The term New Frontier was used by Democratic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy in his acceptance speech, delivered July 15, in the 1960 United States presidential election to the Democratic National Convention at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum as the Democratic slogan to inspire America to support him. The phrase developed into a label for his administration's domestic and foreign programs.
210-511: In the words of Robert D. Marcus: "Kennedy entered office with ambitions to eradicate poverty and to raise America's eyes to the stars through the space program." Kennedy proclaimed in his speech: We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier—the frontier of the 1960s, the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils, the frontier of unfilled hopes and unfilled threats. ... The pioneers gave up their safety, their comfort, and sometimes their lives to build our new west. They were determined to make
420-436: A 'quickie' or a temporary tax cut, which would be more appropriate if a recession were imminent. Nor am I talking about giving the economy a mere shot in the arm, to ease some temporary complaint. I am talking about the accumulated evidence of the last 5 years that our present tax system, developed as it was, in good part, during World War II to restrain growth, exerts too heavy a drag on growth in peacetime; that it siphons out of
630-647: A book which has been described as "a manifesto for anticommunist liberals, defining an agenda that combined the social concerns of the New Deal with support for the Cold War policy of containment of Soviet power." Within Schlesinger's analytical framework of the domestic politics of the United States during this period he identifies three main ideological currents: 1) what he calls the "vital center" are
840-458: A comprehensive Economic Message to Congress which had been in preparation for several weeks. The legislative proposals put forward in this message included: The following month, the first of these seven measures became law, and the remaining six measures had been signed by the end of June. Altogether, the economic stimulus program provided an estimated 420,000 construction jobs under a new Housing Act, $ 175 million in higher wages for those below
1050-534: A direct threat to the "free world." Between 1960 and 1963, twenty-four countries gained independence as the process of decolonization continued. Many of these nations sought to avoid close alignment with either the United States or the Soviet Union, and in 1961, the leaders of India , Yugoslavia , Indonesia , Egypt , and Ghana created the Non-Aligned Movement . Kennedy set out to woo
1260-402: A direct threat to the "free world." Between 1960 and 1963, twenty-four countries gained independence as the process of decolonization continued. Many of these nations sought to avoid close alignment with either the United States or the Soviet Union, and in 1961, the leaders of India , Yugoslavia , Indonesia , Egypt , and Ghana created the Non-Aligned Movement . Kennedy set out to woo
1470-626: A dispute over free movement of Allied personnel. The crisis was defused largely through a backchannel communication the Kennedy administration had set up with Soviet spy Georgi Bolshakov . In 1963, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence. To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed against NATO 's influence in Europe. To reinforce
1680-462: A dispute over free movement of Allied personnel. The crisis was defused largely through a backchannel communication the Kennedy administration had set up with Soviet spy Georgi Bolshakov . In 1963, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence. To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed against NATO 's influence in Europe. To reinforce
1890-593: A naval blockade of Cuba in order to intercept arms shipments. On October 23, in a unanimous vote, the OAS approved a resolution that endorsed the blockade and called for the removal of the Soviet nuclear weapons from Cuba. That same day, Adlai Stevenson presented the U.S. case to the UN Security Council, though the Soviet Union's veto power precluded the possibility of passing a Security Council resolution. On
2100-420: A naval blockade of Cuba in order to intercept arms shipments. On October 23, in a unanimous vote, the OAS approved a resolution that endorsed the blockade and called for the removal of the Soviet nuclear weapons from Cuba. That same day, Adlai Stevenson presented the U.S. case to the UN Security Council, though the Soviet Union's veto power precluded the possibility of passing a Security Council resolution. On
2310-484: A plan to overthrow Castro's regime though an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-Castro Cuban exiles led by CIA paramilitary officers. Kennedy had campaigned on a hardline stance against Castro, and when presented with the plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration, he enthusiastically adopted it regardless of the risk of inflaming tensions with
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#17327985217872520-425: A plan to overthrow Castro's regime though an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-Castro Cuban exiles led by CIA paramilitary officers. Kennedy had campaigned on a hardline stance against Castro, and when presented with the plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration, he enthusiastically adopted it regardless of the risk of inflaming tensions with
2730-523: A team that was headed by Kennedy's brother, Robert . The Kennedy administration with its new Secretary of Defense , Robert S. McNamara , gave a strong priority to countering communist political subversion and guerrilla tactics in the "wars of national liberation" to decolonize the Third World , long held in Western vassalage. As well as fighting and winning a nuclear war , the American military
