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142-573: The first recorded discussion of holding a western Canadian youth parliament was in 1959. That year, the members of the Alberta Youth Parliament debated but defeated a resolution supporting the creation of a "Western Canada Older Boys' Parliament." It would be over twenty years before the next proposal for a western Canadian youth parliament occurred. In 1981, the Youth Parliament of Manitoba and Northwestern Ontario (as it

284-586: A failed landing at Beauport , English forces withdrew. The second English expedition was repulsed at the Battle of La Prairie in 1691. The English also attacked Acadia, besieging Fort Nashwaak and raiding Chignecto , Chedabucto , Port Royal . Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was tasked with attacking English fishing stations in Newfoundland during the Avalon Peninsula campaign , and to expel

426-403: A middle power , Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign relations policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries . Canada is part of multiple international organizations and forums . While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada , the name is now accepted as coming from

568-467: A parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy —the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative , and judicial branches. The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries and Canada's 10 provinces . The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general , on the advice of the prime minister , to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties. The monarchy

710-564: A conflict known as Queen Anne's War (1702–1713). The conflict primarily focused on Acadia and New England, as Canada and New York informally agreed to remain neutral. Initially neutral, the French-aligned Abenaki were drawn into the conflict due to English hostilities. Raids between Acadians and New Englanders took place throughout the war, including the raid on Grand Pré in 1704 and the Battle of Bloody Creek in 1711. The raid on Grand Pré, launched by New England forces,

852-671: A consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases , to which they had no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency. Although not without conflict, European Canadians ' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played

994-567: A constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years. Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate

1136-712: A covert weapon for surprise attacks. Early European colonies in Canada include the French settlement of Port-Royal in 1605 and the English settlement of Cuper's Cove five years later. French claims stretched to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and colonists established scattered settlements. The French built a series of forts to defend these settlements, although some were also used as trading posts. New France 's two main colonies, Acadia on

1278-466: A critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada , particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade . These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties . From

1420-506: A distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Peace, order, and good government , alongside an Implied Bill of Rights , are founding principles of Canadian federalism . At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics": the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors ). The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at

1562-589: A few military expeditions travelling as far as 1,200 to 1,600 kilometres (750 to 990 mi). Warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, resulting in few casualties. However, some violent conflicts occurred, including the complete genocide of some First Nations groups by others, such as the displacement of the Dorset of Newfoundland by the Beothuk . The St. Lawrence Valley Iroquois were also almost completely displaced, likely due to warfare with their neighbours

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1704-448: A form of psychological warfare . Having faced several attacks by New France's petite guerre , the English launched two retalitory expeditions against New France. The first naval expedition in 1690 was to capture Quebec City. However, it suffered from poor organization and arrived just before the St. Lawrence River froze in mid-October, leaving little time to achieve its objective. After

1846-704: A process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , and culminating in the Canada Act 1982 , which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition . The country's head of government

1988-711: A professional force. As a British dominion , Canada participated in the Second Boer War and the First World War . In 1939, Canada issued its first declaration of war , joining the Second World War in support of the UK and the Allies . Since then, Canada has shown support for multilateralism and internationalism through its peacekeeping efforts and participation in multinational coalitions , including

2130-830: A separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec , the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley . More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off

2272-431: A temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost . The future of

2414-507: A tradition of generational service and the creation of a military elite. By the 1750s, most New French military officers were born in the colony. New France's military also relied on Indigenous allies for support to mitigate the manpower advantage of the Thirteen Colonies. This relationship significantly impacted New French military practices, like the adoption of Indigenous guerrilla tactics by its military professionals. The Beaver Wars (1609–1701) were intermittent conflicts involving

2556-554: Is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones . These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife , with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries , due to human activities, invasive species , and environmental issues in the country , there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost . About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure". Over half of Canada's landscape

2698-1026: Is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since the end of the last glacial period , Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions . Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas , including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas . Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park , Banff National Park established in 1885 spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi). Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park , established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area

2840-597: Is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration . Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history , economy , and culture . A developed country , Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world by nominal GDP , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Recognized as

2982-634: Is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples. The role of Aboriginal law and

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3124-533: Is the prime minister , who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general , representing the monarch of Canada , the ceremonial head of state . The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It

3266-584: Is the second-largest country . By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth , due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes . Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with

