Second Polish Republic and its armed forces ,

11135-558: The mountain peoples". Couriers with papers from the Senate, the Board of Foreign Affairs and other institutions have been stuck in Agrakhan. Sultan-Mahmud, in alliance with Utsmiy, having gathered 20,000 troops, followed the retreating Russias, but did not engage. After the death of the energetic Sultan Mahmud, the Utamysh Sultanate leaves the political arena as an independent possession. In 1725 Shamkhal Adil-Girey of Tarki, dissatisfied with

11266-466: The mouth of the Koysu (Sulak) River. A few days later, the cavalry arrived. On 5 August the Russian army continued to advance moving towards Derbent. On 6 August Kabardian princes Murza Cherkassky and Aslan-Bek joined the army on Sulak with their troops . On 8 August, army crossed Sulak. On 15 August, the troops approached Tarki, the seat of Shamkhal. An embassy was sent to Sultan-Mahmud of Utamysh (ruler of

11397-605: The north – with the Astrakhan Khanate . The rulers of Tyumen Khanate in the first half of the 16th century, backed by " Circassians " (Kumyk, other Turkic and Kabardian feudal lords allied with them), repeatedly interfered in the civil strife in the Astrakhan Khanate, and in 1532 even appointed the Tyumen ruler Ak-Kubek, the son of Murtaza and grandson of Ahmat, to its throne. In 1556 the Astrakhan Khanate

11528-482: The old times of our fathers". Aiming to make Nogais return under the Russian control, tsar's troops, along with their vassals Kabardians and Cossacks, were sent to Kumykia, again towards Tarki. Also, this time Endirey ruler Kazanalp son of Sultan-Mut sided with Russian. There are accounts mentioning that some Swedish mercenaries, left without job after the end of the Thirty Years' War , took part in this battle on

11659-401: The opposite way, like Safavids paid tribute to Kumyk rulers for their support) — the Endirey princes and Tarki Shamkhals. Interests of Kumyks and Safavids coincided only in terms of countering Russians, but Kumyks did not want Iranians in Dagestan. The formal motive for the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Safavids was the restoration of the Sunzha fortress, because Russian fortresses on

11790-451: The population and socio-economic development of the area; organized control over the performance of state administration tasks in the voivodeship resulting from acts and ordinances, resolutions and orders of the chief state administration bodies; ensured the cooperation of organizational units operating in the voivodeship in the field of maintaining law and order, as well as preventing natural disasters and removing their effects. In addition, he

11921-464: The population of indigenous Dagestan speaks and understands the Turkic-Kumyk language... the experience of teaching the Turkic language in the schools of Mountainous Dagestan gave brilliant results... it was noted... that the “Turkic-Kumyk” language is the only language of communication of the citizens of indigenous Dagestan." Over the decades, this has changed, and Russian has displaced Kumyk as

12052-454: The presidium of the WRN in matters related to the implementation of the tasks of the presidium and the preparation of the council session, applied to the presidium to convene a session of the WRN and the subject of its deliberations. In addition, the voivode cooperated with the WRN committees and councillors, assisted them in the implementation of tasks, in maintaining communication with residents and

12183-403: The purpose of coordination their work from the point of view of the interests of the state, demand explanations from them in specific matters and suspend the enforcement of orders contrary to government policy, could also interfere in personnel matters of non-combined administration bodies. The voivode was nominated by the president, personally subordinated to the minister of internal affairs, to

12314-474: The request of the staroste, with the opinion of the competent head of the combined service, inspection or voivodeship guard, could create, transform and liquidate organizational units constituting the auxiliary apparatus of the heads of poviat services, inspections and guards, unless separate provisions provided otherwise. Governor could appoint and dismiss the heads of combined services, inspections and guards voivodeships, except for Voivodeship Police Commander, who

12445-453: The residents' self-government and in conducting control activities, and presented drafts of major ordinances and decisions to the WRN committees for consultation and informed about the implementation of the committee's conclusions. Voivodes were served by voivodeship offices. The voivode could also perform some of his tasks with the help of "united field offices, enterprises, plants and institutions" subordinated to him. The functions and status of

