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89-565: Wetzels has received numerous research grants, most recently a VU University research grant for an AIO-project on Aymara Morphophonology and the NWO internationalization grant which aims at constructing an international cooperation network in the area of Amerindian languages and cultures involving the chair of Amazonian Languages at the VU , the Centre d'Etudes des Langues Indigènes d'Amérique , CNRS, Paris,

178-886: A Estrutura da Gramática Fonológica’, Wetzels & Abaurre (eds.), Fonologia do Português, Número Especial dos Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos. IEL/UNICAMP: 5–18. (On the Structure of the Phonological Grammar) 1993. ‘Prevowels in Maxacalí: Where they come from,’ Revista da Associação Brasileira de Lingüística, São Paulo: 39–63. 1995. ‘Mid-Vowel Alternations in the Brazilian Portuguese Verb,’ Phonology, 12: 281–304. 1997. ‘The Lexical Representation of Nasality in Brazilian Portuguese,’ Probus, 9.2: 203–232. 1997. ‘Bakairi and

267-562: A climate altogether unsuited to their constitution), or to the Silver mines of Potosí , Chayanta , Oruro , &c. (where from forced labour, ill-treatment, and insufficient food, they succumbed equally fast, only to be replaced by fresh supplies similarly obtained). In 1542, the Dominican friar, Bartolomé de las Casas (1474 - 1566) published his testimony of the abuse of the Aymara by

356-857: A comparative sketch (in terms of phonology, morphology, and syntax) of the Nambikwara languages of Brazil and propose a reconstruction of the Proto-Nambikwara sound system as well as a Proto-Nambikwara lexicon. The study is meant as a contribution to the comparative and historical linguistics of the Amerindian languages. The research on comparative Nambikwara is part of the larger project supervised by Leo Wetzels, entitled The Nambikwara Indians. A Description of their Languages (Latundê, Sararé, and Sabanê) and of their Cultural Identity , funded by WOTRO/NWO. Grammars of Latundê (S. Telles) and Sabanê (G. Antunes) are completed and published. Wetzels

445-537: A ginseng or turnip like vegetable; onion ( Trichlora ); olluco ( Ullucus ), a root vegetable that looks like a small potato; Yacón , a root vegetable called ground apple and cherimoya (Annona). The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is indigenous to the region of the Aymara. Wild species are no longer eaten but are still found. Peru has 47% of all wild potato species. Cultivated species are a dietary staple. Potato can be stored for many years as Chuño . Potatoes are exposed to freezing temperatures overnight then dried during

534-543: A tapped /ɾ/ , and an alveolar/palatal contrast for nasals and laterals, as well as two semivowels ( /w/ and /j/ ). Orthographic representation is the same as the IPA where not shown. Stress is usually on the second-to-last syllable, but long vowels may shift it. Although the final vowel of a word is elided except at the end of a phrase, the stress remains unchanged. The vast majority of roots are disyllabic and, with few exceptions, suffixes are monosyllabic . Roots conform to

623-403: A tea or sucked with a pinch of wood ash . Medicinally, coca has been used to relieve stomach complaints, including hunger. Whether or not coca ameliorates the symptoms of altitude related illness remains uncertain. The psychoactive drug , cocaine is just one of the alkaloid substances found in coca plants. One variant grown for its cocaine content is Erythroxylum coca . Other variants of

712-567: A true picture of the barbarous treatment which they, as well as the neighbouring Indian tribes, experienced at the hands of the Spaniards. Treated infinitely worse than slaves, they were torn from their homes and families to be driven like cattle either to the Coca plantations and Gold washings in the Yungas , or hot unhealthy valleys to the east of the high Andes (where they rapidly fell victims to

801-491: Is an official language in Bolivia and Peru . It is also spoken, to a much lesser extent, by some communities in northern Chile , where it is a recognized minority language . Some linguists have claimed that Aymara is related to its more widely spoken neighbor, Quechua . That claim, however, is disputed. Although there are indeed similarities, like the nearly identical phonologies, the majority position among linguists today

890-399: Is based on the seasons and key agricultural events. It gives the foundation of the existence of the Aymara and their responsibility to the natural environment. The Aymara concept of time comes from the cycle of natural events such as the seasons, historical events such as the arrival of the Spaniards and mythological concepts such as the time of the sun. When there is a major shift in these, it

979-461: Is because the Aymara tradition may see the passage of time as a continuum rather than in terms of prehistory and history. The Aymara may have been settlers from elsewhere rather than the builders of the ancient city. Pedro Cieza de León (1518-1554), the Spanish chronicler of Peru, wrote that the Aymara people he met did not know who had built the ancient city. When Inca migrants first arrived at