3408-521: Is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada. However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations , the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative ) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet , a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,

3550-562: Is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi). Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi). Canada is described as a " full democracy ", with a tradition of liberalism , and an egalitarian , moderate political ideology. An emphasis on social justice has been

3692-666: The Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75. Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between

3834-705: The Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory. This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to " Indian reserves ", clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements . This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and

3976-466: The Algonquin . The threat of conflict impacted how some groups lived, with Algonquian and Iroquois groups residing in fortified villages with layers of defences and wooden palisades at least 10-metre-tall (33 ft) by 1000 CE. Captives from battles were not always killed. Tribes frequently adopted them to replenish lost warriors or used them for prisoner exchanges . Slavery was common among

4118-642: The American Revolutionary War and loyalty to British Crown . The US invaded in 1775 and again from 1812 to 1814 but were rebuffed each time. The threat of US invasion persisted into the 19th century, partially facilitating Canadian Confederation in 1867. In 1871, the British Army withdrew from Canada, ceding defence responsibilities to the Canadian militia . In subsequent decades, the militia underwent changes that transformed it into

4260-470: The Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean , making it the world's second-largest country by total area , with the world's longest coastline . Its border with the United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of just over 41   million people, it has widely varying population densities, with

4402-723: The Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany . The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China , and the Soviet Union . Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished

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4544-612: The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption. In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools . Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture . By total area (including its waters), Canada

4686-585: The Canada Act 1982 , the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy . In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government. At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through

4828-826: The Canadian Shield , the interior plains , the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands , the Appalachian region , the Western Cordillera , Hudson Bay Lowlands , and the Arctic Archipelago . Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains , and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed

4970-564: The Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada . Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day . The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of

5112-702: The Dutch Republic , driven partly by competition over maritime dominance and trade routes. A year before the conflict, in September 1664, Michiel de Ruyter was instructed to retaliate against the English seizures of Dutch East India Company assets in West Africa by attacking English ships. In 1665, de Ruyter's fleet raided English merchant ships and settlements in the West Indies and Newfoundland, including St. John's . The peace treaty that ended

5254-521: The English . As a result, the primary threat against New France in its early years were the Iroquois, particularly the easternmost Mohawks . Conflict between the French and Iroquois likely arose from the latter's ambition to control the beaver pelt trade. However, some scholars posit Iroquoian hegemonic ambitions as a factor, while others suggest these were "mourning wars" to replenish populations in

5396-506: The First Nations , Inuit , and Métis , the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity. The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . As

5538-577: The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). The early military of New France was made up of regulars from the French Royal Army and Navy , supported by the colonial militia . Initially composed of soldiers from France, New France's military evolved to include volunteers raised within the colony by 1690. Many French soldiers stationed in New France also chose to stay after their service, fostering

5680-675: The Illinois Confederation , a French ally. French-allied expeditions were launched in 1684 and 1687, though only the latter saw some success. In 1689, the Iroquois launched new attacks, including the Lachine massacre , to support their English allies during the Nine Years' War and in retaliation for the 1687 expedition. However, after a flurry of raids by France's western allies and a Franco-Indigenous expedition led by Governor General Louis de Buade de Frontenac in 1696,

5822-602: The Iroquois Confederacy , New France, and France's Indigenous allies. By the 17th century, several First Nations' economies relied heavily on the regional fur trade with Europeans. The French quickly joined pre-existing Indigenous alliances such as the Huron -Algonquin alliance, bringing them into conflict with the Iroquois Confederacy, who initially aligned with Dutch colonists and later with

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5964-645: The Korean War , the Gulf War , the Kosovo War , and the Afghan war . Warfare existed in all regions and waxed in intensity, frequency and decisiveness. It was even common in subarctic areas that had sufficient population density. However, Inuit groups in the extreme northern Arctic typically avoided direct warfare due to their small populations, relying on traditional law to resolve conflicts. Conflict

6106-769: The Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act

6248-641: The Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups. Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars , and in Somalia , resulting in an incident that has been described as " the darkest era in the history of

6390-403: The Pacific Northwest Coast's Indigenous people like the Tlingit and Haida , with around a quarter of the region's population being enslaved. In certain societies, slavery was hereditary, with slaves and their descendants being prisoners of war . Several First Nations also formed alliances with one another, like the Iroquois League . These existing military alliances became important to

6532-446: The Parliament of Canada and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council , rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867 , are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment , while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by

