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82-429: Torlakian is not standardized, and its subdialects vary significantly in some features. Yugoslav linguists traditionally classified it as an old Shtokavian dialect or as a fourth dialect of Serbo-Croatian along with Shtokavian , Chakavian , and Kajkavian . Bulgarian scholars classify it as a Western Bulgarian dialect , in which case it is referred to as a Transitional Bulgarian dialect . In Bulgarian common speech,

164-505: A "hyper-Ijekavism") in Croatia in 1399. Partial attestation can be found in earlier texts (for instance, Ikavian pronunciation is found in a few Bosnian documents from the latter half of the 13th century), but philologists generally accept the aforementioned dates. In the second half of the 20th century, many vernaculars with unsubstituted yat are found. The intrusion of the vernacular into Church Slavic grew in time, to be finally replaced by

246-487: A + o gave ā /aː/ ( kā instead of kao , rekā for rekao ), like in other seaside vernaculars. Elsewhere, more common is ao > ō . Also called Older Ekavian , is spoken by Serbs, mostly in western and northeastern Kosovo ( Kosovo Valley with Kosovska Mitrovica and also around Peć ), in Ibar Valley with Kraljevo , around Kruševac , Trstenik and in Župa, in the part of Toplica Valley ( Kuršumlija ) in

328-782: A decade or two before 1400. In the next two centuries Shtokavian vernacular texts had been written mainly in Dubrovnik, other Adriatic cities and islands influenced by Dubrovnik, as well as in Bosnia, by Bosnian Franciscans and Bosnian Muslim vernacular aljamiado literature – the first example being " Chirvat-türkisi " or "Croatian song", dated 1589. Shtokavian is characterized by a number of characteristic historical sound changes , accentual changes, changes in inflection , morphology and syntax . Some of these isoglosses are not exclusive and have also been shared by neighboring dialects, and some of them have mostly but not completely spread over

410-618: A different view and maintain that the inhabitants of the Torlakian area had begun to develop predominantly Bulgarian national consciousness. With Ottoman influence ever weakening, the increase of nationalist sentiment in the Balkans in late 19th and early 20th century, and the redrawing of national boundaries after the Treaty of Berlin (1878) , the Balkan wars and World War I , the borders in

492-626: A first (Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian) and second (Eastern Shtokavian, Torlakian). As noted by Ranko Matasović , "the Shtokavian dialect, on the other hand, was from the earliest times very non-unique, with the Western Shtokavian dialects leaning towards Kajkavian, and the Eastern Shtokavian to Torlakian ". According to isoglosses, and presumed end of existence of the common Southwestern Slavic language around

574-692: A head of the Section for Bulgarian Dialectology with Linguistic Atlas (1952–1969) and as a deputy director of the same institute (1958–1969). Also, worked in the Sofia University as an assistant (1943), associate professor (1947), and professor (1950–1969). Was Dean of the Phylological Faculty (1953/1954, 1962–1966) and Deputy Rector of the same university (1958–1960). Also, was Chairman of the Commission of Phonetics and Phonology at

656-472: A long tradition of Shtokavian vernacular literacy and literature. It took almost four and half centuries for Shtokavian to prevail as the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard. In other periods, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects, as well as hybrid Chakavian–Kajkavian–Shtokavian interdialects "contended" for the Croatian national koine – but eventually lost, mainly due to historical and political reasons. By

738-536: A number of words from Aromanian , Greek , Turkish , and Albanian in the Gora region of the Šar Mountains . It also preserved many words which in the "major" languages became archaisms or changed meaning. Like other features, vocabulary is inconsistent across subdialects, for example, a Krashovan does not necessarily understand a Goranac . The varieties spoken in the Slavic countries have been heavily influenced by

820-487: Is a loss of the /v/ sound apparent, seen in čo'ek or đa'ola . The loss of distinction between /ʎ/ and /l/ in some vernaculars is based on a substratum . The word pljesma is a hypercorrection (instead of pjesma ) because many vernaculars have changed lj to j. All verbs in infinitive finish with "t" (example: pjevat 'sing'). This feature is also present in most vernaculars of East Herzegovinian, and actually almost all Serbian and Croatian vernaculars. The group

902-532: Is actually a part of an isogloss , a dividing line separating Prilep from Pehčevo in the Republic of North Macedonia at the southern extreme, and reaching central Serbia ( Šumadija ) at a northern extreme. In Šumadija, local folk songs may still use the traditional form of I want being oću (оћу) compared with hoću (хоћу) as spoken in Standard Serbian. Some versions of Torlakian have retained