2940-537: A tilt away from Pakistan , but made little progress in bringing India closer to the United States. Kennedy hoped to minimize Soviet influence in Egypt through good relations with President Gamal Abdel Nasser , but Nasser's hostility towards Saudi Arabia and Jordan closed off the possibility of closer relations. In Southeast Asia, Kennedy helped mediate the West New Guinea dispute , convincing Indonesia and
3150-421: A tilt away from Pakistan , but made little progress in bringing India closer to the United States. Kennedy hoped to minimize Soviet influence in Egypt through good relations with President Gamal Abdel Nasser , but Nasser's hostility towards Saudi Arabia and Jordan closed off the possibility of closer relations. In Southeast Asia, Kennedy helped mediate the West New Guinea dispute , convincing Indonesia and
3360-479: A time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race." Kennedy also made two announcements: 1.) that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and 2.) that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests. "If we cannot end our differences," he said, "at least we can help make the world a safe place for diversity." The Soviet government broadcast
3570-424: A time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race." Kennedy also made two announcements: 1.) that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and 2.) that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests. "If we cannot end our differences," he said, "at least we can help make the world a safe place for diversity." The Soviet government broadcast
3780-405: A translation of the entire speech and allowed it to be reprinted in the controlled Soviet press. The following month, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a test-ban treaty with the Soviets. Each party sought a comprehensive test ban treaty, but a dispute over the number of on-site inspections allowed in each year prevented a total ban on testing. Ultimately, the United States,
3990-405: A translation of the entire speech and allowed it to be reprinted in the controlled Soviet press. The following month, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a test-ban treaty with the Soviets. Each party sought a comprehensive test ban treaty, but a dispute over the number of on-site inspections allowed in each year prevented a total ban on testing. Ultimately, the United States,
4200-495: A way to redefine American relations with the Third World . His use of war rhetoric for peaceful ends made his appeal for the new idea compelling to public opinion. On March 1, 1961, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10924 that officially started the Peace Corps. He appointed his brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver , to serve the agency's first director. Due in large part to Shriver's effective lobbying efforts, Congress approved
4410-435: A way to redefine American relations with the Third World . His use of war rhetoric for peaceful ends made his appeal for the new idea compelling to public opinion. On March 1, 1961, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10924 that officially started the Peace Corps. He appointed his brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver , to serve the agency's first director. Due in large part to Shriver's effective lobbying efforts, Congress approved
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#17327985217874620-569: Is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us." In remarks to his aides on the Berlin Wall, Kennedy noted that "it's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war." In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuban and Soviet leaders feared that the United States was planning another invasion of Cuba, and Khrushchev increased economic and military assistance to
4830-460: Is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us." In remarks to his aides on the Berlin Wall, Kennedy noted that "it's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war." In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuban and Soviet leaders feared that the United States was planning another invasion of Cuba, and Khrushchev increased economic and military assistance to
5040-446: Is to the young in heart, regardless of age. ... Can we carry through in an age where we will witness not only new breakthroughs in weapons of destruction, but also a race for mastery of the sky and the rain, the ocean and the tides, the far side of space, and the inside of men's minds? ... All mankind waits upon our decision. A whole world waits to see what we shall do. And we cannot fail that trust, and we cannot fail to try. Among
5250-584: The 1960 Democratic primaries , but Kennedy's victory in the heavily- Protestant state of West Virginia prompted Humphrey's withdrawal from the race. At the 1960 Democratic National Convention , Kennedy fended off challenges from Stevenson and Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the convention. Kennedy chose Johnson to be his vice-presidential running mate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including his brother Robert F. Kennedy . Kennedy believed that Johnson's presence on
5460-584: The 1960 Democratic primaries , but Kennedy's victory in the heavily- Protestant state of West Virginia prompted Humphrey's withdrawal from the race. At the 1960 Democratic National Convention , Kennedy fended off challenges from Stevenson and Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the convention. Kennedy chose Johnson to be his vice-presidential running mate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including his brother Robert F. Kennedy . Kennedy believed that Johnson's presence on
