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90-701: The same name – which simply means 'a farmer' in Chagatai – can be extended to agrarian populations of the Ferghana Valley and oases of the entire Central Asian Turkestan . Although the Tarim Basin (with such oases as Kashgar , Kumul , Khotan and Turpan ) is the agrarian Taranchis' traditional homeland, they have during the Qing period on China , migrated to regions that are now Urumqi and Ili . Many Taranchis were encouraged to settle in

180-427: A "woman, a hermaphrodite, a slave even when partially enfranchised, a minor and a lunatic are exempt from jizya ." The 14th century Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim wrote, "And there is no Jizya upon the aged, one suffering from chronic disease, the blind, and the patient who has no hope of recovery and has despaired of his health, even if they have enough." Ibn Qayyim adds, referring to the four Sunni maddhabs : "There

270-433: A careful analysis of the etymology of the term "Jizya", says: "The tax that is taken from the free non-Muslim subjects of a Muslim government whereby they ratify the compact that assures them protection, as though it were compensation for not being slain". According to Abou Al-Fadl and other scholars, classical Muslim jurists and scholars regard the jizya as a special payment collected from certain non-Muslims in return for

360-608: A detailed comparison of the Chagatai and Persian languages. Here, Nava’i argued for the superiority of the former for literary purposes. His fame is attested by the fact that Chagatai is sometimes called "Nava'i's language". Among prose works, Timur 's biography is written in Chagatai, as is the famous Baburnama (or Tuska Babure ) of Babur , the Timurid founder of the Mughal Empire . A Divan attributed to Kamran Mirza

450-600: A history of the Golden Horde entitled the Tarikh-i Dost Sultan in Khwarazm . In terms of literary production, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are often seen as a period of decay. It is a period in which Chagatai lost ground to Persian. Important writings in Chagatai from the period between the 17th and 18th centuries include those of Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur : Shajara-i Tarākima (Genealogy of

540-622: A justification for the use of Jizya in a modern context, including: Jizya is sanctioned by the Qur'an based on the following verse: qātilū-lladhīna lā yuʾminūna bi-llāhi wa-lā bi-l-yawmi-l-ākhir, wa-lā yuḥarrimūna mā ḥarrama-llāhu wa-rasūluh, wa-lā yadīnūna dīna'l-ḥaqq, ḥattā yu'ṭū-l-jizyata 'an yadin, wa-hum ṣāghirūn Fight those who believe not in God and in the Last Day, and who do not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden, and who follow not

630-459: A martyr, God be thanked I am become a ghazi. Uzbek ruler Muhammad Shaybani Khan wrote a prose essay called Risale-yi maarif-i Shaybāni in Chagatai in 1507, shortly after his capture of Greater Khorasan , and dedicated it to his son, Muhammad Timur. The manuscript of his philosophical and religious work, "Bahr ul-Khuda", written in 1508, is located in London Ötemish Hajji wrote

720-518: A modern borrowed pronunciation from Tatar that is not consistent with historic Kazakh and Kyrgyz treatments of these letters Many orthographies, particularly that of Turkic languages, are based on Kona Yëziq. Examples include the alphabets of South Azerbaijani , Qashqai , Chaharmahali , Khorasani , Uyghur , Äynu , and Khalaj . Virtually all other Turkic languages have a history of being written with an alphabet descended from Kona Yëziq, however, due to various writing reforms conducted by Turkey and

810-810: A peace treaty with the people of Syria and had collected from them the jizya and the tax for agrarian land ( kharāj ), he was informed that the Romans were readying for battle against him and that the situation had become critical for him and the Muslims. Abu ʿUbaydah then wrote to the governors of the cities with whom pacts had been concluded that they must return the sums collected from jizya and kharāj and say to their subjects: "We return to you your money because we have been informed that troops are being raised against us. In our agreement you stipulated that we protect you, but we are unable to do so. Therefore, we now return to you what we have taken from you, and we will abide by

900-672: A series of Uzbek dialects. Ethnologue records the use of the word "Chagatai" in Afghanistan to describe the "Tekke" dialect of Turkmen . Up to and including the eighteenth century, Chagatai was the main literary language in Turkmenistan and most of Central Asia. While it had some influence on Turkmen, the two languages belong to different branches of the Turkic language family. The most famous of Chagatai poets, Ali-Shir Nava'i, among other works wrote Muhakamat al-Lughatayn ,

990-457: A similar vein, Mahmud Shaltut states that "jizya was never intended as payment in return for one's life or retaining one's religion, it was intended as a symbol to signify yielding, an end of hostility and a participation in shouldering the burdens of the state." Modern scholars have also suggested other rationales for the Jizya, both in a historic context, and, among modern Islamist thinkers, as