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984-411: Is determined solely by prepositions . Macedonian, Torlakian and a number of Serbian and Bulgarian dialects, unlike all other Slavic languages, technically lack the phonemes [ x ] , [ ɦ ] or [ h ] . In other Slavic languages, [ x ] or [ ɦ ] (the latter from Proto-Slavic *g in "H-Slavic languages") is common. The appearance of the letter h in the alphabet

1066-569: Is divided into two subdialects : southern (Posavian / posavski ) and northern (Podravian / podravski ). The Slavonian dialect has mixed Ikavian and Ekavian pronunciations. Ikavian accent is predominant in the Posavina, Baranja, Bačka, and in the Slavonian subdialect enclave of Derventa , whereas Ekavian accent is predominant in Podravina . There are enclaves of one accent in the territory of

1148-512: Is indicative of them being originally Bulgarian. In Macedonian dialectology, the Torlakian ( Macedonian : Торлачки , romanized :  Torlački ) varieties spoken in North Macedonia ( Kumanovo , Kratovo and Kriva Palanka dialect ) are classified as part of a northeastern group of Macedonian dialects . Basic Torlakian vocabulary shares most of its Slavic roots with Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian but also over time borrowed

1230-482: Is not a straight out rule). The IETF language tags have assigned the variants sr-ekavsk and sr-ijekavsk to Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations, respectively. During the first half of the 19th century, protagonists of nascent Slavic philology were, as far as South Slavic dialects were concerned, embroiled in frequently bitter polemic about "ethnic affiliation" of native speakers of various dialects. This, from contemporary point of view, rather bizarre obsession

1312-923: Is primarily a result of the migrations resulting from the spread of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans . Migratory waves were particularly strong in the 16th–18th century, bringing about large-scale linguistic and ethnic changes in the Central South Slavic area (see also Great Serb Migrations ). By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern Herzegovina , who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western Bosnia , large swathes of Croatia ( Banovina , Kordun , Lika , parts of Gorski kotar , continental parts of northern Dalmatia , some places north of Kupa , parts of Slavonia , southeastern Baranya etc.). This

1394-677: Is reserved mostly for loanwords and toponyms within the Republic of North Macedonia but outside of the standard language region. In Macedonian, this is the case with eastern towns such as Pehčevo. In fact, the Macedonian language is based in Prilep , Pelagonia and words such as thousand and urgent are iljada and itno in standard Macedonian but hiljada and hitno in Serbian (also, Macedonian oro , ubav vs. Bulgarian horo , hubav (folk dance, beautiful)). This

1476-792: Is sometimes classified as a subdialect of the Kosovo-Resava dialect but is also considered to be a separate dialect as it the represents mixed speech of Šumadija–Vojvodina and Kosovo–Resava dialects. Also called Western Ikavian . The majority of its speakers are Croats who live in Lika , Kvarner , Dalmatia , Herzegovina , and of north Bačka around Subotica in Serbia and south Bács-Kiskun of Hungary, and in Molise in Italy. The minority speakers of it include Bosniaks in western Bosnia, mostly around

1558-464: Is spoken in central Croatia, most of Slavonia, southern Dalmatia, most of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, as well as some parts of western Serbia. The following are some generic examples: Long ije is pronounced as a single syllable, [jeː] , by many Ijekavian speakers, especially in Croatia. However, in Zeta dialect and most of East Herzegovina dialect, it is pronounced as two syllables , [ije] , which

1640-427: Is the Croatian official standard too, but seldom actually practiced. This distinction can be clearly heard in first verses of national anthems of Croatia and Montenegro —they're sung as " L'je-pa [two syllables] na-ša do-mo-vi-no " and " Oj svi-je-tla [three syllables] maj-ska zo-ro " respectively. The Ikavian pronunciation is the only one that is not part of any standard variety of Serbo-Croatian today, though it

1722-627: Is the reason Eastern Herzegovinian is the most spoken Serbo-Croatian dialect today, and why its name is only descriptive of its area of origin. These migrations also played a pivotal role in the spread of Neo-Shtokavian innovations. Proto-Shtokavian, or Church Slavic with elements of nascent Shtokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the charter of Ban Kulin , regulating the commerce between Bosnia and Dubrovnik in Croatia, dated 1189, and in liturgical texts like Gršković's and Mihanović's fragments , c.  1150 , in southern Bosnia or Herzegovina. Experts' opinions are divided with regard to