5670-629: The 1960 presidential election . He was succeeded by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson . Kennedy's time in office was marked by Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and Cuba . In Cuba, a failed attempt was made in April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro . In October 1962, the Kennedy administration learned that Soviet ballistic missiles had been deployed in Cuba;
5880-418: The 1960 presidential election . He was succeeded by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson . Kennedy's time in office was marked by Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and Cuba . In Cuba, a failed attempt was made in April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro . In October 1962, the Kennedy administration learned that Soviet ballistic missiles had been deployed in Cuba;
6090-662: The Equal Pay Act into law on June 10, 1963. During the law's first ten years, 171,000 employees received back pay totaling about 84 million dollars. Under Kennedy, the first significant package of anticrime bills since 1934 were passed. The Kennedy Administration's anticrime measures included the Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Offenses Control Act , which was signed into law on September 22, 1961. This program aimed to prevent youth from committing delinquent acts. In 1963, 288 mobsters were brought to trial by
6300-534: The Netherlands to agree to a plebiscite to determine the status of Dutch New Guinea . Having chaired a subcommittee on Africa of the U.S. Senate's Foreign Relations Committee , Kennedy had developed a special interest in Africa. During the election campaign, Kennedy managed to mention Africa nearly 500 times, often attacking the Eisenhower administration for losing ground on that continent, and stressed that
6510-422: The Netherlands to agree to a plebiscite to determine the status of Dutch New Guinea . Having chaired a subcommittee on Africa of the U.S. Senate's Foreign Relations Committee , Kennedy had developed a special interest in Africa. During the election campaign, Kennedy managed to mention Africa nearly 500 times, often attacking the Eisenhower administration for losing ground on that continent, and stressed that
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6720-968: The Organization of American States to expel Cuba. Kennedy dismissed Dulles as director of the CIA and increasingly relied on close advisers like Sorensen, Bundy, and Robert Kennedy as opposed to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the CIA, and the State Department. In late-1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale , Secretary Robert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued. In November 1961, he authorized Operation Mongoose (also known as
6930-608: The Organization of American States to expel Cuba. Kennedy dismissed Dulles as director of the CIA and increasingly relied on close advisers like Sorensen, Bundy, and Robert Kennedy as opposed to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the CIA, and the State Department. In late-1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale , Secretary Robert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued. In November 1961, he authorized Operation Mongoose (also known as
7140-741: The Peterson Report after the commission's second chair, Esther Peterson ), was issued in October 1963 and documented widespread discrimination against women in the workplace. Among the practices addressed by the group were labor laws pertaining to hours and wages, the quality of legal representation for women, the lack of education and counseling for working women, and federal insurance and tax laws that affected women's incomes. Recommendations included affordable child care for all income levels, hiring practices that promoted equal opportunity for women, and paid maternity leave. The commission, reflecting
7350-465: The South Vietnamese government. The Viet Cong began assuming a predominant presence in late 1961, initially seizing the provincial capital of Phuoc Vinh. After a mission to Vietnam in October, presidential adviser General Maxwell D. Taylor and Deputy National Security Adviser Walt Rostow recommended the deployment of 6,000 to 8,000 U.S. combat troops to Vietnam. Kennedy increased
7560-399: The South Vietnamese government. The Viet Cong began assuming a predominant presence in late 1961, initially seizing the provincial capital of Phuoc Vinh. After a mission to Vietnam in October, presidential adviser General Maxwell D. Taylor and Deputy National Security Adviser Walt Rostow recommended the deployment of 6,000 to 8,000 U.S. combat troops to Vietnam. Kennedy increased
7770-421: The Soviet Union , manifested by proxy contests in the global state of tension known as the Cold War . Like his predecessors, Kennedy adopted the policy of containment , which sought to stop the spread of communism. President Eisenhower's New Look policy had emphasized the use of nuclear weapons to deter the threat of Soviet aggression. By 1960, however, public opinion was turning against New Look because it
7980-421: The Soviet Union , manifested by proxy contests in the global state of tension known as the Cold War . Like his predecessors, Kennedy adopted the policy of containment , which sought to stop the spread of communism. President Eisenhower's New Look policy had emphasized the use of nuclear weapons to deter the threat of Soviet aggression. By 1960, however, public opinion was turning against New Look because it