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1080-489: A tax if they were exempted from military service, like non-Muslims. Thus, the Shafi'i scholar al-Khaṭīb ash-Shirbīniy states: "Military service is not obligatory for non-Muslims – especially for dhimmis since they give jizya so that we protect and defend them, and not so that he defends us." Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani states that there is a consensus amongst Islamic jurists that jizya is in exchange for military service. In

1170-412: A trade. As for people who seem to be insolvent at the end of the year, the sum of the poll tax remained as debt to their account until they should become solvent." Abu Hanifa , in one of his opinions, and Abu Yusuf held that monks were subject to jizya if they worked. Ibn Qayyim stated that the dhahir opinion of Ibn Hanbal is that peasants and cultivators were also exempted from jizya. Though jizya

1260-411: Is 'he obeyed', and one of the many meanings of dīn is 'behaviour' ( al-sīra wa'l-ʿāda ). The famous Arabic lexicographer Fayrūzabādī (d. 817/1415), gives more than twelve meanings for the word dīn , placing the meaning 'worship of God, religion' lower in the list. Al-Muʿjam al-wasīṭ gives the following definition: "'dāna' is to be in the habit of doing something good or bad; 'dāna bi- something'

1350-439: Is a big distinction between these two words   ... For you say ' qataltu ( قتلت ) so-and-so ' if you initiated the fighting, while you say ' qātaltu ( قاتلت ) him ' if you resisted his effort to fight you by a reciprocal fight, or if you forestalled him in that so that he would not get at you unawares. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem writes that there is nothing in the Qur'an to say that not believing in God and

1440-482: Is commendable to raise the amount, if it be possible to two dinars, for those possessed of moderate means, and to four for rich persons." Abu 'Ubayd insists that the dhimmis must not be burdened beyond their capacity, nor must they be caused to suffer. Scholar Ibn Qudamah (1147 – 7 July 1223) narrates three views on what the rates of jizya should be. Scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332 – 17 March 1406) states that jizya has fixed limits that cannot be exceeded. In

1530-487: Is devoted to the description of diseases, their recognition and treatment. One of the manuscript lists is kept in the library in Budapest . Prominent 19th-century Khivan writers include Shermuhammad Munis and his nephew Muhammad Riza Agahi. Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva also wrote ghazals . Musa Sayrami 's Tārīkh-i amniyya , completed in 1903, and its revised version Tārīkh-i ḥamīdi , completed in 1908, represent

1620-615: Is due to him'. Al-Shafi'i , the founder of the Shafi'i school of law, wrote that a number of scholars explained this last expression to mean that "Islamic rulings are enforced on them." This understanding is reiterated by the Hanbali jurist Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya , who interprets wa-hum ṣāghirūn as making all subjects of the state obey the law and, in the case of the People of the Book , pay

1710-592: Is due to others. His Messenger in this verse has been interpreted by exegetes as referring to Muḥammad or the People of the Book 's own earlier messengers, Moses or Jesus. According to Abdel-Haleem, the latter must be the correct interpretation as it is already assumed that the People of the Book did not believe in Muḥammad or forbid what he forbade, so that they are condemned for not obeying their own prophet, who told them to honour their agreements. 3. "Who do not embrace

1800-542: Is in return for the protection of the Muslim state with all the accruing benefits and exemption from military service, and such taxes on Muslims as zakat . The historian al-Tabari and the hadith scholar al-Bayhaqi relate that some members of the Christian community asked ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab if they could refer to the jizya as sadaqah , literally 'charity', which he allowed. Based on this historical event,

1890-551: Is no Jizya on the kids, women and the insane. This is the view of the four imams and their followers. Ibn Mundhir said, 'I do not know anyone to have differed with them.' Ibn Qudama said in al-Mughni, 'We do not know of any difference of opinion among the learned on this issue." In contrast, the Shāfi'ī jurist Al-Nawawī wrote: "Our school insists upon the payment of the poll-tax by sickly persons, old men, even if decrepit, blind men, monks, workmen, and poor persons incapable of exercising

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1980-559: Is the ancestor of the Uzbek and Uyghur languages. Turkmen , which is not within the Karluk branch but in the Oghuz branch of Turkic languages, was nonetheless heavily influenced by Chagatai for centuries. Ali-Shir Nava'i was the greatest representative of Chagatai literature. Chagatai literature is still studied in modern Uzbekistan , where the language is seen as the predecessor and