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1804-526: Is used for Shtokavian accents: The following table shows the examples of Neo-Shtokavian retraction: As result of this process, the following set of rules emerged, which are still in effect in all standard variants of Serbo-Croatian: In practice, influx of foreign words and formation of compound words have loosened these rules, especially in spoken idioms (e.g. paradȁjz , asistȅnt , poljoprȉvreda ), but they are maintained in standard language and dictionaries. The transitional dialects stretch southwest from

1886-447: The Balkan language area : declension has all but disappeared, the infinitive has yielded to subjunctives da -constructions, and adjectives are compared exclusively with prefixes. The accent in the dialect group is a stress accent, and it falls on any syllable in the word. The old semi-vowel has been retained throughout. The vocalic l has been retained ( vlk = vuk ), and some dialects don't distinguish ć/č and đ/dž by preferring

1968-489: The International Committee of Slavists (1968/1969) and Secretary of the same Committee (1959–1964). Stoykov's scholarly activities were in the fields of Bulgarian Dialectology , Phonetics and Lexicology . He was author of the fundamental and still unique book "Bulgarian Dialectology" ("Българска диалектология") , (1949, revised 1962 and 1968, posthumously 1993 and 2002). His valuable contributions are

2050-600: The Morava Valley ( Jagodina , Ćuprija , Paraćin , Lapovo ), in Resava Valley ( Svilajnac , Despotovac ) and northeastern Serbia ( Smederevo , Požarevac , Bor , Majdanpek , Negotin , Velika Plana ) with one part of Banat (around Kovin , Bela Crkva and Vršac ). This dialect can be also found in parts of Banatska Klisura (Clisura Dunării) in Romania, in places where Romanian Serbs live (left bank of

2132-473: The Quran , where this phoneme is the carrier of specific semantic value. The Ekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Eastern, is spoken primarily in Serbia, and in small parts of Croatia. The Ikavian pronunciation, sometimes called Western, is spoken in western and central Bosnia, western Herzegovina, some of Slavonia and the major part of Dalmatia in Croatia. The Ijekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Southern,

2214-536: The Timok Valley in eastern Serbia. Bulgarian and Macedonian are the only two modern Slavic languages that lost virtually the entire noun case system, with nearly all nouns now in the surviving nominative case. This is partly true of the Torlakian dialect. In the northwest, the instrumental case merges with the accusative case , and the locative and genitive cases merge with the nominative case . Further south, all inflections disappear and syntactic meaning

2296-534: The Timok Valley near the Bulgarian border to Prizren . There is disagreement among linguists whether these dialects belong to the Shtokavian area, because there are many other morphological characteristics apart from rendering of što (also, some dialects use kakvo or kvo , typical for Bulgarian), which would place them into a "transitional" group between Shtokavian and Eastern South Slavic languages ( Bulgarian and Macedonian ). The Timok-Prizren group falls to

2378-445: The 1650s it was fairly obvious that Shtokavian would become the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard, but this process was finally completed in the 1850s, when Neo-Shtokavian Ijekavian, based mainly on Ragusan (Dubrovnik), Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Slavonian literary heritage became the national standard language. Stoyko Stoykov Stoyko Ivanov Stoykov ( Bulgarian : Стойко Иванов Стойков ; 26 October 1912 – 9 December 1969)

2460-418: The 19th century, there was no exact border between Torlak and Shopi settlements. According to some authors, during Ottoman rule, a majority of the Torlakian population did not have national consciousness in an ethnic sense. Therefore, both Serbs and Bulgarians considered local Slavs as part of their own people and the local population was also divided between sympathy for Bulgarians and Serbs. Other authors take

2542-510: The 8th-9th century, the formation of the Proto-Western Shtokavian and Proto-Eastern Shtokavian linguistic and territorial unit would be around the 9th-10th century (Proto-Western Shtokavian closer to Proto-Chakavian, while Proto-Eastern Shtokavian shared an old isogloss with Bulgarian). According to Ivo Banac in the area of today's Slavonia , Bosnia and Herzegovina (west of Brčko , Vlasenica and Neretva line) and on