8190-601: The U.S. Navy created the Navy Seals . The U.S. military increased in size and faced possible confrontation with the Soviets with the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and with the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. American troops were sent to Laos and South Vietnam in increasing numbers. The United States provided a clandestine operation to supply military aid and support to Cuban exiles in
8400-569: The Vietnam War would take place after Kennedy's death. In Latin America , Kennedy's Alliance for Progress aimed to promote human rights and foster economic development. In domestic politics, Kennedy had made bold proposals in his New Frontier agenda, but many of his initiatives were blocked by the conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats. The failed initiatives include federal aid to education, medical care for
8610-455: The Vietnam War would take place after Kennedy's death. In Latin America , Kennedy's Alliance for Progress aimed to promote human rights and foster economic development. In domestic politics, Kennedy had made bold proposals in his New Frontier agenda, but many of his initiatives were blocked by the conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats. The failed initiatives include federal aid to education, medical care for
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8820-510: The " Trollope ploy ;" the U.S. would respond to the Khrushchev's first message and ignore the second. Kennedy managed to preserve restraint when a Soviet missile unauthorizedly downed a U.S. Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over Cuba, killing the pilot Rudolf Anderson . On October 27, Kennedy sent a letter to Khrushchev calling for the removal of the Cuban missiles in return for an end to
9030-399: The " Trollope ploy ;" the U.S. would respond to the Khrushchev's first message and ignore the second. Kennedy managed to preserve restraint when a Soviet missile unauthorizedly downed a U.S. Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over Cuba, killing the pilot Rudolf Anderson . On October 27, Kennedy sent a letter to Khrushchev calling for the removal of the Cuban missiles in return for an end to
9240-431: The " Ugly American " and " Yankee imperialism ," especially in the emerging nations of post-colonial Africa and Asia. In the first twenty-five years, more than 100,000 Americans served in 44 countries as part of the program. Most Peace Corps volunteers taught English in schools, but many became involved in activities like construction and food delivery. Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with
9450-431: The " Ugly American " and " Yankee imperialism ," especially in the emerging nations of post-colonial Africa and Asia. In the first twenty-five years, more than 100,000 Americans served in 44 countries as part of the program. Most Peace Corps volunteers taught English in schools, but many became involved in activities like construction and food delivery. Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with
9660-463: The "New Deal liberals" who had been gaining ground politically since 1933, 2) right-wing racial extremists mostly confined to the Southern regions of the United States, and 3) Communists who Schlesinger identifies as posing the "primary opposition to American values from within and without". Schlesinger, working on Kennedy's presidential campaign in 1960, sought an image of the candidate that would show
9870-474: The "largest reform agenda since Roosevelt's New Deal" and as what also managed to "complete the unfinished work of JFK's New Frontier." In his book John F. Kennedy on Leadership , John A. Barnes stated Congress in fact passed few of Kennedy's New Frontier proposals during his lifetime, with major initiatives not being enacted until 1964 and 1965, during Johnson's Presidency. The United States Department of Labor also stated that Johnson "immediately set about to enact
10080-445: The 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exile invasion force, known as Brigade 2506 , landed on the beach at Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs and immediately came under heavy fire. The goal was to spark a widespread popular uprising against Castro, but no such uprising occurred. Although the Eisenhower administration plan had called for an American airstrike to hold back the Cuban counterattack until the invaders were established, Kennedy rejected
10290-445: The 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exile invasion force, known as Brigade 2506 , landed on the beach at Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs and immediately came under heavy fire. The goal was to spark a widespread popular uprising against Castro, but no such uprising occurred. Although the Eisenhower administration plan had called for an American airstrike to hold back the Cuban counterattack until the invaders were established, Kennedy rejected
10500-546: The Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies. In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $ 3.25 billion to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. On August 13, 1961, the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking further passage of East Berliners into West Berlin and erected barbed wire fences across
10710-493: The Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies. In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $ 3.25 billion to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. On August 13, 1961, the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking further passage of East Berliners into West Berlin and erected barbed wire fences across
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#173279852178710920-584: The British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying." Kennedy administration John F. Kennedy 's tenure as the 35th president of the United States began with his inauguration on January 20, 1961, and ended with his assassination on November 22, 1963. Kennedy, a Democrat from Massachusetts , took office following his narrow victory over Republican incumbent vice president Richard Nixon in