6674-445: The Province of New York to isolate the Iroquois. However, the scale of the plan was later reduced. In February 1690, three joint New French-First Nations military expeditions were dispatched to New England. One attacked Schenectady , another raided Salmon Falls , while a third besieged Fort Loyal . New France also urged other First Nations allies to conduct smaller raids along the English American frontier and promoted scalpings as

6816-425: The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970, and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through

6958-428: The Saint Lawrence River as Canada . From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. Following the British conquest of New France , this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada . These two colonies were collectively named

7100-479: The St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata , meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona . Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along

7242-584: The St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water . There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies , the Coast Mountains , and the Arctic Cordillera . Canada is geologically active , having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes . Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of

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7384-459: The War of the Austrian Succession . The final conflict, the French and Indian War , began in the Ohio Valley , and evolved into the Seven Years' War . During this period, the Canadien petite guerre tactics ravaged northern towns and villages of New England and travelled as far south as Virginia and the Hudson Bay shore. Hostilities between the British and French during the War of Spanish Succession extended to their North American colonies in

7526-432: The Youth Parliament of Canada . The next session was held in Winnipeg in July 1985. The BCYP hosted in 1987, holding the session in the senate chambers of the University of Victoria . The Saskatchewan Youth Parliament took its turn hosting the May 1989 session in the provincial Legislative Building in Regina . The 1987 session hosted an ambassador from the Junior Statesmen of America from Washington State. The 1989 session

7668-421: The fortifications in Quebec City , and constructing a new fortified town on Île Royale , Louisbourg , dubbed the "Gibraltar of the North" or the "Dunkirk of America." New France and the New England Colonies engaged in three wars during the 18th century. The first two of these conflicts, Queen Anne's War and King George's War , stemmed from broader European conflicts—the War of the Spanish Succession and

7810-441: The head of government . To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by

7952-453: The Abenaki and Mi'kmaq to engage in privateering or buccaneering with the French Navy, taking part in the naval battle off St. John and the second siege of Pemaquid in 1696 . During the 18th century, the British–French struggle in Canada intensified as the rivalry worsened in Europe. The French government increased its military spending in its North American colonies, maintaining expansive garrisons at remote fur trading posts, improving

8094-411: The Americas from 1541 to 1542. Between 1577 and 1578, the Inuit clashed with English explorers under Martin Frobisher near Baffin Island . Firearms began to make their way into Indigenous hands by the early 17th century, with significant acquisition starting in the 1640s. The arrival of firearms made fighting between Indigenous groups bloodier and more decisive, especially as tribes got embroiled in

8236-418: The Atlantic coast. In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia. In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert , by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I , founded St John's, Newfoundland , as the first North American English seasonal camp . In 1600,

8378-409: The Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts , France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation , Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations , and

8520-536: The Bay of Fundy and Canada on the St. Lawrence River, relied mainly on the fur trade. These colonies grew slowly due to difficult geographical and climatic circumstances. By 1706, its population was around 16,000. By the mid-1700s, New France had about one-tenth of the population of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In addition to the Thirteen Colonies, the English chartered seasonal fishing settlements in Newfoundland Colony and claimed Hudson Bay and its drainage basin, known as Rupert's Land , through

8662-406: The British prior to the war to weaken France's Indigenous alliances. Throughout the war, Acadians and Canadiens raided frontier settlements in Nova Scotia, New England, and New York. Attacks on Nova Scotia include those on Canso , Annapolis Royal , and Grand Pré . French-Mohawk also attacked New England and New York, such as the raid on Saratoga and the siege of Fort Massachusetts . However,

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8804-442: The Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867 , Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth". The Canada Act 1982 , which brought

8946-466: The Canadian military ". Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 , resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s. In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before

9088-423: The Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors , senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check. The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises

9230-493: The English and maritime Algonquians. Shortly before King William's War, the maritime Algonquians attacked several English settlements in retaliation for English encroachment on their territory. French missionaries and settlers living in Indigenous villages leveraged Algonquian-English hostilities to France's advantage. The French sabotaged peace talks in 1693 between the English and maritime Algonquians, encouraging their Indigenous allies to continue fighting. The French also encouraged