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2624-467: The Bulgarian language. They noted the manner of the articles, the loss of most of the cases, etc. Today Bulgarian linguists ( Stoyko Stoykov , Rangel Bozhkov) also classify Torlakian as a " Belogradchik - Tran " dialect of Bulgarian, and claim that it should be classified outside the Shtokavian area. Stoykov further argued that the Torlakian dialects have a grammar that is closer to Bulgarian and that this

2706-853: The Croatians Vatroslav Jagić and Ante Starčević . The dispute was primarily concerned with who can, philologically, be labelled as "Slovene", "Croat" and "Serb" with the aim of expanding one's national territory and influence. Born in the climate of romanticism and national awakening, these polemical battles led to increased tensions between the aforementioned nations, especially because the Shtokavian dialect cannot be split along ethnic lines in an unequivocal manner. However, contemporary native speakers, after process of national crystallization and identification had been completed, can be roughly identified as predominant speakers of various Shtokavian subdialects. Because standard languages propagated through media have strongly influenced and altered

2788-564: The Danube). Substitution of jat is predominantly Ekavian accent even on the end of datives ( žene instead of ženi ), in pronouns ( teh instead of tih ), in comparatives ( dobrej instead of dobriji ) in the negative of biti ( nesam instead of nisam ); in Smederevo – Vršac dialects, Ikavian forms can be found ( di si instead of gde si? ). Smederevo–Vršac dialect (spoken in northeastern Šumadija, Lower Great Morava Valley and Banat)

2870-459: The Eastern and Western branches of South Slavic dialect continuum , and have been variously described, in whole or in parts, as belonging to either group. In the 19th century, they were often called Bulgarian , but their classification was contested between Serbian and Bulgarian writers. Previously, the designation "Torlakian" was not applied to the dialects of Niš and the neighbouring areas to

2952-517: The Leskovac dialect, the word-final -l has instead shifted into the vocal cluster -(i)ja; for example the word пекал became пекја ( to bake ). Word-medially however the syllabic /l/ remains unaltered. In all Torlakian dialects: In some Torlakian dialects: Literature written in Torlakian is rather sparse as the dialect has never been an official state language. During the Ottoman rule literacy in

3034-561: The Neo-Shtokavian dialect as it was formalized in SFR Yugoslavia . However, it must be stressed that standard variants, irrespectively of their mutual differences, have been stylised in such manners that parts of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect have been retained—for instance, declension—but other features were purposely omitted or altered—for instance, the phoneme "h" was reinstated in the standard language. Croatian has had

3116-728: The South Slavic languages can be explained by two separate migratory waves of different Slavic tribal groups of the future South Slavs via two routes: the west and east of the Carpathian Mountains. Speakers of the dialectal group are primarily ethnic Serbs , Bulgarians , and Macedonians . There are also smaller ethnic communities of Croats (the Krashovani ) in Romania and Slavic Muslims (the Gorani ) in southern Kosovo. The Torlakian dialects are intermediate between

3198-587: The Torlakian dialects are foreign to standard Serbian in many cases. According to the historian Ivo Banac during the Middle Ages , Torlak and the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect were part of Eastern South Slavic , but since the 12th century, especially the Shtokavian dialects, including Eastern Herzegovinian, began to diverge from the other neighboring South Slavic dialects. Some of the phenomena that distinguish western and eastern subgroups of

3280-620: The Torlakian dialects are traditionally referred to as У-говори ("U-dialects"), referencing their reflex of old Slavic *ǫ being /u/ (compared to standard Bulgarian, where it is /ɤ/, or its nearby dialects, where it is /a/). The Serbo-Croatian linguists maintain that Torlakian is a Balkanized Western South Slavic dialect together with the South Slavic varieties spoken in northern parts of North Macedonia and in Western Bulgaria (Vuković 2021). Other researchers tend to classify it as Eastern South Slavic . Motoki Nomachi maintains that

3362-509: The Torlakian-speaking region changed several times between Serbia and Bulgaria, and later the Republic of North Macedonia. Shtokavian Shtokavian or Štokavian ( / ʃ t ɒ ˈ k ɑː v i ə n , - ˈ k æ v -/ ; Serbo-Croatian Latin : štokavski / Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic : штокавски , pronounced [ʃtǒːkaʋskiː] ) is the prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and