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1068-508: Is buildings designed in a " Neo-Andean " style which has appeared in El Alto . Both Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia took up the style of wearing bowler hats in the 1920s. According to legend, a shipment of bowler hats was sent from Europe to Bolivia via Peru for use by Europeans working on railroad construction. They were given to the indigenous people if they were too small for

1157-547: Is found in the eastern half of the Tacna and Moquegua departments in southern Peru and in the northeastern tip of Chile. There are roughly two million Bolivian speakers, half a million Peruvian speakers, and perhaps a few thousand speakers in Chile. At the time of the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century, Aymara was the dominant language over a much larger area than today, including most of highland Peru south of Cusco . Over

1246-563: Is frequent in Aymara. Vowel deletion typically occurs due to one of three factors: (i) phonotactic, (ii) syntactic, and (iii) morphophonemic. Aymara has phonemic stops at the labial , alveolar , palatal , velar and uvular points of articulation. Stops show no distinction of voice (e.g. there is no phonemic contrast between [p] and [b] ), but each stop occurs in three laryngeal settings: plain or voiceless unaspirated (aka tenuis ), glottalized , and aspirated . Sounds such as [ ʃ, h, ŋ ] occur as allophones of / t͡ʃ, χ, n /. Aymara also has

1335-431: Is motion:" one is "time passing is motion over a landscape" (or "moving-ego"), and the other is "time passing is a moving object" ("moving-events"). The latter metaphor does not explicitly involve the individual/speaker. Events are in a queue, with prior events towards the front of the line. The individual may be facing the queue, or it may be moving from left to right in front of him/her. The claims regarding Aymara involve

1424-728: Is spoken by 1.6% of the population. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala . It is an ancient design associated with the Inca. It is an ethnic symbol for the Aymara and has been adopted as a symbol of indigenous rights. It consists of seven colors patched together in diagonal stripes. The different colours represent geographical regions. The meaning of colours have been adapted to represent different areas of indigenous culture: red (planet earth); orange (society); yellow (strength and morality); green (economy and ecology); blue (supernatural life); and, violet (self-determination). The native language of

1513-400: Is that the similarities are better explained as areal features arising from prolonged cohabitation , rather than natural genealogical changes that would stem from a common protolanguage . Aymara is an agglutinating and, to a certain extent, a polysynthetic language . It has a subject–object–verb word order. It is based on a three-valued logic system. Aymara is normally written using

1602-426: Is the one used by the lexicographer Juan Francisco Deza Galindo in his Diccionario Aymara – Castellano / Castellano – Aymara . This alphabet has five vowels ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩, aspiration is conveyed with an ⟨h⟩ next to the consonant, and ejectives with ⟨'⟩. The most unusual characteristic is the expression of the uvular /χ/ with ⟨jh⟩. The other uvular segment, /q/, is expressed by ⟨q⟩, but transcription rules mandate that

1691-515: Is transformation ( kuti ). The deities are regarded in a hierarchical system. Aymara language Aymara ( IPA: [aj.ˈma.ɾa] ; also Aymar aru ) is an Aymaran language spoken by the Aymara people of the Bolivian Andes . It is one of only a handful of Native American languages with over one million speakers. Aymara, along with Spanish and Quechua ,

1780-652: The Andes and Altiplano regions of South America . Approximately 2.3 million Aymara live in northwest Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , and Peru . The ancestors of the Aymara lived in the region for many centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca Empire in the late 15th or early 16th century, and later of the Spanish in the 16th century. With the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1825),

1869-468: The Chullo , a knitted wool cap with ear flaps and ties; a woven carrying cloth Aguayo carried across the shoulders; a poncho; and a full circle skirt gathered and decorated in horizontal layers (corte). Development of the Aymara textile industry has led to expositions of luxury alpaca wool garments, silks, lace and delicately embroidered blouses. Another innovation drawing on the Aymara colorful aesthetic

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1958-669: The Isla del Sol (Sun Island), a rocky island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca, for ritual worship of the Sun God. Charles Stanish writes, Throughout their short reigns, Inca emperors were obligated to make a long pilgrimage to the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon to the ruined but ritually powerful city of Tiwanaku, sought to have some of their sons and daughters conceived and born in

2047-516: The Isthmus of Panama into the Pacific Ocean . Twenty-nine years later, on 16 November 1532, explorer and conquistador , Francisco Pizarro (1478 - 1541 CE), travelled south from La Isla Gorgona lured by stories of silver, gold and precious gems. On reaching Cajamarca , a town about 2000 km north of Cusco, Pizarro met and captured Atahualpa . Atahualpa, known for his tyrannical rule,

2136-467: The Tarapacá province of Peru. It resulted in Aymara people being politically separated between the three nations. The border between Peru and Bolivia transects Lake Titicaca. Chile denied Bolivia of its only seaport at Arica . The Aymara people left living in Chile, once again had most aspects of their lives torn asunder. In this case, it was Chilean military clergy who began the " chilenization" of