9372-485: The English from the island. Setting sail from Plaisance , the French administrative capital for the island, d'Iberville's squadron razed St John's in November 1696 and destroyed English fisheries along Newfoundland's eastern shore. Smaller raiding parties razed and looted remote English hamlets and seized prisoners. In four months of raiding, Iberville destroyed 36 settlements. By the end of March 1697, only Bonavista and Carbonear remained in English control. During

9514-439: The First Nations to education, government and legal rights. Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War . Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps , which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of

9656-492: The French built the Fortress of Louisbourg to protect its remaining Acadian settlements on Île-Royale and Île Saint-Jean , while the British quickly built new outposts to secure its Acadian holdings. Although British-French hostilities ended in 1713, conflict persisted between the maritime Algonquians and the British, with the Mi’kmaq seizing 40 British ships from 1715 to 1722. In May 1722 Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostages to Annapolis Royal to prevent

9798-521: The French could not provide annual gifts to secure its alliances. This caused some Indigenous nations to end their support of the French war effort, with some nations viewing the absence of gifts as a breach of alliance terms. The French Duc d'Anville expedition was launched in 1746, the largest military expedition to sail from Europe for the Americas at the time, aiming to recapture Louisbourg. However, it failed due to adverse weather and illness among troops before reaching Nova Scotia. Although Louisbourg

9940-400: The French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled

10082-667: The French government by informing them of La Tour's attempt to seek aid from the English in New England. After d'Aulney's death, La Tour returned to France and regained his reputation and governorship over Acadia. La Tour's governorship ended in 1654 when English forces under Robert Sedgwick seized the territory exhausted by years of civil war and neglect by the French court. Sedgwick seized Acadia to secure its fur and fishing resources for New England and The Protectorate , having been authorized to retaliate against French privateer attacks on English ships. The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) resulted from tensions between England and

10224-549: The French in the 1630s and 1640s. These attacks caused the dispersion of the Neutral , Petun , and Huron Confederacy , along with the systematic destruction of Huronia . The string of Iroquois victories isolated the French from their Algonquin allies and left its settlements defenceless. Exploiting this, the Iroquois negotiated a favourable peace, requiring French Jesuits and soldiers to relocate to Iroquois villages so they could aid in their defence. Hostilities resumed between

10366-428: The French there. In 1628, Kirke's forces seized a French supply fleet and Tadoussac , and captured Quebec City the next year. Scottish settlers founded settlements in seized French territories like Port-Royal and Baleine . However, French forces destroyed Baleine just two months after its founding in 1629. In 1630, an Anglo-Scottish attack against Fort St. Louis , one of France's last remaining Acadian strongholds,

10508-613: The HBC and relinquishing claims to Newfoundland and Acadia, though retaining fishing rights in parts of Newfoundland. However, due to a dispute over the size of Acadia, the French maintained control over its western portion (present-day New Brunswick). The French also continued its relationship with the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq in Acadia and encouraged them to attack the British. After the conflict,

10650-600: The Iroquois gained the initiative after adopting tactics that integrated Indigenous hunting skills and terrain knowledge with firearms acquired from the Dutch. Access to firearms proved decisive, enabling the Iroquois to wage an effective guerrilla war. After depleting the beaver population within their lands, the Iroquois launched several expansionist campaigns, raiding the Algonquin in the Ottawa Valley and attacking

10792-483: The Iroquois to agree to peace in 1667. After the 1667 peace, the French formed alliances with First Nations further west, most of whom conflicted with the Iroquois. The French provided them with firearms and encouraged them to attack the Iroquois. They also solidified ties with the Abenaki in Acadia, who were harassed by the Iroquois. Conflict resumed in the 1680s when the Iroquois targeted French coureurs de bois and

10934-629: The Meskwaki adequately punished. British and French forces clashed in the War of Austrian Succession, with the North American theatre known as King George's War (1744–1748). While maritime Algonquians swiftly allied with the French, many Indigenous groups in the Great Lakes region hesitated to join, preferring to maintain trade ties with the British. These ties were deliberately fostered by

11076-436: The Meskwaki. Despite initial success in forcing them to seek peace, the attacks continued. With diplomatic efforts failing in the 1720s, New France resolved to exterminate the Meskwaki. Subsequent campaigns, including an Illinois-led siege in 1730, led to the death or enslavement of many Meskwaki. A final punitive expedition by New France to present-day Iowa in 1735 failed due to lack of support from Indigenous allies, who deemed