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3444-649: The basis of its Serbian , Croatian , Bosnian and Montenegrin standards. It is a part of the South Slavic dialect continuum . Its name comes from the form for the interrogative pronoun for "what" što (Western Shtokavian; it is šta in Eastern Shtokavian). This is in contrast to Kajkavian and Chakavian ( kaj and ča also meaning "what"). Shtokavian is spoken in Serbia , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina , much of Croatia , and

3526-546: The better or weaker preservation of former West Shtokavian features in some dialects of the unique Shtokavian group of dialects". As can be seen from the image on the right, originally the Shtokavian dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Shtokavian speech has spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. The modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Shtokavian and Chakavian in particular)

3608-468: The central area of the subdialect, the diphthong uo exists in some words instead of the archaic l and more common u like vuok or stuop , instead of the standard modern vuk and stup . Also known as Đekavian-Ijekavian , it is spoken in eastern Montenegro, in Podgorica and Cetinje , around the city of Novi Pazar in eastern Raška in Serbia, and by descendants of Montenegrin settlers in

3690-764: The city of Bihać , and also in central Bosnia where Croats and Bosniaks (e.g. Travnik , Jajce , Bugojno , Vitez ) used to speak this dialect. Exclusively Ikavian accent, Bosnian and Herzegovinian forms use o in verb participle, whereas those in Dalmatia and Lika use -ija or ia like in vidija/vidia . Local form of Bačka was proposed as the base for the Danubian branch of the Bunjevac dialect of Bunjevac Croats ( Bunjevci ) in Vojvodina , Serbia. Also known as Western Ijekavian , in earlier centuries, this subdialect

3772-622: The convergence area. Most notable Serbian linguists (like Pavle Ivić and Asim Peco ) classify Torlakian ( Serbo-Croatian : Torlački / Торлачки , pronounced [tɔ̌rlaːt͡ʃkiː] ) as an Old-Shtokavian dialect, referring to it as the Prizren–Timok dialect . Bulgarian researchers such as Benyo Tsonev , Gavril Zanetov and the Macedono-Bulgarian researcher Krste Misirkov classified Torlakian ( Bulgarian : Торлашки , romanized :  Torlashki ) as dialect of

3854-644: The development of Bulgarian Lexicography and Lexicology being co-author of "Orthographical and Orthoepy Manual" ("Правописен и правоговорен наръчник") (1945, 3rd revised edition entitled "Правописен речник на българския книжовен език", 1954) and "Bulgarian Language Dictionary" ("Български тълковен речник") (1955, 4th edition 1994), as well as one of the editors of "Dictionary of the Contemporary Bulgarian Literary Language" ("Речник на съвременния български книжовен език") (3 volumes, 1955–1959). He also published studies dedicated to

3936-498: The east and south. The Torlakian dialects, together with Bulgarian and Macedonian , display many properties of the Balkan linguistic area , a set of structural convergence features shared also with other, non-Slavic, languages of the Balkans such as Albanian , Romanian and Aromanian . In terms of areal linguistics, they have therefore been described as part of a prototypical "Balkan Slavic" area, as opposed to other parts of Serbo-Croatian , which are only peripherally involved in

4018-606: The extent these texts, especially the Kulin ban parchment, contain contemporary Shtokavian vernacular. Numerous legal and commercial documents from pre-Ottoman Bosnia , Hum , Serbia , Zeta , and southern Dalmatia , especially Dubrovnik are mainly Shtokavian, with elements of Church Slavic. The first major comprehensive vernacular Shtokavian text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book , written in Dubrovnik

4100-541: The fact that Torlaks in the past were mainly shepherds by occupation. Some Bulgarian scientists describe the Torlaks as a distinct ethnographic group. Another theory is that it is derived from Ottoman Turkish torlak ("unbearded youth"), possibly referring to some portion of the youth among them not developing dense facial hair. The Torlaks are also sometimes classified as part of the Shopi population and vice versa. In

4182-464: The following: As can be seen from the list, many of these isoglosses are missing from particular Shtokavian idioms, just as many of them are shared with neighboring non-Shtokavian dialects. There exist three main criteria for the division of Shtokavian dialects: The Shtokavian dialect is divided into Old-Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects. The primary distinction is the accentuation system: although there are variations, "old" dialects preserve