12576-500: The retreating Russians. Soon Buturlin's army was encircled by Kumyk and their allies, and completely destroyed in the Battle of Karaman, in which Ivan Buturlin himself fell. According to the Russian chronicles, the losses of Russians amounted to about 7 thousand people, "in addition to the boyar people" . N. Karamzin and few other sources wrote about 6,000–7,000 losses of the Russians. The Battle of Karaman, according to Karamzin, kept

12707-448: The right to issue legal acts with force in the territory of the voivodeship. The process of organizing and unifying the territorial administration intensified in the 1920s, especially after the May coup. Their culmination was the regulation of the President of the Republic of Poland of 1928 on the organization and scope of operation of general administration authorities. This act stipulated that

12838-411: The right to take the necessary decisions to ensure their full implementation. In 1988 further regulations clarified the voivode's competences and tasks compared to the earlier regulations of 1975 and 1983. As the representative of the central government in the voivodeship, the voivode coordinated the work of all state administration bodies operating in the voivodeship in the field of meeting the needs of

12969-420: The scope of commissioned government administration tasks carried out by these bodies. The voivode, as a representative of the government, also performed tasks commissioned by the Council of Ministers. The voivode, as a representative of the government, had the right to issue recommendations to local government administration bodies operating in the voivodeship and, in particularly justified cases, he could suspend

13100-561: The side of Russians. In 1649 or 1650 (according to different sources), the Battle on the Hermenchik field happened, won by the allied Kumyk-Nogai army. Russians were defeated. Endirey ruler returned under the influence of Shamkhal. In the middle of the 17th century strengthened Iran, represented by Shah Abbas II, sought to expand its northern borders. According to the Qasr-e Shirin Peace Treaty of 1639, which ended

13231-416: The sons of Temryuk Idarov, one of the princes of Kabarda . According to the kavkazologist E. Kusheva, the reason behind the petitions of Kabardians could have been the enmity of Temryuk Idarov towards the Shamkhal. Ivan IV soon sent an army against the Shamkhalate and Caucasian Tyumen. In the summer of 1560, the troops of the voivode I.S. Cheremisinov moved out of Astrakhan by sea with the goal of capturing

13362-481: The task of capturing the Sunzha fortress to Shamkhal Surkhai. The army consisted of the forces of Surkhai, ruler of the Endirey biylik Kazan-Alp, and ruler of Kaitag Amir-khan Sultan. To reinforce Shamkhal's army, Khan of Shamakhi sent regular Persian troops. Some 800 Iranian "sarbaz" (soldiers) took part in the campaign: "500 people from Shamakhi, and 300 people from Derbeni (Derbent), and with them two guns." Nogai Choban-Murza's and Shahtemir-Murza's uluses also joined

13493-400: The tent had not plunged their bayonets into his stomach. Falling, he tore a piece of meat from the hand of one of the sentries with his teeth, after which he was killed. When the emperor entered the tent, Admiral Apraksin said that he hadn't come to this country to be devoured by rabid dogs, and that he had never been so scared in his whole life. The Emperor, smiling, replied: "If this people had

13624-596: The territorial division of the country, where communes were the basic territorial division units, while the voivodeship was the basic territorial division unit for the performance of government administration. In this concept, the voivode as a body of general government administration, in particular: The voivode was also a higher-ranking authority within the meaning of the regulations of the Code of Administrative Procedure in relations to heads of regional offices of general government administration and local government bodies within

13755-452: The territory of the Northern Caucasus out of the active expansion plans of tsarist Russia for another 118 years. Shamkhals and other Kumyk rulers continued to maneuver between the major powers surrounding them, often changing their foreign policy orientation depending on the prevailing balance of power. One of the important issues for the local nobles was one of strengthening their military strength. To this end, close ties were established with

13886-612: The total number of the Russian troops, that had previously marched from the Koisinsky fortress, returned back. The total losses of the Russian army in that campaign amounted to 3,000 people. According to some local tales, out of 1,000 Terek (Grebensky) Cossacks who marched, no more than 300 people returned home. The campaign ended with no success. In the beginning of the 17th century, the North Caucasus plunged into internecine wars. Local feudal lords often sought help from neighboring powers. The Kabardian vassals of Moscow, as well as

14017-411: The turn of the 17th century. The governors of provinces and sanjaks would appoint someone from their own households or someone from the local elites to collect the revenues. The chief Ottoman administrator of Athens was also called the voivode. One such holder of this title, Hadji Ali Haseki , was voivode on five separate occasions before his final banishment and execution in 1795 after angering both