2070-401: Is the tax that is taken from the free non-Muslim subjects of an Islamic government, whereby they ratify the pact that ensures them protection. Michael G. Morony states that: [The emergence of] protected status and the definition of jizya as the poll tax on non-Muslim subjects appears to have been achieved only by the early eighth century. This came as a result of growing suspicions about

2160-410: Is to take it as a religion and worship God through it." Thus, when the verb dāna is used in the sense of 'to believe' or 'to practise a religion', it takes the preposition bi - after it (e.g. dāna bi'l-Islām ) and this is the only usage in which the word means religion. The jizya verse does not say lā yadīnūna bi- dīni'l-ḥaqq , but rather lā yadīnūna dīna'l-ḥaqq . Abdel-Haleem thus concludes that

2250-543: Is written in Persian and Chagatai, and one of Bairam Khan 's Divans was written in Chagatai. The following is a prime example of the 16th-century literary Chagatai Turkic, employed by Babur in one of his ruba'is . Islam ichin avara-i yazi buldim, Kuffar u hind harbsazi buldim Jazm aylab idim uzni shahid olmaqqa, Amminna' lillahi ki gazi buldim I am become a desert wanderer for Islam, Having joined battle with infidels and Hindus I readied myself to become

2340-544: The Chagatay - Timurid dynasties or Dolan because of the Doglat nobility. However, from a modern perspective, Taranchi, Sart and Moghol Dolans cannot be considered three distinctive ethnic groups, but rather three different classes or castes in the same cultural - linguistic zone that was Chagatay - Timurid . In the early 20th century, the geopolitical Great Game between Russia and Great Britain resulted in

2430-642: The Dungan revolt . At first, they cooperated with the Dungans , but turned on them, massacring the Dungans at Kuldja and driving the rest through Talk pass to the Ili valley. Chagatai language Chagatai ( چغتای , Čaġatāy ), also known as Turki , Eastern Turkic , or Chagatai Turkic ( Čaġatāy türkīsi ), is an extinct Turkic language that was once widely spoken across Central Asia . It remained

2520-597: The Ili valley alongside sedentary Xibe garrisons and the nomadic Kyrgyz by the Qing military governors after the conquest of the Dzungars by the Chinese. In the multiethnic Muslim culture of Xinjiang , the term Taranchi is considered contradistinctive to Sart , which denotes towns dwelling traders and craftsmen. It of course excluded the ruling classes of the oases Muslim states, often called Moghol / Mughal because of

2610-598: The Perso-Arabic alphabet . This variation is known as Kona Yëziq, ( transl.  old script ). It saw usage for Kazakh , Kyrgyz , Uyghur , and Uzbek . А а Ә ә U u, Oʻ oʻ Ұ ұ, Ү ү О о, Ө ө О о, Ө ө ئۆ/ئو, ئۈ/ئۇ Ө ө, У у, Ү ү Ө ө, У у, Ү ү A a Э э, е Э э, е ئە/ئا Ә ә Ә ә Е e, I i Ы ы, І і Ы ы, И и ئى، ئې The letters ف، ع، ظ، ط، ض، ص، ژ، ذ، خ، ح، ث، ء are only used in loanwords and do not represent any additional phonemes. For Kazakh and Kyrgyz, letters in parentheses () indicate

2700-688: The Soviet Union , many of these languages now are written in either the Latin script or the Cyrillic script . The Qing dynasty commissioned dictionaries on the major languages of China which included Chagatai Turki, such as the Pentaglot Dictionary . The basic word order of Chagatai is SOV. Chagatai is a head-final language where the adjectives come before nouns. Other words such as those denoting location, time, etc. usually appear in

2790-527: The 20th century with the disappearance of Islamic states and the spread of religious tolerance . The tax is no longer imposed by nation states in the Islamic world, although there are reported cases of organizations such as the Pakistani Taliban and ISIS attempting to revive the practice. Commentators disagree on the definition and derivation of the word jizya . Ann Lambton writes that

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2880-596: The 5th Dalai Lama when he fled to Lhasa to help his Afaqi faction take control of the Tarim Basin (Kashgaria). The Dzungar leader Galdan was then asked by the Dalai Lama to restore Khoja Afaq as ruler of Kashgararia. Khoja Afaq collaborated with Galdan's Dzungars when the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin from 1678-1680 and set up the Afaqi Khojas as puppet client rulers. The Dalai Lama blessed Galdan's conquest of

2970-621: The Arab empire, but that it came later on to be used for the capitation-tax, "as the fiscal system of the new rulers became fixed." Arthur Stanley Tritton states that both jizya in west, and kharaj in the east Arabia meant 'tribute'. It was also called jawali in Jerusalem. Shemesh says that Abu Yusuf , Abu Ubayd ibn al-Sallām, Qudama ibn Jaʿfar, Khatib, and Yahya ibn Adam used the terms Jizya , Kharaj , Ushr and Tasq as synonyms. The Arabic lexicographer Edward William Lane , after