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4264-551: The inner syllables moved to the preceding syllable, but they kept the high pitch. That process produced the "rising" accents characteristic for Neo-Shtokavian, and yielded the modern four-tone system. Stress on the initial syllables remained the same in quality and pitch. Most speakers of Shtokavian, native or taught, from Serbia and Croatia do not distinguish between short rising and short falling tones. They also pronounce most unstressed long vowels as short, with some exceptions, such as genitive plural endings. The following notation

4346-539: The latter, postalveolar variants. Some subdialects preserve l at the end of words (where otherwise it has developed into a short o) – došl , znal , etc. (cf. Kajkavian and Bulgarian ); in others, this l has become the syllable ja . Torlakian is spoken in Metohija , around Prizren , Gnjilane and Štrpce especially, in Southern Serbia around Bujanovac , Vranje , Leskovac , Niš , Aleksinac , in

4428-473: The littoral between the Bay of Kotor and Cetina , medieval Croats spoke an old West Shtokavian dialect, which, some believe, stemmed from Chakavian , while medieval Serbs spoke two dialects, old East Shtokavian and Torlakian. Many linguists noted a close connection between Chakavian and Western Shtokavian, for example Pavle Ivić saw Chakavian as an arhaic peripheral zone of Shtokavian, while Dalibor Brozović saw

4510-459: The majority of Chakavian dialects as derived from the same accentological core as Western Shtokavian. Western Shtokavian was principally characterized by a three-accent system, whereas Eastern Shtokavian was mostly marked by a two-accent system. Western Shtokavian covered the major part of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slavonia and part of Southern Dalmatia in Croatia . Eastern Shtokavian

4592-539: The majority of settlers came from Torlakian speaking village Veliki Izvor near Zajecar. Few centuries ago, before settlers from Kosovo and Metohija brought Kosovo-Resava speeches to Eastern Serbia (to Bor and Negotin area), Torlakian speech had been overwhelmingly represented in this region. Also called the Archaic Šćakavian , it is spoken by Croats who live in some parts of Slavonia , Bačka , Baranja , Syrmia , in Croatia and Vojvodina, as well as in northern Bosnia. It

4674-692: The monographies "The Banat Dialect" ("Банатският говор") (1967) and "The Lexics of the Banat Dialect" ("Лексиката на банатския говор") (1968) as well as the comparative study "The Dialect of Tvardica village (Bulgaria) and Tvardica village (Moldova)" ("Говорът на с. Твърдица (Сливенска околия в България) и на с. Твардица (Молдавска ССР)") (in Russian, 1958). Particular interest represents his study "The Sofia Student's Dialect. Contribution to Bulgarian Social Dialectology" ("Софийският ученически говор. Принос към българската социална диалектология") (1946). Stoykov

4756-455: The older accent system, which consists of two types of falling ( dynamic ) accents, one long and one short, and unstressed syllables, which can be long and short. Both long and short unstressed syllables could precede the stressed syllables. Stress placement is free and mobile in paradigms. In the process known as "Neo-Shtokavian metatony " or "retraction", length of the old syllables was preserved, but their quality changed. Stress (intensity) on

4838-461: The one hand from Shtokavian and Chakavian on the other. These are: Other characteristics distinguishing Kajkavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun kaj (as opposed to što/šta used in Shtokavian), are: Characteristics distinguishing Chakavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ča , are: General characteristics of Shtokavian are

4920-577: The other, as well as mixed Ekavian–Ikavian and Jekavian–Ikavian areas. In some villages in Hungary, the original yat is preserved. Local variants can widely differ in the degree of Neo-Shtokavian influences. In two villages in Posavina , Siče and Magića Male, the l , as in the verb nosil , has been retained in place of the modern nosio . In some villages in the Podravina, čr is preserved instead of

5002-473: The part of Toplica Valley around Prokuplje , in Eastern Serbia around Pirot , Svrljig , Soko Banja , Boljevac , Knjaževac ending up with the area around Zaječar , where the Kosovo-Resava dialect becomes more dominant. It has been recorded several exclaves with Torlakian speeches inside Kosovo-Resava dialect area. One is the most prominent and preserved, like village Dublje near Svilajnac, where

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5084-581: The previously mentioned villages in Podravina. Some vernaculars have a very open /ɛ/ or /æ/ as their reflex of ь/ъ, very rare in other Shtokavian vernaculars ( sæn and dæn instead of san and dan ). Other phonetic features include sounds like ʑ in iʑesti instead of izjesti , ɕ as in ɕekira instead of sjekira . However these sounds are known also to many in East Herzegovina like those in Konavle , and are not Zeta–Raška specific . There