2225-532: The Alfabeto Unificado. The alphabet, later sanctioned in Bolivia by Decree 20227 on 9 May 1984 and in Peru as la Resolución Ministerial Peruana 1218ED on 18 November 1985, consists of 3 vowels, 26 consonants and an umlaut to mark vowel length. The orthography was shown in the phonological table in the previous section, and is the same where angle brackets are not shown. In 2015 a full writing system

2314-553: The Altiplano branch. There is some degree of regional variation within Aymara, but all dialects are mutually intelligible. Most studies of the language focused on either the Aymara spoken on the southern Peruvian shore of Lake Titicaca or the Aymara spoken around La Paz . Lucy Therina Briggs classifies both regions as being part of the Northern Aymara dialect, which encompasses the department of La Paz in Bolivia and

2403-587: The Altiplano in 1548. He gives the ruler, Viracocha Inca ( c.  1410 – 1438 CE) as the first to expand Inca territory south from the Kingdom of Cusco but that he was unsuccessful in securing the area. Again, de León records Viracocha's successor, Pachacuti ( c.  1418 – 1471 CE) as the leader who succeeded in bringing the area under Inca control, effected by his son, Yupanqui ( c.  1471 – 1493 CE). This chronology has been used widely by historians and archeologists in this field following

2492-583: The Altiplano, the Titicaca basin, and the ancient city of Tiwanaku to the south of Lake Titicaca, also encountered the Inca civilisation prior to the rise of the Inca Empire . One of the Inca origin stories tells of Manco Capac and Mama Occlo being brought up from the waters of Lake Titicaca by the Sun God to create an Inca dynasty. The rulers of the Kingdom of Cusco were obligated to travel regularly to

2581-422: The Aymara have an apparently unique (or at least very rare) understanding of time. Aymara is, with Quechua, one of very few [Núñez & Sweetser, 2006, p. 403] languages in which speakers seem to represent the past as in front of them and the future as behind them. Their argument is mainly within the framework of conceptual metaphor , which recognizes in general two subtypes of the metaphor "the passage of time

2670-576: The Aymara people is called Aymara . It is spoken from the north of Lake Titicaca to the south of Lake Poopó . Aymara is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It is spoken by 1.6% of the Peruvian population. Aymara has no distant language relative but there are some nearby similar languages. Quechua has some overlap with Aymara brought by contact. There are two closely related languages called Jaqaru and Kawki. A small isolated group of about 1000 people speak these languages in and around

2759-539: The Aymara people is uncertain. Various hypotheses have been voiced. Archeological data of the Titicaca basin in the Altiplano (high plain) comes from the site of the ancient city of Tiwanaku . A radiocarbon dating study suggests the ancient city was founded in about 110 CE. Origin legends of the Aymara people in terms of time frame seem inconsistent to archeologists. Archeologist Carlos Mamani Condori suggests this

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2848-541: The Aymara people's spiritual life, for example, rituals or seasons of the year, with the liturgy and the liturgical calendar. On the other hand, such efforts were shunned by those who saw the Aymara spiritual life as one of idolatry and objected to the use of alcohol or coca in rituals. In the Spanish colonial era, the region of Aymara and Quechuan habitation was divided into eleven provinces. They were Canchi, Caranga, Chocarca, Colla, Collagua, Collahuaya, Omasuyo, Lupaca, Quillaca, Urbina, and Picasa. Insurrection in

2937-595: The Aymara words " jaya " (ancient) and " mara " (year, time) is almost certainly a mistaken folk etymology . It is often assumed that the Aymara language descends from the language spoken in Tiwanaku on the grounds that it is the native language of that area today. That is very far from certain, however, and most specialists now incline to the idea that Aymara did not expand into the Tiwanaku area until rather recently, as it spread southwards from an original homeland that

3026-407: The Aymara. The emphasis of this program was indoctrination of the ideology of Chilean nationalism . The total number of Aymara people is quoted at 1,847,000. Approximately 30% live in Peru and approximately 60% in Bolivia. The rest are divided between Chile (6%) and Argentina (0.2%). Most self-identify as Christian. Aymara language is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It

3115-583: The Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia and Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile annexed territory with the Aymara population. The name of the Aymara people stems from the word Ayma-ra-mi meaning "a place with many communally owned farms". The word "Aymara" also refers to a group of language dialects of which the origin, spread and time-frame are debated. The early history of

3204-516: The Colla". The best account of the history of Aymara is that of Cerrón-Palomino, who shows that the ethnonym Aymara, which came from the glottonym, is likely derived from the Quechuaized toponym ayma-ra-y 'place of communal property'. The entire history of this term is thoroughly outlined in his book, Voces del Ande (2008:19–32) and Lingüística Aimara . The suggestion that "Aymara" comes from