3060-587: The Dzungars for decades until finally defeating them and then Qing Manchu Bannermen carried out the Zunghar genocide, nearly wiping them from existence and depopulating Dzungaria. The Qing then freed the Afaqi Khoja leader Burhan-ud-din and his brother Khoja Jihan from their imprisonment by the Dzungars, and appointed them to rule as Qing vassals over the Tarim Basin. The Khoja brothers decided to renege on this deal and declare themselves as independent leaders of

3150-749: The Ishaqi (Black Mountain) faction. The Ishaqi defeated the Afaqi, which resulted in the Afaq Khoja inviting the 5th Dalai Lama , the leader of the Tibetan Buddhists , to intervene on his behalf in 1677. The 5th Dalai Lama then called upon his Dzungar Buddhist followers in the Zunghar Khanate to act on this invitation. The Dzungar Khanate then conquered the Tarim Basin in 1680, setting up the Afaqi Khoja as their puppet ruler. Khoja Afaq asked

3240-631: The Jizya. Together with kharāj , a term that was sometimes used interchangeably with jizya, taxes levied on non-Muslim subjects were among the main sources of revenues collected by some Islamic polities, such as the Ottoman Empire and Indian Muslim Sultanates . Jizya rate was usually a fixed annual amount depending on the financial capability of the payer. Sources comparing taxes levied on Muslims and jizya differ as to their relative burden depending on time, place, specific taxes under consideration, and other factors. The term appears in

3330-455: The Last Day is in itself grounds for fighting anyone. Whereas Abū Ḥayyān states "they are so described because their way [of acting] is the way of those who do not believe in God," Ahmad Al-Maraghī comments: [F]ight those mentioned when the conditions which necessitate fighting are present, namely, aggression against you or your country, oppression and persecution against you on account of your faith, or threatening your safety and security, as

3420-451: The Quran itself does not prescribe humiliating treatment for the dhimmi when paying Jizya, but some later Muslims interpreted it to contain "an equivocal warrant for debasing the dhimmi (non-Muslim) through a degrading method of remission". In contrast, the 13th century hadith scholar and Shafi'ite jurist Al-Nawawī , comments on those who would impose a humiliation along with the paying of

3510-573: The Quran referring to a tax or tribute from People of the Book , specifically Jews and Christians. Followers of other religions like Zoroastrians and Hindus too were later integrated into the category of dhimmis and required to pay jizya. In the Indian Subcontinent the practice stopped by the 18th century with Muslim rulers losing their kingdoms to the Maratha Empire and British East India Company. It almost vanished during

3600-463: The Religion of Truth among those who were given the Book, till they pay the jizyah with a willing hand, being humbled. 1. "Fight those who believe not in God and the Last Day" ( qātilū-lladhīna lā yuʾminūna bi-llāhi wa-lā bi-l-yawmi-l-ākhir ). Commenting on this verse, Muhammad Sa'id Ramadan al-Buti says: [T]he verse commands qitāl ( قتال ) and not qatl ( قتل ), and it is known that there

3690-505: The Tarim Basin and Turfan Basin. 67,000 patman of grain (each patman is 4 piculs and 5 pecks , or roughly 4,800 kg + 44 litres of dry rice) and 48,000 silver ounces were required to be paid yearly by Kashgar to the Dzungars, and the rest of the cities were also taxed. Trade, milling, and distilling taxes, corvée labor, saffron, cotton, and grain were also extracted by the Dzungars from the Tarim Basin. Every harvest season, women and food had to be provided to Dzungars when they came to extract

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3780-588: The Tarim Basin on the former Dzungar land was described as having the land "swarmed" with the settlers. The amount of Uyghurs moved by the Qing from Altä-shähär (Tarim Basin) to depopulated Zunghar land in Ili numbered around 10,000 families. The amount of Uyghurs moved by the Qing into Jungharia (Dzungaria) at this time has been described as "large". The Qing settled in Dzungaria even more Turki-Taranchi (Uyghurs) numbering around 12,000 families originating from Kashgar in

3870-682: The Tarim Basin were originally ruled by the Chagatai Khanate while the nomadic Buddhist Oirat Mongol in Dzungaria ruled over the Dzungar Khanate . The Naqshbandi Sufi Khojas , descendants of the Prophet Muhammad , had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as the ruling authority of the Tarim Basin in the early 17th century. There was a struggle between two factions of Khojas, the Afaqi (White Mountain) faction and