5166-590: The region was limited to Eastern Orthodox clergy, who chiefly used Old Church Slavonic in writing. The first known literary document influenced by Torlakian dialects is the Manuscript from Temska Monastery from 1762, in which its author, the Monk Kiril Zhivkovich from Pirot , considered his language " simple Bulgarian ". According to one theory, the name Torlak derived from the South Slavic word tor (" sheepfold "), possibly referring to

5248-526: The shared innovations originate from a "Trans-Carpathian" homeland, and by the 4th and 6th century, "the major dialect divisions of Slavic were already established". Dialectologists and Slavists maintain that when the separation of Western South Slavic speeches happened, they separated into five divergent groups, more specifically two, one Slovene and a second Serbo-Croatian with four divergent groups - Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian. The latter group can be additionally divided into

5330-560: The single village of Peroj in Istria . The majority of its speakers are Serbs and Montenegrins and Muslims from Serbia and Montenegro. Together with the dominant Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations like djete–deteta (Jekavian–Ekavian) around Novi Pazar and Bijelo Polje , dite–đeteta (Ikavian–Jekavian) around Podgorica and dete–đeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) in the village of Mrkojevići in southern Montenegro. Mrkojevići are also characterised by retention of čr instead of cr as in

5412-462: The situation in the 19th century, the following attribution must be treated with necessary caution. The distribution of Old-Shtokavian speakers along ethnic lines in present times is as follows: Generally, the Neo-Shtokavian dialect is divided as follows with regard to the ethnicity of its native speakers: The standard Bosnian , Croatian , Montenegrin , and Serbian variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language are all based on

5494-621: The southern part of Austria 's Burgenland . The primary subdivisions of Shtokavian are based on three principles: one is different accents whether the subdialect is Old-Shtokavian or Neo-Shtokavian, second is the way the old Slavic phoneme jat has changed (Ikavian, Ijekavian or Ekavian), and third is presence of Young Proto-Slavic isogloss (Schakavian or Shtakavian). Modern dialectology generally recognises seven Shtokavian subdialects. The early medieval Slavs who later spoke various Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian dialects migrated across Moldavia and Pannonia . According to Frederik Kortlandt ,

5576-813: The standard as a vernacular can be. The dialect presents a base for the Ekavian variant of the Serbian standard language. Also called Eastern Herzegovinian or Neo-Ijekavian . It encompasses by far the largest area and the number of speakers of all Shtokavian dialects. It is the dialectal basis of the standard literary Croatian , Bosnian , Serbian , and Montenegrin languages. Micro groups: The Proto-Slavic vowel jat (ѣ in Cyrillic or ě in Latin ) has changed over time, coming to be pronounced differently in different areas. These different reflexes define three "pronunciations" ( izgovori ) of Shtokavian: Historically,

5658-491: The standardized national languages, particularly when a new word or concept was introduced. The only exception is a form of Torlakian spoken in Romania , which escaped the influence of a standardized language which has existed in Serbia since a state was created after the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire . The Slavs indigenous to the region are called Krashovani and are a mixture of original settler Slavs and later settlers from

5740-402: The syllabic /l/ , which, like /r/ , can serve the nucleus of a syllable. In most of the Shtokavian dialects, the syllabic /l/ eventually became /u/ or /o/ . In standard Bulgarian, it is preceded by the vowel represented by ъ ( [ ɤ ] ) to separate consonant clusters. Naturally, the /l/ becomes velarized in most such positions, giving [ ɫ ] . In some dialects, most notably

5822-413: The town of Vukovar . It is predominately Ekavian (Ikavian forms are of morphophonological origin). In some parts of Vojvodina the old declension is preserved. Most Vojvodina dialects and some dialects in Šumadija have an open e and o . However the vernaculars of western Serbia, and in past to them connected vernaculars of (old) Belgrade and southwestern Banat (Borča, Pančevo , Bavanište) are as close to

5904-773: The usual cr , for example in črn instead of crn . Both forms are usual in Kajkavian but very rare in Shtokavian. Also called Jekavian-Šćakavian , Eastern Bosnian dialect has Jekavian pronunciations in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks living in that area, which includes the bigger Bosnian cities Sarajevo , Tuzla , and Zenica , and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area ( Vareš , Usora , etc.). Together with basic Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in Tešanj and Maglaj dete–djeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) and around Žepče and Jablanica djete–diteta (Jekavian–ikavian). In