3293-685: The Feature ‘voice’,’ Revista da Associação Brasileira de Lingüística. Homenagem a Aryon Dall’Igna Rodrigues. Janeiro 97: 21-34. 1997. ‘As Línguas não Têm Dono,’ Anais do 3.0 Encontro Nacional de Acervos Literários Brasileiras: Ética e Política de Gestão de Acervos Literários (PUCRS-Porto Alegre, Brazil): 144–53. (English version ‘Languages Have no Owners’ also available, Ms. VU University Amsterdam). 1999. (with Frans Hinskens and Roeland van Hout). ‘O Balanço entre Dados e Teoria nos Estudos de Variação e Mudança Lingüísticas’. Letras de Hoje, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil: 7-45. (translation of previous publication by

3382-610: The Inca. Moreover, groups of Aymara were removed from their village to work in other parts of the Empire, the number of Aymara living in Cusco itself was limited and colonists from elsewhere in the Empire were settled in the region. Christopher Colombus (1451 - 1506 CE) set sail from Castile , Spain, in August 1492 CE to find a western sea passage to the spice rich East Indies . In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475 - 1519 CE) crossed

3471-443: The Inca. The outcome was harsh retribution in the form of executions or exile. In addition to this direct punishment, the Aymara were increasingly subjugated by the building of civil, military, agricultural and religious infrastructure through their lands, removal of their sons to Cusco for education, taxation in the form of relinquishing sacred objects to the Inca. The Aymara were also required to give labour and military service to

3560-799: The Indigenous Brazilian Languages Yathé and Bakairi) 2003. ‘On the Weight Issue in Portuguese. A Typological Investigation’. Letras de Hoje, 134 : 107–133. 2006. ‘Sound Change and Analogy: The Synchronic Reflexes of the Second Compensatory Lengthening in Ancient Greek Dialects’. Vera Pacheco & Gladys Cagliari (eds). Revista Estudos da Língua(gem), 3: 69–89. 2007. ‘Primary Stress in Brazilian Portuguese and

3649-606: The Latin alphabet. The ethnonym "Aymara" may be ultimately derived from the name of some group occupying the southern part of what is now the Quechua speaking area of Apurímac . Regardless, the use of the word "Aymara" as a label for this people was standard practice as early as 1567, as evident from Garci Diez de San Miguel's report of his inspection of the province of Chucuito (1567, 14; cited in Lafaye 1964). In this document, he uses

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3738-787: The Leiden Centre for Amerindian Studies, the Anthropology department of the Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil, and the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (National Institute for Amazonian Studies), Manaus , Brazil. Wetzels is involved in a variety of research projects, most prominent is the one which regards nasal harmony systems. The project aims at establishing the phonological and morphological parameters that are crosslinguistically involved in long-distance nasal spreading. As part of

3827-473: The Lupaqa and Colla. Their loyalty remained to their village and their local chiefs. Unlike the many groups of indigenous peoples who lost every vestige of their civilization under Inca rule, the Aymara civilisation survived, at least partially. The Aymara insurrections were violent but also organised and persistent (one of twelve years duration). In the end, though, the Aymara were unsuccessful in throwing off

3916-834: The Portuguese Verb System) 1992. (with João Moraes). ‘Sobre a Duração dos Segmentos Vocálicos Nasais e Nasalizados em Português. Um Exercício de Fonologia Experimental’, Wetzels & Abaurre (eds.), Fonologia do Português, Numero Especial dos Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos. IEL/UNICAMP: 153–166. (On the Length of Nasal and Nasalized Vowels in Portuguese, an Exercise in Experimental Phonology) 1992. ‘Mid Vowel Neutralization in Brazilian Portuguese', Wetzels & Abaurre (eds.), Fonologia do Português, Numero Especial dos Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos. IEL/ UNICAMP: 19-55. 1992. (with Bernadete Abaurre). ‘Sobre

4005-925: The Quantity Parameter’. Gorka Elordieta and Marina Vigário (eds.) Journal of Portuguese Linguistics Vol 5/6, Special Issue on the Prosody of the Iberian Languages: 9-58. 2008. ‘Thoughts on the Phonological Definition of Nasal/Oral Contour Consonants in Some Indigenous Languages of South-America’. Revista ALFA 52(2): Abordagens em fonética e fonologia: estudos auditivos, acústicos e perceptivos; modelos de análise fonológica de ontem e de hoje Aymara people The Aymara or Aimara ( Aymara : aymara listen ), people are an indigenous people in