11218-564: The Mi'kmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche, Chignecto and St. Croix , and building forts in Acadian communities at Windsor, Grand-Pré, and Chignecto. The conflict ended with the defeat of the British victory at the Battle of Fort Beauséjour . Acadia and Nova Scotia experienced unprecedented fortification building and troop deployments. The region also saw unprecedented population movement, with Acadians and Mi'kmaq leaving Nova Scotia in an exodus to

11360-475: The Mohawk were unwilling to join French excursions deeper into New York to avoid conflicts with other members of the Iroquois Confederacy. In 1745, a British-New England force besieiged and captured Louisbourg . The capture of Louisbourg significantly weakened Franco-Indigenous alliances around the Great Lakes by isolating Quebec City from France to interrupt trade. As a result, the price of goods skyrocketed and

11502-652: The Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in

11644-499: The Norse's refusal to sell weapons. Indigenous bows and clubs proved effective against Norse weaponry , and their canoes offered greater manoeuvrability in an environment they were familiar with. Outnumbered, the Norse abandoned the settlement. The first European-Indigenous engagements to occur in Canada during the Age of Discovery took place during Jacques Cartier 's third expedition to

11786-735: The Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US. To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway ), passed

11928-607: The Parliament of Canada. Military history of Canada The military history of Canada comprises centuries of conflict within the territory, and interventions by the Canadian military in conflicts and peacekeeping missions worldwide. For millennia, the area comprising modern Canada saw sporadic conflicts among Indigenous peoples . In the 17th and 18th centuries, Canada was the site of several conflicts, including four major colonial wars between New France and British America . The conflicts spanned nearly 70 years and

12070-643: The United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War . Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid , the Allied invasion of Italy , the Normandy landings , the Battle of Normandy , and

12212-642: The United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute , extending the border westward along the 49th parallel . This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858) . The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about

12354-596: The WCYP would be expanding, and would become a national organization known as the "Canada Youth Parliament" ("CYP"). According to the announcement, the CYP was to meet in July 2021 online via Zoom . The CYP was to be an English-language only event, not to be confused with the defunct Youth Parliament of Canada . Canada Canada is a country in North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from

12496-528: The abortive Rebellions of 1837 . The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and

12638-461: The capital from being attacked. In July, the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq initiated a blockade of Annapolis Royal, aiming to starve the capital. Due to increasing tensions, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute declared war on the Abenaki on July 22. Early engagements during the war took place in the Nova Scotia. In July 1724, 60 Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal. The treaty that ended

12780-743: The centre of the political scale. Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election —the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition ; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left ); the Bloc Québécois ; and the Green Party . Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Canada has

12922-430: The colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries. The first clash between Europeans and Indigenous peoples likely transpired around 1003, during Norse attempts to settle North America's northeastern coast , such as at L'Anse aux Meadows . Although relations were initially peaceful, conflict arose between the Norse and local First Nations, or Skrælings , possibly due to

13064-708: The conflict resulted in the English returning Acadia to the French, a region they seized in 1654. During the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), in 1673, a Dutch fleet raided English colonies in North America , including fishing fleets and shore facilities at Ferryland on Newfoundland. During the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), English and French forces clashed in North America in a conflict known as King William's War . Initially, Governor General Frontenac devised an invasion plan aimed at conquering

13206-537: The conflict, Mi'kmaq and Acadians attacked British fortifications and newly established Protestant settlements in Nova Scotia to hinder British expansion and aid France's Acadian resettlement scheme. After Halifax was established by the British, the Acadians and Mi'kmaq attacked Chignecto , Grand-Pré , Dartmouth , Canso, Halifax and Country Harbour . The French erected forts at present-day Saint John, Chignecto and Fort Gaspareaux . The British responded by attacking

13348-569: The conflict, they did not achieve the prosperity initially envisioned. English-French hostilities over colonial interests first escalated in 1613 when Samuel Argall and his sailors razed the French settlement of Port-Royal with little resistance to secure the Bay of Fundy fisheries for the English colony of Virginia . In the Anglo-French War of 1627 to 1629 , the English authorized David Kirke to settle Canada and conduct raids against

13490-563: The conflict. Despite repelling two sieges in 1707 , Port-Royal fell to the British during the third siege in 1710 . Building on their success in Acadia, the British initiated the Quebec Expedition to capture the colonial capital of New France. However, the expedition was abandoned when its fleet was wrecked by the waters of the St. Lawrence River. The ensuing Peace of Utrecht saw the French surrender substantial North American territory. This included returning Hudson Bay lands to