5986-456: The vernacular idiom. This process took place for Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks independently and without mutual interference until the mid-19th century. Historical linguistics, textual analysis and dialectology have dispelled myths about allegedly "unspoilt" vernacular speech of rural areas: for instance, it is established that Bosniaks have retained phoneme "h" in numerous words (unlike Serbs and Croats), due to elementary religious education based on

6068-407: The whole Shtokavian area. The differences between Shtokavian and the unrelated, neighboring Bulgarian – Macedonian dialects are mostly clear-cut, whereas the differences with the related Serbo-Croatian dialects of Chakavian and Kajkavian are much more fluid, and the mutual influence of various subdialects plays a more prominent role. The main bundle of isoglosses separates Slovenian and Kajkavian on

6150-578: The yat reflexes had been inscribed in Church Slavic texts before the significant development of Shtokavian dialect, reflecting the beginnings of the formative period of the vernacular. In early documents it is predominantly Church Slavic of the Serbian or Croatian recension (variant). The first undoubted Ekavian reflex ( beše 'it was') is found in a document from Serbia dated 1289; the first Ikavian reflex ( svidoci 'witnesses') in Bosnia in 1331; and first Ijekavian reflex ( želijemo 'we wish',

6232-723: Was a Bulgarian linguist , Slavist . Graduated Slavic Philology at Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski", (1935). Specialized phonetics , dialectology , and Slavic linguistics in Prague , Czech Republic (1937–1939). Was granted PhD by the Univerzita Karlova ( Charles University in Prague ) (1939). Worked at the Institute for Bulgarian Language of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences as an assistant (1942), as

6314-536: Was a variant used for a significant literary output between the 15th and 18th centuries. This has led to a reduction in its use and an increase in the use of Ijekavian in traditionally Ikavian areas since the standardization. For example, most people in formerly fully Ikavian Split, Croatia today use both Ikavian and Ijekavian words in everyday speech, without a clearly predictable pattern (usually more emotionally charged or intimate words are Ikavian and more academic, political, generally standardised words Ijekavian, but it

6396-461: Was dominant in Serbia , easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of Montenegro . From the 12th century, both dialects started separating further from Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. According to research of historical linguistics, Old-Shtokavian was well established by the mid-15th century. In this period it was still mixed with Church Slavonic to varying degrees. However, the ultimate development of Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian

6478-771: Was motivated primarily by political and national interests that prompted philologists-turned-ideologues to express their views on the subject. The most prominent contenders in the squabble, with conflicting agenda, were the Czech philologist Josef Dobrovský , the Slovak Pavel Šafárik , the Slovenes Jernej Kopitar and Franz Miklosich , the Serb Vuk Karadžić , the Croat of Slovak origin Bogoslav Šulek , and

6560-478: Was not divergent (like in the case of Chakavian and Kajkavian), but convergent . It was the result of migrations (particularly of Neoshtokavian-Eastern Shtokavian speakers), political-cultural border change and also caused by the Ottoman invasion (since the 16th century). Initially two separate proto-idioms started to resemble each other so greatly that, according to Brozović (1975), "[today] we can no longer speak of an independent Western Shtokavian, but only about

6642-764: Was the independent subdialect of Western Shtokavian dialect. The Dubrovnik dialect has mixed Jekavian and Ikavian pronunciations or mixed Shtokavian and Chakavian vocabulary. Some vocabulary from Dalmatian , older Venetian and modern Italian are also present. Also known as Younger Ekavian , is one of the bases for the standard Serbian language . It is spoken by Serbs across most of Vojvodina (excluding easternmost parts around Vršac), northern part of western Serbia , around Kragujevac and Valjevo in Šumadija , in Mačva around Šabac and Bogatić , in Belgrade and in predominantly ethnically Serbian villages in eastern Croatia around

6724-544: Was the leader and direct participant in the development of "Atlas of Bulgarian Dialects" ("Български диалектен атлас") (in 4 volumes, 1964–1981). Stoykov's main contributions to Bulgarian Phonetics are his studies "Bulgarian Literary Pronunciation" ("Български книжовен изговор") (1942), "Introduction in Bulgarian Phonetics" ("Увод в българската фонетика") (1955, 3rd revised edition entitled "Увод във фонетиката на българския език", 1966). Stoykov contributed to

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