4094-675: The Spanish in his book, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indians . On 20 November 1542, in response to criticism, King Charles I of Spain issued the New Laws ( Ordenanzas de Barcelona or Leyes Nuevas ). Indigenous people could no longer be slaves. They could not be sent to the mines without cause. Clergy and Civil servants had to give up their encomiendas to the crown . New grants could not be given and importantly, an encomienda could not be an inheritable property. Among

4183-1507: The Transformational Mechanisms) 1985. ’The Historical Phonology of Intrusive Stops: a Non-Linear Approach,’ Canadian Journal of Linguistics, 30,3: 285–333. 1986. (with Yip Wester). ‘Niet-lineaire Fonologie, een theorie in SPE’, Inleiding, Leo Wetzels en Haike Jacobs (eds.), Gramma, themanummer Fonologie: 89–103. Non-Linear Phonology a Theory “in SPE”, Introduction). 1986. (with Engin Sezer).’Derived Opacity in Yakut Vowel Harmony', Leo Wetzels and Haike Jacobs (eds.) Gramma, themanummer Fonologie: 201-224. 1988. (with Haike Jacobs). ‘Early French Lenition. A Formal Account of an Integrated Sound Change’, H.van der Hulst and Norval Smith (eds.) Feature Specification and Segmental Structure. Dordrecht, Foris: 105–129. 1990. ‘Umlaut en Verkleinwoordsvorming in het Limburgs’, Gramma, Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Taalkunde:139-168. (Umlaut and Diminutive Formation in Limburg Dutch) 1991. ‘Harmonia Vocálica, Truncamento, Abaixamento e Neutralização no Sistema Verbal do Português: Uma Análise Autosegmental', Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos. IEL/UNICAMP: 25-58. (Vowel Harmony, Truncation, Lowering, and Neutralization in

4272-527: The University of Florida. Jaqaru [ jaqi aru = human language] and Kawki communities are in the district of Tupe, Yauyos Valley, in the Dept. of Lima, in central Peru. Terminology for this wider language family is not yet well established. Hardman has proposed the name 'Jaqi' ('human') while other widely respected Peruvian linguists have proposed alternative names for the same language family. Alfredo Torero uses

4361-423: The administrative capital of the viceroyalty. He was tasked with creating a successful system of governance throughout the viceroyalty. To this end, Toledo created provinces and aligned the population with them into new, concentrated settlements called " reductions " ( reducciones de indios ). This involved forced resettlement which caused disruption to aspects of life of the indigenous people such as importance of

4450-421: The approximate five hundred encomiendas in the viceroyalty of Peru, there were cases of corruption and circumvention of the new laws. There were skirmishes between Royalist soldiers and groups of encomenderos, culminating in the death of many encomenderos in an insurrection led by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. The new laws started to stream line the encomienda system but Aymara numbers continued to fall. Furthermore,

4539-597: The centuries, Aymara has gradually lost speakers both to Spanish and to Quechua; many Peruvian and Bolivian communities that were once Aymara-speaking now speak Quechua. Aymara has three phonemic vowel qualities /a i u/ , which, in most varieties of the language, occur as either long or short (i.e. /iː i aː a uː u/ ). Long vowels are indicated in the spelling with a diaeresis in writing: ä , ï , ü . The high vowels /i u/ occur as mid-high [e o] when near uvular consonants /q qʰ qʼ χ/. The three vowel sounds are heard as [ə, ɪ, ʊ] when in unstressed positions. Vowel deletion

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4628-438: The claims regarding Aymara uniqueness. However, those words relate events to other events and are part of the moving-events metaphor. In fact, when before means in front of ego , it can mean only future . For instance, our future is laid out before us while our past is behind us . Parallel Aymara examples describe future days as qhipa uru , literally 'back days', and they are sometimes accompanied by gestures to behind

4717-493: The coca plant contain less potent or non-toxic alkaloids and give only a mild stimulant effect. See Evangelisation Aymara religion is a syncretic system of faith, bringing indigenous spirituality and Catholicism into close proximity. The syncretism is evident in the liturgy of the Aymara lands. Christian feast days which coincide temporally with Aymara spiritual events have associated, or even combined, meaning and ritual. Aymara indigenous spirituality ( pachakuti )

4806-439: The construction workers. Plants available to the traditional Aymara for through subsistence agriculture or trade were wild tomato ( Solanum huaylasense ); lucuma ( Pouteria lucuma ), a sweet fruit; a small orange fruit of the nightshade family which grows within a green calyx; qamasa and quinoa (Amaranthaceae ) of the amaranth family for their seeds and leaves; purple corn (of the flint maize family); maca ( Lepidium meyenii )

4895-547: The day. It provides food security in time of famine. However, it is not of high nutritional value. It is used in a variety of dishes. One traditional dish, common in La Paz , is Chairo. It is a type of stew made with Chuño, meat, carrots, onions and corn. The Aymara word for tree is khoka from which the word coca is derived. Aymara people have had, throughout their history, traditional, recreational, ritual and medicinal uses for coca. The whole leaves can be chewed, brewed as