14148-532: The voivode was a representative of the government, exercising state authority in the voivodeship on its behalf; responsible executor of the orders of individual ministers; the head of authorities and offices in the area subordinated to him; supervisors of employees of these offices. The scope of the voivode was therefore broad and went beyond the area of matters belonging to the Ministry of the Interior. He also had

14279-447: The voivode was subjected to social control of the voivodeship national council and was obliged to submit periodic reports to it (actually the presidium) on the general line of his activities. The voivode ceased to be the chairman of the voivodeship national council, but due to the position he held, he was a member of the voivodeship national council. Instead, he was the chairman of the provincial government department (the executive body of

14410-537: The voivode were clarified in January 1978 in the regulation of the Council of Ministers . The preamble to this act states, inter alia, that "the voivode, while performing his tasks in the field of managing the national economy in the voivodeship, is guided by the resolutions of the Polish United Workers' Party as the guiding political force of society in socialist construction. This regulation specified

14541-421: The voivodeship it was specified that the voivode is: The voivode, as a representative of the Council of Ministers, was responsible for implementing the government's policy. The voivode's powers also included issuing orders binding on all government administration bodies, and in emergency situations also binding on the bodies of local government units. The voivode could also, in particularly justified cases, suspend

14672-404: The voivodeship. The reactivation, by the Act of 8 March 1990, of a self-governing commune with legal personality, its own sphere of public tasks, its own authorities and territory, independent of other local bodies of state (government) administration, forced a new look at the role of the voivode as a local body of state administration. The legal position of the voivode after 1990 was in line with

14803-519: The voivodeship. In addition, the voivode's competences included all matters in the field of government administration not reserved for other bodies and supervision over the activities of local government units, representing the State Treasury in relation to state property and exercising other powers resulting from representing the State Treasury and exercising the powers and duties of the founding body towards state-owned enterprises. The voivode, at

14934-478: The walls of the fortress and during the siege attacked the Persian troops by multiple raids. On 7 March 1653, troops under the command of Surkhai-Shamkhal of Tarki besieged the Sunzha fortress for the second time. The reinforcements sent from the Terki town were defeated and situation deteriorated fast. The remnants of the garrison (108 people) were forced to leave the prison and retreat to Terki. The fortress itself

15065-594: Was a court title in the Kingdom of Bosnia , bestowed by the king to highest military commanders, usually reserved for most influential and most capable among highest Bosnian nobility who already held title of vojvoda. To interpret it as an office post rather than a court rank could be even more accurate. Unlike usage in Western Europe, Central Europe, or in various Slavic lands from Central to North-East Europe, where analogy between grand duke and grand prince

15196-534: Was abolished following the events. In 1735 it was reinstituted by Nadir Shah , who helped the son of Adil-Girey, Khasbulat, to the throne. Some researchers mark the Shamkhalian expedition of 1725 as the start of the Caucasian War. In 1733, Russian troops, numbering 5,000 soldiers, stormed walled and cannon-fortified capital of Utsmiy, the "village of Barashly" (Bashly). The most significant villages in

15327-471: Was also provided by the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I , who sent 1,000 janissaries and Crimean Tatars. The allied army attacked fortresses built by the Russians. Koisinsky fortress, the Russian fortress on Aktash and some other fortresses fell. Buturlin found himself completely cut off. Soon Sultan-Mut's troops besieged Tarki. They filled up the ditches and erected a mound of sand and brushwood at

15458-637: Was appointed after consultation opinion of the voivode. In addition, the voivode has powers and responsibilities regarding defense in the voivodeship, as specified in the Homeland Defence Act : In 2001 the powers and competences of the voivodes was reduced as some of their authority was transferred to the Voivodeship sejmik . Voivodes continue to have a role in local government in Poland today, as authorities of voivodeships and overseers of self-governing local councils, answerable not to

15589-458: Was burned by Surkhai, who then returned to Tarki. Shah was preparing a new expedition, the purpose of which was Astrakhan, but the attack on Iran by the Afghans made its implementation impossible. The conflict was soon settled. The campaign led to a certain weakening of Russia's influence in the region. At the beginning of the 18th century Dagestan was still a subject of interest of three empires:

15720-590: Was conquered by the Russian tsardom. This event, along with the marriage of Ivan the Terrible to the Kabardian princess Maria daughter of Temruk , lead to Russia's involvement in the politics of the Caucasus . In 1557, the Kabardian embassy appealed to the Russian administration in Astrakhan with a request for military action against Shamkhalate of Tarki. Similar request was repeated by the embassy of 1558, from

15851-540: Was derived from the Arabic script, although with minor modifications, only several additional letters, same as in Persian alphabet , to represent consonants. Vowels, of which there exists a relatively large number of them in Turkic languages, and in Kumyk in particular (8 or 9 vowels) were rarely and irregularly written in the Arabic script, with the use of matres lectionis , the three letters ʾalif ا , wāw و and yāʾ ي . This meant that, overall, this script

15982-552: Was done in 1915, by Abdulhalim Jengutaevsky" in the preface of his Kumyk translation of the poem Layla and Majnun , published in Temir-Khan-Shura . In the following years, vowel representations were standardized, and Arabic letters that had the same pronunciation in Karachay-Balkar were dropped and consolidated (For example, the letters ث and ص were dropped in favour of the letter س ). Later, as part of

16113-456: Was far from being adapted to Kumyk phonology. In the beginning of the 20th century, parallel with other Turkic-Muslim minority ethnic groups within the Russian Empire , Kumyk speaking literaturists decided to undertake the task of standardization and improvement of the Arabic script. It was in this era that Kumyk literature flourished, and many poets, educators, and publishers rose. The first attempt at compiling an improved orthographic convention

16244-406: Was forced to send part of his army to Astrakhan and Terki fortress . The retreating troops were attacked by Sultan Mut, but managed to repel the attackers causing significant losses. However, in the longer term the prince Sultan-Mut managed to create a coalition of Kumyks, other Dagestan peoples and some anti-Russian Kabardian feudal lords – relatives of Sultan-Mut on the maternal side. Assistance

16375-568: Was interchangeably used with palatine . In the Tsardom of Russia , a voivode was a military governor . Among the Danube principalities, voivode was considered a princely title. The term voivode comes from two roots. вой(на) ( voi [ na ]) means "war, fight," while водя ( vodya ) means 'leading' in Old Slavic , together meaning 'war leader' or ' warlord '. The Latin translation

16506-511: Was quickly occupied. Shamkhal did not negotiate and avoided direct clashes with the Russians, exhausting the latter with small raids and keeping Tarki in a wide blockade. The mountaineers did not give the Russians any rest day or night. According to V. Potto: "Shamkhal was a supporter of the wait-and-see method of warfare and followed the Dagestani rule – To catch the scorpion by the tail." The Russians' rear communications were targeted. Not

16637-423: Was responsible for the ad hoc tasks commissioned by the council of ministers, the government presidium, the prime minister and the minister responsible for administration. Such a definition of competences constituted a qualitative change in relation to the amended regulation. Acting as a government representative, the voivode also represented the central authorities at state ceremonies and during official meetings in

16768-562: Was significant, with both titles corresponding to sovereign lower than king but higher than duke. In Bosnia, the title grand duke corresponded more to the Byzantine military title megas doux . It is possible to register some similarities with equivalent titles in neighboring Slavic lands, such as Serbia; however, in neighboring countries, the title duke , in Slavic vojvoda , also had military significance, but in that sense "grand duke"

16899-665: Was specifically, even exclusively, Bosnian title. In some provinces and vassal states of the Ottoman Empire , the title of voivode (or voyvoda ) was employed by senior administrators and local rulers. This was common to the extent in Ottoman Bosnia , but especially in the Danubian Principalities , which protected the northern borders of the empire and were ruled by the Greek Phanariotes . The title "Voyvoda" turned into another position at

17030-429: Was the Cuman language . Kumyk is a direct descendant of Cuman, and its centuries-long literaray tradition was a direct continuation of Cuman. The oldest record of Kumyk language being written in the Arabic script, goes back to the mid-17th century. From the beginning of the 19th century, Kumyk literary language began to expand and grow, with an increase in the number of publications and books. The orthography of Kumyk

17161-541: Was the basic form of organizing local public life, while other types of local government units were to be defined by law. Also, the establishment of new bodies - financial supervision in the form of the Regional Chamber of Accounts and the Adjudication Committee and Boards of Appeals changed the scope of competences of voivodes. Within the scope of his competence and competence, the voivode as

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