3960-607: The Tarim Basin. The Qing and the Turfan leader Emin Khoja crushed their revolt and China then took full control of both Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin by 1759. Some Taranchis resettled to Dzungaria. Taranchi was the name for Turki agriculturalists who were resettled in Dzungaria from the Tarim Basin oases ("East Turkestani cities") by the Qing dynasty, along with Manchus, Xibo (Xibe), Solons, Han and other ethnic groups. The Manchu Qing policy of settling Chinese colonists and Taranchis from

4050-516: The Turkmens) and Shajara-i Turk (Genealogy of the Turks). Abu al-Ghāzī is motivated by functional considerations and describes his choice of language and style in the sentence ‘I did not use one word of Chaghatay (!), Persian or Arabic’. As is clear from his actual language use, he aims at making himself understood to a broader readership by avoiding too ornate a style, notably saj’ , rhymed prose. In

4140-571: The affluence of the people of the region and their ability to pay. In this regard, Abu Ubayd ibn Sallam comments that the Prophet imposed 1 dinar (then worth 10 or 12 dirhams) upon each adult in Yemen. This was less than what Umar imposed upon the people of Syria and Iraq, the higher rate being due to the Yemenis greater affluence and ability to pay. The rate of jizya that were fixed and implemented by

4230-574: The aftermath of the Jahangir Khoja invasion in the 1820s. Standard Uyghur is based on the Taranchi dialect, which was chosen by the Chinese government for this role. Salar migrants from Amdo ( Qinghai ) came to settle the region as religious exiles, migrants, and as soldiers enlisted in the Chinese army to fight in Ili, often following the Hui. The Taranchi revolted against the Qing dynasty during

4320-473: The application of jizya varied in the course of Islamic history . However, scholars largely agree that early Muslim rulers adapted some of the existing systems of taxation and modified them according to Islamic religious law. Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for

4410-522: The best sources on the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in Xinjiang . The following are books written on the Chagatai language by natives and westerners: Sounds /f, ʃ, χ, v, z, ɡ, ʁ, d͡ʒ, ʔ, l/ do not occur in initial position of words of Turkish origin. Vowel length is distributed among five vowels /iː, eː, ɑː, oː, uː/. Chagatai has been a literary language and is written with a variation of

4500-442: The case of war, jizya is seen as an option to end hostilities . According to Abu Kalam Azad , one of the main objectives of jizya was to facilitate a peaceful solution to hostility, since non-Muslims who engaged in fighting against Muslims were thereby given the option of making peace by agreeing to pay jizya. In this sense, jizya is seen as a means by which to legalize the cessation of war and military conflict with non-Muslims. In

4590-684: The choice of conversion to avoid death. The sources of jizya and the practices varied significantly over Islamic history. Shelomo Dov Goitein states that the exemptions for the indigent, the invalids and the old were no longer observed in the milieu reflected by the Cairo Geniza and were discarded even in theory by the Shāfi'ī jurists who were influential in Egypt at the time. According to Kristen A. Stilt , historical sources indicate that in Mamluk Egypt , poverty did "not necessarily excuse"

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4680-495: The classical manual of Shafi'i fiqh Reliance of the Traveller it is stated that, "[t]he minimum non-Muslim poll tax is one dinar (n: 4.235 grams of gold) per person (A: per year). The maximum is whatever both sides agree upon." According to Al-Ghazali jizya was "to establish liberty of conscience in the world" and not for "compelling people to embrace Islam; that would be an unholy war." According to Mark R. Cohen ,

4770-531: The closest to it. Uzbeks regard Chagatai as the origin of their language and Chagatai literature as part of their heritage. In 1921 in Uzbekistan , then a part of the Soviet Union , Chagatai was initially intended to be the national and governmental language of the Uzbek SSR . However, when it became evident that the language was too archaic for that purpose, it was replaced by a new literary language based on

4860-405: The dhimmi from paying the tax, and boys as young as nine years old could be considered adults for tax purposes, making the tax particularly burdensome for large, poor families. Ashtor and Bornstein-Makovetsky infer from Geniza documents that jizya was also collected in Egypt from the age of nine in the 11th century. The rates of jizya were not uniform, as Islamic scripture gave no fixed limits to

4950-588: The direct ancestor of modern Uzbek , and the literature is regarded as part of the national heritage of Uzbekistan. The word Chagatai relates to the Chagatai Khanate (1225–1680s), a descendant empire of the Mongol Empire left to Genghis Khan 's second son, Chagatai Khan . Many of the Turkic peoples , who spoke this language claimed political descent from the Chagatai Khanate. As part of