13632-555: The constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner , the Chief Justice of Canada . The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice . The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions. Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law

13774-402: The continued French presence, the British founded the military settlement of Halifax and built Citadel Hill in 1749. Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) occurred in Acadia and Nova Scotia, pitting the British and New Englanders, led by figures like John Gorham and Charles Lawrence , against the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, under the leadership of French priest Jean-Louis Le Loutre . Throughout

13916-576: The country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster, 1931 , granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982 , ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding

14058-421: The country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate , where daily average temperatures are near −15  °C (5  °F ), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills . In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has

14200-597: The early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas ) in the 1940s and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI , seven days after

14342-492: The economic and military rivalries of European settlers. Unequal access to firearms and horses significantly amplified bloodshed in Indigenous conflicts. By the end of the 17th century, Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands and the eastern subarctic rapidly transitioned to firearms, supplanting the bow. Though firearms predominated, the bow and arrow saw limited use into the early 18th century as

14484-633: The emergence of a new Canadian identity , marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare , the Canada Pension Plan , and Canada Student Loans ; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in

14626-693: The exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border. Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario , Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories , where

14768-416: The federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces, and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts. The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of

14910-458: The first WCYP, representatives of all four western Canadian youth parliaments did attend that first session. The first Western Canada Youth Parliament in which all four western provincial youth parliaments officially participated was held in the Alberta legislature in 1983. The success of that WCYP encouraged the constituent parliaments to agree to hold the event bi-annually to alternate with

15052-482: The growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution . After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set

15194-462: The introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land. The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over

15336-521: The late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society. Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008. This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide , settlement agreements , and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing

15478-675: The later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War . Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island ) became

15620-788: The main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom . Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic -speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances . Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891. The desire for responsible government resulted in

15762-404: The majority residing in urban areas and large areas of the country being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto , Montreal , and Vancouver . Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along

15904-689: The monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate . While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy , this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law . Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982 , requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although

16046-632: The name of Henry VII of England . In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I . The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along

16188-430: The oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include

16330-565: The permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada . Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In

16472-500: The plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women . It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson . In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland . No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in

16614-671: The present-day Maritimes , while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes , Hudson Bay , and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana . The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade. The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763;

16756-488: The provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces. The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867 , whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by

16898-819: The rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 . These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy , and exemption from taxation. Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states , called provinces, and three federal territories . These may be grouped into four main regions : Western Canada , Central Canada , Atlantic Canada , and Northern Canada ( Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare , education , and social programs , as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although

17040-756: The southeast. Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert , on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island —latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear , Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to Mount St. Elias , Yukon Territory, at 141°W. Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions:

17182-485: The southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain , which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity. Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally , with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022. Canada

17324-506: The terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists , the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick

17466-513: The two governors. In 1640, La Tour forces attacked Port-Royal. In response, d'Aulnay imposed a five-month blockade on Saint John. La Tour's forces overcame the blockade and retaliated with an attack on Port-Royal in 1643. In April 1645, d'Aulney besieged and captured Saint John, after hearing of La Tour's departure to meet his supporters in New England. d'Aulney governed all of Acadia from 1645 until he died in 1650, having gained favour with

17608-675: The two sides in 1658 when the French withdrew their Iroquois missions. After years of expansionist campaigns in the mid-1650s, the outbreak of a wider front in 1659 and 1660 strained the Confederacy. To secure a favourable peace, the French sent the Carignan-Salières Regiment in 1665, the first uniformed professional soldiers station in Canada, and whose members formed the core of the Compagnies Franches de la Marine militia. The regiment's arrival led

17750-417: The wake of the epidemic that afflicted Indigenous peoples . Regardless, Iroquois hostilities against First Nations of the St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes disrupted the fur trade and drew the French into the wider conflict. Initially, the French offered limited support to their Indigenous allies, providing iron arrowheads and knives, but few firearms. Although France's Indigenous allies saw some success,

17892-549: The war marked a major change in European relations with the maritime Algonquians, as it granted the British the right to settle in traditional Abenaki and Mi'kmaq lands. The treaty was also the first formal recognition by a European power that its control over Nova Scotia was dependent on negotiation with its Indigenous inhabitants. The treaty was invoked as recently as 1999 in the Donald Marshall case . The Fox Wars ,