11130-510: The CIA's involvement in Lumumba's death. In fact, Kennedy wasn't even aware Lumumba had been killed until February 13, 1961. On October 2, 1962, Kennedy signed United Nations bond issue bill to ensure U.S. assistance in financing United Nations peacekeeping operations in the Congo and elsewhere. Around this time, the Kennedy administration was making private attempts to convince Tshombe to reunite
11340-403: The CIA's involvement in Lumumba's death. In fact, Kennedy wasn't even aware Lumumba had been killed until February 13, 1961. On October 2, 1962, Kennedy signed United Nations bond issue bill to ensure U.S. assistance in financing United Nations peacekeeping operations in the Congo and elsewhere. Around this time, the Kennedy administration was making private attempts to convince Tshombe to reunite
11550-518: The Cuban Missile Crisis has received wide praise from many scholars, although some critics fault the Kennedy administration for precipitating the crisis with its efforts to remove Castro. Khrushchev, meanwhile, was widely mocked for his performance, and was removed from power in October 1964. According to Anatoly Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation." Troubled by
11760-446: The Cuban Missile Crisis has received wide praise from many scholars, although some critics fault the Kennedy administration for precipitating the crisis with its efforts to remove Castro. Khrushchev, meanwhile, was widely mocked for his performance, and was removed from power in October 1964. According to Anatoly Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation." Troubled by
11970-536: The Cuban Project). In March 1962, Kennedy rejected Operation Northwoods , proposals for false flag attacks against American military and civilian targets, and blaming them on the Cuban government in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962. In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy announced that he would meet with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at
12180-473: The Cuban Project). In March 1962, Kennedy rejected Operation Northwoods , proposals for false flag attacks against American military and civilian targets, and blaming them on the Cuban government in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962. In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy announced that he would meet with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at
12390-626: The House of Representatives and the Senate. Nevertheless, 29 House Democrats were displaced, each of whom was a Kennedy progressive. According to one study, "For the first time in a century a party taking over the Presidency failed to gain in the Congress." Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president, and, at age 43, the youngest person elected to the office. He
12600-406: The House of Representatives and the Senate. Nevertheless, 29 House Democrats were displaced, each of whom was a Kennedy progressive. According to one study, "For the first time in a century a party taking over the Presidency failed to gain in the Congress." Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president, and, at age 43, the youngest person elected to the office. He
12810-620: The June 1961 Vienna summit . The summit would cover several topics, but both leaders knew that the most contentious issue would be that of Berlin , which had been divided into two cities with the start of the Cold War. The enclave of West Berlin lay within Soviet-allied East Germany , but was supported by the U.S. and other Western powers. The Soviets wanted to reunify Berlin under the control of East Germany, partly due to
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#173279852178713020-433: The June 1961 Vienna summit . The summit would cover several topics, but both leaders knew that the most contentious issue would be that of Berlin , which had been divided into two cities with the start of the Cold War. The enclave of West Berlin lay within Soviet-allied East Germany , but was supported by the U.S. and other Western powers. The Soviets wanted to reunify Berlin under the control of East Germany, partly due to
13230-708: The Kennedy Administration had proposed were passed by Congress, and in 1963, 35 out of 58 "must" bills were enacted. As noted by Larry O'Brien, "A myth had arisen that he [Kennedy] was uninterested in Congress, or that he 'failed' with Congress. The facts, I believe, are otherwise. Kennedy's legislative record in 1961–63 was the best of any President since Roosevelt's first term." However, the Independence Hall Association 's website U.S. History.org describes then-Vice President and future U.S. President Lyndon Johnson 's Great Society as
13440-562: The New Frontier witnessed the passage of a broad range of social and economic reforms. However, proposed legislation which was considered more revolutionary languished in Congress. According to Theodore White , under John F. Kennedy, more new legislation was actually approved and passed into law than at any other time since the 1930s. When Congress recessed in the latter part of 1961, 33 out of 53 bills that Kennedy had submitted to Congress were enacted. A year later, 40 out of 54 bills that
13650-668: The Soviet Union that interfered with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war. The two leaders also discussed the situation in Laos, the Congo Crisis , China's fledgling nuclear program , a potential nuclear test ban treaty, and other issues. Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the Soviet Union announced its intention to sign a treaty with East Berlin that would threaten Western access to West Berlin. Kennedy, depressed and angry, assumed that his only option