5040-540: The division of Central Asia among modern nation-states . All oases farmers native to Xinjiang became part of Uyghur nationality by 1934. While most Sarts of oases or Ili Valley towns became part of the Uyghur nationality, those with particularly strong ties to regions west of Xinjiang became Uzbeks. Sometimes such divisions are very arbitrary, because Kashgaris can be as distinctive from Turpanliks as they are from Andijanliks . The Turkic Muslim sedentary people of

5130-494: The front vowel inflections; and, if the stem contains [q] or [ǧ], which are formed in the back of the mouth, back vowels are more likely in the inflection. These affect the suffixes that are applied to words. Jizyah Jizya ( Arabic : جِزْيَة , romanized :  jizya ), or jizyah, is a type of taxation historically levied on non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law . The Quran and hadiths mention jizya without specifying its rate or amount, and

5220-458: The insane, slaves, as well as musta'mins (non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim lands) and converts to Islam. Dhimmis who chose to join military service were exempted from payment. If anyone could not afford this tax, they would not have to pay anything. Sometimes a dhimmi was exempted from jizya if he rendered some valuable services to the state. The Hanafi scholar Abu Yusuf wrote, "slaves, women, children,

5310-418: The jizya, stating, "As for this aforementioned practice, I know of no sound support for it in this respect, and it is only mentioned by the scholars of Khurasan. The majority of scholars say that the jizya is to be taken with gentleness, as one would receive a debt. The reliably correct opinion is that this practice is invalid and those who devised it should be refuted. It is not related that the Prophet or any of

5400-406: The jizya. Rules for liability and exemptions of jizya formulated by jurists in the early Abbasid period appear to have remained generally valid thereafter. Islamic jurists required adult, free, sane, able-bodied males of military age with no religious functions among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, elders, handicapped, monks, hermits, the poor, the ill,

5490-527: The late 15th century. It belongs to the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is descended from Middle Turkic , which served as a lingua franca in Central Asia, with a strong infusion of Arabic and Persian words and turns of phrase. Mehmet Fuat Köprülü divides Chagatay into the following periods: The first period is a transitional phase characterized by the retention of archaic forms;

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5580-404: The loyalty of the non-Muslim population during the second civil war and of the literalist interpretation of the Quran by pious Muslims. Jane Dammen McAuliffe states that jizya , in early Islamic texts, was an annual tribute expected from non-Muslims, and not a poll tax. Similarly, Thomas Walker Arnold writes that jizya originally denoted tribute of any type paid by the non-Muslim subjects of

5670-426: The majority of jurists from Shāfiʿīs, Ḥanafīs and Ḥanbalīs state that it is lawful to take the jizya from ahl al-dhimmah by name of zakāt or ṣadaqah , meaning it is not necessary to call the tax that is taken from them by jizya, and also based on the known legal maxim that states, "consideration is granted to objectives and meanings and not to terms and specific wordings." According to Lane's Lexicon , jizya

5760-505: The meaning that fits the jizya verse is thus 'those who do not follow the way of justice ( al-ḥaqq )', i.e. by breaking their agreement and refusing to pay what is due. 4. "Until they pay jizya with their own hands" ( ḥattā yu'ṭū-l-jizyata 'an yadin ). Here ʿan yad (from/for/at hand), is interpreted by some to mean that they should pay directly, without intermediary and without delay. Others say that it refers to its reception by Muslims and means "generously" as in "with an open hand," since

5850-541: The nobles, clergy, landowners ( dehqāns ), and scribes (or civil servants, dabirān) were exempted. Muslim Arab conquerors largely retained the taxation systems of the Sasanian and Byzantine empires they had conquered. Shakir 's English translations of the Qur'an render jizya as 'tax', while Pickthall and Arberry translate it as " tribute ". Yusuf Ali prefers to transliterate the term as jizyah . Yusuf Ali considered

5940-403: The old, the sick, monks, hermits, the insane, the blind and the poor, were exempt from the tax" and states that jizya should not be collected from those who have neither income nor any property, but survive by begging and from alms. The Hanbali jurist al-Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā states, "there is no jizya upon the poor, the old, and the chronically ill". Historical reports tell of exemptions granted by

6030-576: The order of emphasis put on them. Like other Turkic languages , Chagatai has vowel harmony (though Uzbek , despite being a direct descendant of Chaghatai, notably doesn't ever since the spelling changes under USSR; vowel harmony being present in the orthography of the Uzbek perso-arabic script). There are mainly eight vowels, and vowel harmony system works upon vowel backness . The vowels [i] and [e] are central or front-central/back-central and therefore are considered both. Usually these will follow two rules in inflection : [i] and [e] almost always follow