18034-423: The war with a large army and strong economy. The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums , Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province. Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to

18176-405: The war, and required the return of territorial gains in North America. The HBC was also forced to surrender all but one fort on Hudson Bay . After the peace, the English and French reinforced their alliances and trade relations with Indigenous groups. It also paved the way for the negotiated peace of the Beaver Wars in 1701. The English-French conflict intertwined with an ongoing conflict between

18318-473: The war, the French strengthened their control over Hudson Bay, having already seized several HBC forts in an expedition two years before the war . French attempts to capture York Factory , HBC's only remaining fort around Hudson's Bay, included a failed effort in 1690 and its brief capture in 1694 , although the English later recaptured the fort. The French finally secured York Factory after the Battle of Hudson's Bay in 1697. The 1697 Peace of Ryswick ended

18460-428: The war. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , affirmed Canada's independence. The Great Depression in Canada during

18602-436: The weakened Iroquois opted to negotiate peace. The Great Peace of Montreal was signed in 1701 between the Iroquois, France, and 38 other First Nations. The terms saw the Iroquois agree to remain neutral in Anglo-French conflicts in return for trade benefits. This weakened the Covenant Chain between the Iroquois and English and weakened their trading relationship. Although the Iroquois nations expanded their territories during

18744-410: The world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi). In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States —spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi) —Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark ) to the northeast, on Hans Island , and a maritime boundary with France 's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to

18886-473: Was an intermittent conflict from 1712 to the 1730s between New France and its Indigenous allies against the Meskwaki . The conflict highlighted how the New French military, supported by its allies, was able to inflict significant losses against enemies thousands of kilometres away from its Canadian core. In response to Meskwaki raids on coureurs de bois and indigenous allies, particularly the Illinois, New French troops were deployed westward in 1716 to confront

19028-400: Was captured, the British were unable to advance further into New France, with a British advance at Port-la-Joye being defeated in 1746. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748, returning control of Louisbourg to the French in exchange for some wartime territorial gains in the Low Countries and India. The return of Louisbourg to the French outraged New Englanders. In response to

19170-418: Was fought between British and French forces, supported by their colonial militias , and various First Nations . In 1760, the British conquered New France , and its civilians, whom they hoped to assimilate, were subsequently declared British subjects. After the Quebec Act of 1774, Canadians received their first charter of rights under the new regime, resulting in the northern colonies abstention from joining

19312-408: Was in retaliation for a French-First Nations raid on Deerfield in the British Province of Massachusetts Bay . Similar raids in Massachusetts included the raid on Haverhill . The French besieging St. John's in 1705 and captured the city after a battle in 1709 . The French faced a significant setback when the British captured the Acadian capital of Port-Royal after besieging it three times during

19454-507: Was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick , as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec ) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario ), granting each its own elected legislative assembly. The Canadas were

19596-411: Was notable in that it was the first time an ambassador attended from one of the eastern Canadian youth parliaments, being a member of the Nova Scotia Youth Parliament . The rotation of Westerns has since cycled bi-annually between the four provinces in its original sequence, except for the seventh session, which came after a two-year hiatus. In 2021, the British Columbia Youth Parliament announced that

19738-430: Was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation. In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; and

19880-475: Was repulsed. French settlements that were seized during the war were returned in the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Acadia fell into civil war in the mid-17th century. After Lieutenant Governor Isaac de Razilly died in 1635, Acadia was split administratively. Charles de Menou d'Aulnay ruled from Port-Royal and Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour governed from Saint John . Unclear boundaries overs administrative authority led to conflict between

20022-421: Was then known) organized the first Western Canada Youth Parliament as a project to commemorate their 60th anniversary. It was also designed to be an inter-provincial event to fill the gap between sessions of the now defunct Youth Parliament of Canada/Parlement jeunesse du Canada , which at that time was only held bi-annually. While the British Columbia Youth Parliament did not officially endorse its participation in

20164-563: Was waged for economic and political reasons, such as asserting their tribal independence, securing resources and territory, exacting tribute, and controlling trade routes. Additionally, conflicts arose for personal and tribal honour, seeking revenge for perceived wrongs. In pre-contact Canada, Indigenous warriors relied primarily on the bow and arrow , having honed their archery skills through their hunting practices. Knives, hatchets/ tomahawks and warclubs were used for hand-to-hand combat. Some conflicts took place over great distances, with

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