4984-512: The department of Puno in Peru. The Southern Aymara dialect is spoken in the eastern half of the Iquique province in northern Chile and in most of the Bolivian department of Oruro . It is also found in northern Potosi and southwest Cochabamba but is slowly being replaced by Quechua in those regions. Intermediate Aymara shares dialectical features with both Northern and Southern Aymara and

5073-455: The domain of the morpheme, syllable, and phonological word/phrase. The phonological/morphophonological processes observed include syllabic reduction, epenthesis, deletion, and reduplication. Beginning with Spanish missionary efforts, there have been many attempts to create a writing system for Aymara. The colonial sources employed a variety of writing systems heavily influenced by Spanish, the most widespread one being that of Bertonio . Many of

5162-665: The early grammars employed unique alphabets as well as the one of Middendorf's Aymara-Sprache (1891). The first official alphabet to be adopted for Aymara was the Scientific Alphabet. It was approved by the III Congreso Indigenista Interamericano de la Paz in 1954, though its origins can be traced as far back as 1931. Rs. No 1593 (Deza Galindo 1989, 17). It was the first official record of an alphabet, but in 1914, Sisko Chukiwanka Ayulo and Julián Palacios Ríos had recorded what may be

5251-866: The editors of the Brazilian journal Letras de Hoje) 2000. ‘Comentários sobre a estrutura fonológica dos ditongos nasais no Português do Brasil’. Revista de Letras (UFC) no. 22, vol.1/2 : 25–30. (Remarks on the Phonological Structure of Nasal Diphthongs in Brazilian Portuguese) 2000. ‘Consoantes palatais como geminadas fonológicas no Português Brasileiro’. Revista de Estudos da Linguagem, Vol.9,2: 5–15. (Palatal Consonants as Phonological Geminates in Brazilian Portuguese) 2001. (Leo Wetzels first author, with Joan Mascaró) ‘The Typology of Voicing and Devoicing’ Language 77, 2: 207–244. 2002 ‘O traço [voz], privativo ou binário? O testemunho das línguas indígenas brasileiras Yathé e Bakairi.’ Leitura, Revista do programa de pós-graduação em letras e linguística LCV-CHLA-UFAL: 13–29. (The Feature [voice] Privative or Binary? The Testimony of

5340-404: The extended family clan ( allyu ), authority of the clan and regional chiefs ( curacas ), land ownership, farming, language, rituals and sacred life (for example, sacred places known as huacas ). Toledo was also asked to consider the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest. Toledo concluded that the conquistadors were no more legitimate in their rule than the Inca. However, the viceroyalty of Peru

5429-438: The first of many attempts to have one alphabet for both Quechua and Aymara, the Syentifiko Qheshwa-Aymara Alfabeto with 37 graphemes. Several other attempts followed, with varying degrees of success. Some orthographic attempts even expand further: the Alfabeto Funcional Trilingüe , made up of 40 letters (including the voiced stops necessary for Spanish) and created by the Academia de las Lenguas Aymara y Quechua in Puno in 1944

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5518-408: The following vowel must be ⟨a, e, o⟩ (not ⟨i, u⟩), presumably to account for uvular lowering and to facilitate multilingual orthography. The alphabet created by the Comisión de Alfabetización y Literatura Aymara (CALA) was officially recognized in Bolivia in 1968 (co-existing with the 1954 Scientific Alphabet). Besides being the alphabet employed by Protestant missionaries, it is also the one used for

5607-421: The history of this era is more complex then the romantic version involving Amaru with intricate and various associations between ethnic groups. The War of the Pacific (1 March 1879 - 20 October 1883) or the nitrate war, was a conflict between Chile and an alliance of Bolivia and Peru. It was precipitated by a northward incursion by Chile to control sources of guano in the Litoral province of Bolivia and

5696-430: The indigenous labour force was redistributed causing forced and permanent displacement to cities, factories or mines. By example, in 1573, the indigenous population of labourers at the Potosí silver mines was 11,000. By 1673, the same population numbered 1,600. In 1569, Francisco de Toledo (1515 - 1582 CE) was appointed fifth viceroy of Peru by Philip II of Spain . Toledo served in this role until 1581. He made Lima

5785-438: The indigenous languages of South America. The study will be published as a chapter of Rob Goedemans (Leiden University) and Harry van der Hulst (University of Connecticut) to appear, Stress Systems in the Languages of the World . Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter. In his efforts to complete the reconstruction of Proto- Nambikwara Sound Structure, Januacele da Costa (Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, Brazil) and Wetzels presented