6120-408: The origins of jizya are extremely complex, regarded by some jurists as "compensation paid by non-Muslims for being spared from death" and by others as "compensation for living in Muslim lands." According in Encyclopedia Iranica , the Arabic word jizya is most likely derived from Middle Persian gazītak , which denoted a tax levied on the lower classes of society in Sasanian Persia , from which

6210-719: The permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with some communal autonomy in a Muslim state, and as material proof of the non-Muslims' allegiance to the Muslim state and its laws. Muslim jurists required adult, free, sane males among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, elders , handicapped , the ill, the insane , monks , hermits , slaves , and musta'mins —non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim lands. In regimes that allowed dhimmis to serve in Muslim armies those who chose to join military service were also exempted from payment, some Muslim scholars claim that some Islamic rulers exempted those who could not afford to pay from

6300-431: The preparation for the 1924 establishment of the Soviet Republic of Uzbekistan , Chagatai was officially renamed "Old Uzbek", which Edward A. Allworth argued "badly distorted the literary history of the region" and was used to give authors such as Ali-Shir Nava'i an Uzbek identity. It was also referred to as "Turki" or "Sart" in Russian colonial sources. In China, it is sometimes called "ancient Uyghur ". In

6390-472: The responsibility of protection fulfilled by Muslims against any type of aggression, as well as for non-Muslims being exempt from military service, and in exchange for the aid provided to poor dhimmis. In a treaty made by Khalid with some towns in the neighborhood of Hirah, he writes: "If we protect you, then jizya is due to us; but if we do not, then it is not due." Early Hanafi jurist Abu Yusuf writes: 'After Abu ʿUbaydah concluded

6480-458: The root meaning of jizya to be "compensation," whereas Muhammad Asad considered it to be "satisfaction." Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (d. 1108), a classical Muslim lexicographer , writes that jizya is a "tax that is levied on Dhimmis, and it is so named because it is in return for the protection they are guaranteed." He points out that derivatives of the word appear in some Qurʾānic verses as well, such as: Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that

6570-401: The second caliph ' Umar to an old blind Jew and others like him. The Maliki scholar Al-Qurtubi writes that, "there is a consensus amongst Islamic scholars that jizya is to be taken only from heads of free men past puberty, who are the ones fighting, but not from women, the children, the slaves, the insane, and the dying old." The 13th century Shafi'i scholar Al-Nawawī wrote that

6660-490: The second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , namely 'Umar bin al-Khattab , during the period of his Khilafah, were small amounts: four dirhams from the rich, two dirhams from the middle class and only one dirham from the active poor who earned by working on wages, or by making or vending things. The 13th-century scholar Al-Nawawī writes, "The minimum amount of the jizya is one dinar per person per annum; but it

6750-509: The second half of the 18th century, Turkmen poet Magtymguly Pyragy also introduced the use of classical Chagatai into Turkmen literature as a literary language, incorporating many Turkmen linguistic features . Bukharan ruler Subhan Quli Khan (1680–1702) was the author of a work on medicine, "Subkhankuli's revival of medicine" ("Ihya at-tibb Subhani") which was written in the Central Asian Turkic language (Chaghatay) and

6840-431: The second phase began with the publication of Ali-Shir Nava'i 's first divan and is the highpoint of Chagatai literature, followed by the third phase, which is characterized by two bifurcating developments. One is preservation of the classical Chagatai language of Nava'i, the other the increasing influence of dialects of the local spoken languages. Uzbek and Uyghur , two modern languages descended from Chagatai, are

6930-455: The shared literary language in the region until the early 20th century. It was used across a wide geographic area including western or Russian Turkestan (i.e. parts of modern-day Uzbekistan , Turkmenistan , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan ), Eastern Turkestan (where a dialect, known as Kaşğar tılı, developed), Crimea , the Volga region (such as Tatarstan and Bashkortostan ), etc. Chagatai

7020-577: The stipulation and what has been written down, if God grants us victory over them."' In accordance with this order, enormous sums were paid back out of the state treasury, and the Christians called down blessings on the heads of the Muslims, saying, "May God give you rule over us again and make you victorious over the Romans; had it been they, they would not have given us back anything, but would have taken all that remained with us." Similarly, during

7110-421: The taking of the jizya is a form of munificence that averted a state of conflict. al-Ṭabarī gives only one explanation: that 'it means "from their hands to the hands of the receiver" just as we say "I spoke to him mouth to mouth", we also say, "I gave it to him hand to hand"'. M.J. Kister understands ' an yad to be a reference to the "ability and sufficient means" of the dhimmi . Similarly, Rashid Rida takes