13860-497: The Soviet Union that interfered with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war. The two leaders also discussed the situation in Laos, the Congo Crisis , China's fledgling nuclear program , a potential nuclear test ban treaty, and other issues. Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the Soviet Union announced its intention to sign a treaty with East Berlin that would threaten Western access to West Berlin. Kennedy, depressed and angry, assumed that his only option
14070-405: The Soviet Union's first strike capability and even the nuclear imbalance. Kennedy himself did not believe that the deployment of missiles to Cuba fundamentally altered the strategic balance of the nuclear forces; more significant for him was the political and psychological implications of allowing the Soviet Union to maintain nuclear weapons in Cuba. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked
14280-405: The Soviet Union's first strike capability and even the nuclear imbalance. Kennedy himself did not believe that the deployment of missiles to Cuba fundamentally altered the strategic balance of the nuclear forces; more significant for him was the political and psychological implications of allowing the Soviet Union to maintain nuclear weapons in Cuba. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked
14490-409: The Soviet Union. A secret review conducted by Lyman Kirkpatrick of the CIA concluded that the failure of the invasion resulted less from a decision against airstrikes and had more to do with the fact that Cuba had a much larger defending force and that the operation suffered from "poor planning, organization, staffing and management". The Kennedy administration banned all Cuban imports and convinced
14700-409: The Soviet Union. A secret review conducted by Lyman Kirkpatrick of the CIA concluded that the failure of the invasion resulted less from a decision against airstrikes and had more to do with the fact that Cuba had a much larger defending force and that the operation suffered from "poor planning, organization, staffing and management". The Kennedy administration banned all Cuban imports and convinced
14910-717: The Soviet Union. Kennedy was unwilling to send more than a token force to neighboring Thailand , a key American ally. By the end of the year, Harriman had helped arrange the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos , which temporarily brought an end to the crisis, but the Laotian Civil War continued. Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approve CIA activities in Laos designed to defeat communist insurgents through bombing raids and
15120-516: The Soviet Union. Kennedy was unwilling to send more than a token force to neighboring Thailand , a key American ally. By the end of the year, Harriman had helped arrange the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos , which temporarily brought an end to the crisis, but the Laotian Civil War continued. Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approve CIA activities in Laos designed to defeat communist insurgents through bombing raids and
15330-591: The Soviet Union. Some advisors, including Schlesinger, Under Secretary of State Chester Bowles , and former Secretary of State Dean Acheson , opposed the operation, but Bundy and McNamara both favored it, as did the Joint Chiefs of Staff , despite serious reservations. Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961. On April 15, 1961, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields. The bombers missed many of their targets and left most of Castro's air force intact. On April 17,
15540-531: The Soviet Union. Some advisors, including Schlesinger, Under Secretary of State Chester Bowles , and former Secretary of State Dean Acheson , opposed the operation, but Bundy and McNamara both favored it, as did the Joint Chiefs of Staff , despite serious reservations. Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961. On April 15, 1961, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields. The bombers missed many of their targets and left most of Castro's air force intact. On April 17,
15750-458: The U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in his famous " Ich bin ein Berliner " ("I am a Berliner") speech in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: "Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy
15960-402: The U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in his famous " Ich bin ein Berliner " ("I am a Berliner") speech in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: "Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy
16170-505: The U.S. should be on the side of anti-colonialism and self-determination. Kennedy considered the Congo Crisis to be one of the most important foreign policy issues facing his presidency. The Republic of the Congo was given its independence from Belgian colonial rule on June 30, 1960, and was almost immediately torn apart by what President Kennedy described as "civil strife, political unrest and public disorder." Former Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba had been murdered early in 1961 despite
16380-505: The U.S. should be on the side of anti-colonialism and self-determination. Kennedy considered the Congo Crisis to be one of the most important foreign policy issues facing his presidency. The Republic of the Congo was given its independence from Belgian colonial rule on June 30, 1960, and was almost immediately torn apart by what President Kennedy described as "civil strife, political unrest and public disorder." Former Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba had been murdered early in 1961 despite