5874-406: The indigenous people in return for military protection and religious instruction. They were a sign of an elite status in society. Indigenous males between the ages of 18 and 50 were taxed in money and labour. Tax was collected by the village chiefs. One sixth of taxable males were already assigned to encomenderos who collected the taxes. Twenty percent of the monies went to the crown. In practice,

5963-483: The lake area (and) offered precious objects to the cold waters. In 1438, Aymara warriors were, be it as mercenaries, volunteers or conscripts, present in the army of the Inca ruler, Pachacuti in the defense of Cusco during the Chanka–Inca War . The date of Inca conquest of the Altiplano is uncertain beyond that, it began later than 1438 CE and was well completed by 1500 CE. The often quoted Spanish conquistador and chronicler, Pedro Cieza de León travelled through

6052-419: The linguistically-diverse area ruled by the Puquina came to adopt Aymara languages in their southern region. In any case, the use of "Aymara" to refer to the language may have first occurred in the works of the lawyer, magistrate and tax collector in Potosí and Cusco , Polo de Ondegardo . This man, who later assisted Viceroy Toledo in creating a system under which the indigenous population would be ruled for

6141-467: The most part, dialects of Aymaran or Quechuan . Some efforts were made to provide simple lexicons for religious teaching. However, this was difficult because the Aymara language had no orthography and Aymara phonetics did not compare well with those of the Spanish language . Ludovico Bertonio (1552 - 1625 CE) was an Italian Jesuit missionary who, in 1603 CE, wrote about the Aymara language. On one hand, some clergy tried to adapt notable aspects of

6230-598: The moving-ego metaphor. Most languages conceptualize the ego as moving forward into the future, with ego's back to the past. The English sentences prepare for what lies before us and we are facing a prosperous future exemplify the metaphor. In contrast, Aymara seems to encode the past as in front of individuals and the future behind them. That is typologically a rare phenomenon [Núñez & Sweetser, 2006, p. 416]. The fact that English has words like before and after that are (currently or archaically) polysemous between 'front/earlier' or 'back/later' may seem to refute

6319-415: The next 200 years, wrote a report in 1559 entitled 'On the lineage of the Yncas and how they extended their conquests' in which he discusses land and taxation issues of the Aymara under the Inca empire. More than a century passed before "Aymara" entered general usage to refer to the language spoken by the Aymara people (Briggs, 1976:14). In the meantime the Aymara language was referred to as "the language of

6408-428: The project, a digital database (NASDAT) was developed by Rob Goedemans (Leiden University) George N. Clements (CNRS, Paris), and Leo Wetzels himself. The NASDAT database will be made accessible to the international linguistic community via its website . In another of his projects, Leo Wetzels and Sérgio Meira (Leiden University) present a comprehensive survey and theoretical discussion of the word- prosodic systems of

6497-464: The region occurred in an intermittent, semi-organised manner from as early as 1629 CE through to the Peruvian war of Independence (1809 - 1826 CE) when Spanish colonial rule ended. A larger and more persistent insurrection occurred between 1779 and 1781 CE. The Inca descendant, Túpac Amaru , is described as its grand leader. However, historians Julian Steward in 1946 and Steve Stern in 1987 warn that

6586-487: The resources, wealth and infrastructure of the Inca and native labour. He benefited from the lack of cohesion between the Altiplano ethnic groups. He had unstoppable soldiers and weapons. In 1542, Spain created the Viceroyalty of Peru . In the new viceroyalty, explorers, conquistadors, governors and generals were given encomiendas . These grants from Spain gave the encomenderos the right to demand taxes and labour from

6675-549: The responsibilities of the encomiendas were applied partially or not at all, while the taxes were. In 1870, David Forbes (1828 - 1876), Mineralogist and voyager, wrote to the Ethnological Society of London , of his observations in Bolivia and Peru, Whatever may have been the condition of the Aymaras under the Incas, it became infinitely worse after the Spanish conquest; it is all but impossible to convey in words

6764-482: The seminal work of John Howland Rowe . However, more recent historians warn that the chronology of the spread of the Inca empire from Cusco, south to the Altiplano, may be more complex. For example, the names of Incan leaders are variable and may have been used across generations; there were revolts amongst the elite of the Inca Kingdom of Cusco itself; and the history given by the Inca to the Spanish chroniclers

6853-481: The speaker. The same applies to Quechua-speakers, whose expression qhipa pʼunchaw corresponds directly to Aymara qhipa uru . Possibly, the metaphor is from the fact that the past is visible (in front of one's eyes), but the future is not. There is increasing use of Aymara locally and there are increased numbers learning the language, both Bolivian and abroad. In Bolivia and Peru, intercultural bilingual education programs with Aymara and Spanish have been introduced in