7200-455: The tax. By the time of Mohammed, the jiyza rate was one dinar per year imposed on male dhimmis in Medina, Mecca, Khaibar, Yemen, and Nejran. According to Muhammad Hamidullah , the rate was ten dirhams per year "in the time of the Prophet", but this amounted to only "the expenses of an average family for ten days". Abu Yusuf , the chief qadhi of the caliph Harun al-Rashid , states that there

7290-478: The taxes from them. When the Dzungars levied the traditional nomadic Alban poll tax upon the Muslims of Altishahr, the Muslims viewed it as the payment of jizyah (a tax traditionally taken from non-Muslims by Muslim conquerors). The Turkic Muslims of the Turfan and Kumul Oases then submitted to the Qing dynasty of China, and asked China to free them from the Dzungars. The Qing accepted the rulers of Turfan and Kumul as Qing vassals. The Qing dynasty waged war against

7380-495: The term poll tax does not translate the Arabic word jizya , being also inaccurate in light of the exemptions granted to children, women, etc., unlike a poll tax, which by definition is levied on every individual (poll = head) regardless of gender, age, or ability to pay. He further adds that the root verb of jizya is j-z-y, which means 'to reward somebody for something', 'to pay what is due in return for something' and adds that it

7470-545: The time of the Crusades , Saladin returned the jizya to the Christians of Syria when he was compelled to retract from it. The Christian tribe of al-Jurajima, in the neighborhood of Antioch , made peace with the Muslims, promising to be their allies and fight on their side in battle, on condition that they should not be called upon to pay jizya and should receive their proper share of the booty. The orientalist Thomas Walker Arnold writes that even Muslims were made to pay

7560-457: The true faith" or "behave according to the rule of justice" ( wa-lā yadīnūna dīna'l-ḥaqq ). A number of translators have rendered the text as "those who do not embrace the true faith/follow the religion of truth" or some variation thereof. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem argues against this translation, preferring instead to render dīna'l-ḥaqq as 'rule of justice'. The main meaning of the Arabic dāna

7650-525: The twentieth century, the study of Chaghatay suffered from nationalist bias. In the former Chaghatay area, separate republics have been claiming Chaghatay as the ancestor of their own brand of Turkic. Thus, Old Uzbek, Old Uyghur, Old Tatar , Old Turkmen, and a Chaghatay-influenced layer in sixteenth-century Azerbaijanian have been studied separately from each other. There has been a tendency to disregard certain characteristics of Chaghatay itself, e.g. its complex syntax copied from Persian . Chagatai developed in

7740-454: The word Yad in a metaphorical sense and relates the phrase to the financial ability of the person liable to pay jizya. 5. "While they are subdued" ( wa-hum ṣāghirūn ). Mark R. Cohen writes that 'while they are subdued' was interpreted by many to mean the "humiliated state of the non-Muslims". According to Ziauddin Ahmed, in the view of the majority of Fuqahā (Islamic jurists), the jizya

7830-536: Was committed against you by the Byzantines , which was what led to Tabuk . 2. "Do not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden" ( wa-lā yuḥarrimūna mā ḥarrama-llāhu wa-rasūluh ). The closest and most viable cause must relate to jizya , that is, unlawfully consuming what belongs to the Muslim state, which, al-Bayḍāwī explains, "it has been decided that they should give," since their own scriptures and prophets forbid breaking agreements and not paying what

7920-463: Was levied on non-Muslims in order to humiliate them for their unbelief. In contrast, Abdel-Haleem writes that this notion of humiliation runs contrary to verses such as, Do not dispute with the People of the Book except in the best manner (Q 29:46), and the Prophetic ḥadīth , 'May God have mercy on the man who is liberal and easy-going ( samḥ ) when he buys, when he sells, and when he demands what

8010-574: Was mandated initially for People of the Book (Judaism, Christianity, Sabianism ), it was extended by Islamic jurists to all non-Muslims. Thus Muslim rulers in India, with the exception of Akbar , collected jizya from Hindus , Buddhists , Jains and Sikhs under their rule. While early Islamic scholars like Abu Hanifa and Abu Yusuf stated that jizya should be imposed on all non-Muslims without distinction, some later and more extremist jurists do not permit jizya for idolators and instead only allowed

8100-555: Was no amount permanently fixed for the tax, though the payment usually depended on wealth: the Kitab al-Kharaj of Abu Yusuf sets the amounts at 48 dirhams for the richest (e.g. moneychangers), 24 for those of moderate wealth, and 12 for craftsmen and manual laborers. Moreover, it could be paid in kind if desired; cattle, merchandise, household effects, even needles were to be accepted in lieu of specie (coins), but not pigs, wine, or dead animals. The jizya varied in accordance with

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