6942-416: The template (C)V(C)CV, with CVCV being predominant. The majority of suffixes are CV, though there are some exceptions: CVCV, CCV, CCVCV and even VCV are possible but rare. The agglutinative nature of this predominantly suffixing language, coupled with morphophonological alternations caused by vowel deletion and phonologically conditioned constraints, gives rise to interesting surface structures that operate in

7031-444: The term aymaraes to refer to the people. The language was then called Colla . It is believed that Colla was the name of an Aymara nation at the time of conquest, and later was the southernmost region of the Inca empire Collasuyu. However, Cerrón Palomino disputes this claim and asserts that Colla were in fact Puquina speakers who were the rulers of Tiwanaku in the first and third centuries (2008:246). This hypothesis suggests that

7120-470: The term 'Aru' ('speech'); Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, meanwhile, has proposed that the term 'Aymara' should be used for the whole family, distinguished into two branches, Southern (or Altiplano) Aymara and Central Aymara (Jaqaru and Kawki). Each of these three proposals has its followers in Andean linguistics . In English usage, some linguists use the term Aymaran languages for the family and reserve 'Aymara' for

7209-421: The traditional lands of the Aymara people, some Aymara people and other ethnic groups were living side by side in the village of Acamaca. Acamaca, located to the north of Lake Titicaca, would grow to be the site of the later Kingdom of Cusco , the capital of the Inca Empire and the current day city of Cusco . The Inca arrived not as an army but as migrants searching for agricultural land. The Aymara people of

7298-575: The translation of the Book of Mormon . Also in 1968, de Dios Yapita created his take on the Aymara alphabet at the Instituto de Lenga y Cultura Aymara (ILCA). Nearly 15 years later, the Servicio Nacional de Alfabetización y Educación Popular (SENALEP) attempted to consolidate these alphabets to create a system which could be used to write both Aymara and Quechua, creating what was known as

7387-660: The village of Tupe , in Yauyos Province , in the remote highlands southwest of Lima . Other related languages are presumable extinct. Aymara people spin alpaca and llama wool and then colour it with vegetable and mineral dyes . Urine may be used as a mordant (colour fixative). Wools and cotton are woven on a horizontal peg loom by both men and women. There is no broad loom weaving and so, traditional garments such as carrying cloths and ponchos are made by joining two pieces. The colours are vibrant. Patterns are striped or geometrical. Traditional clothing items include

7476-664: Was developed for Aymara using the Korean script Hangeul . Aymara is a highly agglutinative, predominantly suffixing language. All suffixes can be categorized into the nominal, verbal, transpositional and those not subcategorized for lexical category (including stem-external word-level suffixes and phrase-final suffixes), as below: All verbs require at least one suffix to be grammatical. A given word can take several transpositional suffixes: There are two kinds of suffixes not subcategorized for lexical categories: Linguistic and gestural analysis by Núñez and Sweetser also asserts that

7565-469: Was elected to the Academy of Europe in 2019. Wetzels has a number of publications, a chronicological overview of some highlights is given below. A few of Wetzels' academic journal publications are listed alphabetically here. 1977. ‘Les pronoms clitiques du français. Une étude explicative des mécanismes transformationnels’. Grazer Linguistische Studien, nr. 5: 125–150. (French Clitic Pronouns. Explaining

7654-566: Was executed in July 1533. Pizarro reached Cusco by 1534. Some native groups saw the Spaniards as liberators and lent support to Pizarro. Pizarro also secured a lineage of Inca puppet rulers , including Manco Inca Yupanqui . Manco Inca Yupanqui, was ill treated by Pizarro's men. He escaped then returned with tens of thousands warriors, forcing Cusco into siege . After ten months, and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements, Manco Inca Yupanqui withdrew. Having secured Cusco, Pizarro continued south with

7743-460: Was given as part mythology. Furthermore, the dating of the conquest of the Incas by the finding of certain ceramics in archeological strata is, in this area, unreliable. Rather than one ethnically homogenous group, the Aymara consisted of sometimes waring clans of differing dialects, traditions and geographic distribution. Among them were the Huamallas, Hatuncollas, Chuquitos and Azángaros, and,

7832-431: Was legitimate on the basis of the Spanish bringing Catholic Christianity to the indigenous people. Toledo instructed the secular clergy and the leaders of the monastic orders to begin the evangelisation of the viceroyalty. This was not an easy task due to a lack of clergy, lack of experience of the monastic orders in evangelizing and the language barrier between the Spanish and the indigenous groups who spoke, for

7921-578: Was more likely to have been in Central Peru. Aymara placenames are found all the way north into central Peru. Indeed, (Altiplano) Aymara is actually the one of two extant members of a wider language family, the other surviving representative being Jaqaru . The family was established by the research of Lucy Briggs (a fluent speaker) and Martha Hardman de Bautista of the Program in Linguistics at

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