16590-578: The United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union agreed to a limited treaty that prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The Limited Nuclear Test Ban treaty was signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by U.S. Secretary Dean Rusk, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko , and British Foreign Secretary Alec Douglas-Home . The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, by an 80–19 margin. Kennedy signed
16800-461: The United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union agreed to a limited treaty that prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The Limited Nuclear Test Ban treaty was signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by U.S. Secretary Dean Rusk, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko , and British Foreign Secretary Alec Douglas-Home . The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, by an 80–19 margin. Kennedy signed
17010-620: The United States was "more and more becoming colonists in the minds of the people." In late 1961, Kennedy sent Roger Hilsman , then director of the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), to assess the situation in Vietnam. There, Hilsman met Sir Robert Grainger Ker Thompson , head of the British Advisory Mission to South Vietnam, and the Strategic Hamlet Program was formed. It
17220-412: The United States was "more and more becoming colonists in the minds of the people." In late 1961, Kennedy sent Roger Hilsman , then director of the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), to assess the situation in Vietnam. There, Hilsman met Sir Robert Grainger Ker Thompson , head of the British Advisory Mission to South Vietnam, and the Strategic Hamlet Program was formed. It
17430-507: The United States' presumed influence in Europe. Nevertheless, de Gaulle was quite impressed with the young president and his family. Kennedy picked up on this in his speech in Paris, saying that he would be remembered as "the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris." On June 4, 1961, the president met with Khrushchev in Vienna, where he made it clear that any treaty between East Berlin and
17640-402: The United States' presumed influence in Europe. Nevertheless, de Gaulle was quite impressed with the young president and his family. Kennedy picked up on this in his speech in Paris, saying that he would be remembered as "the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris." On June 4, 1961, the president met with Khrushchev in Vienna, where he made it clear that any treaty between East Berlin and
17850-488: The Vienna summit. To deal with the crisis, he formed an ad hoc body of key advisers, later known as EXCOMM , that met secretly between October 16 and 28. The members of EXCOMM agreed that the missiles must be removed from Cuba, but differed as to the best method. Some favored an airstrike, possibly followed by an invasion of Cuba, but Robert Kennedy and others argued that a surprise airstrike would be immoral and would invite Soviet reprisals. The other major option that emerged
18060-488: The Vienna summit. To deal with the crisis, he formed an ad hoc body of key advisers, later known as EXCOMM , that met secretly between October 16 and 28. The members of EXCOMM agreed that the missiles must be removed from Cuba, but differed as to the best method. Some favored an airstrike, possibly followed by an invasion of Cuba, but Robert Kennedy and others argued that a surprise airstrike would be immoral and would invite Soviet reprisals. The other major option that emerged
18270-486: The aftermath of the crisis, a Moscow–Washington hotline was established to ensure clear communications between the leaders of the two countries. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since. In the end, "the humanity" of the two men prevailed. The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter. Kennedy's handling of
18480-486: The aftermath of the crisis, a Moscow–Washington hotline was established to ensure clear communications between the leaders of the two countries. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since. In the end, "the humanity" of the two men prevailed. The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter. Kennedy's handling of
18690-408: The aftermath, he took full responsibility for the failure, saying: "We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it." Kennedy's approval ratings climbed afterwards, helped in part by the vocal support given to him by Nixon and Eisenhower. Outside the United States, however, the operation undermined Kennedy's reputation as a world leader, and raised tensions with
18900-408: The aftermath, he took full responsibility for the failure, saying: "We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it." Kennedy's approval ratings climbed afterwards, helped in part by the vocal support given to him by Nixon and Eisenhower. Outside the United States, however, the operation undermined Kennedy's reputation as a world leader, and raised tensions with
19110-467: The aged, and aid to economically depressed areas. Though initially reluctant to pursue civil rights legislation, in 1963 Kennedy proposed a major civil rights bill that ultimately became the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . The economy experienced steady growth, low inflation and a drop in unemployment rates during Kennedy's tenure. Kennedy adopted Keynesian economics and proposed a tax cut bill that
19320-401: The aged, and aid to economically depressed areas. Though initially reluctant to pursue civil rights legislation, in 1963 Kennedy proposed a major civil rights bill that ultimately became the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . The economy experienced steady growth, low inflation and a drop in unemployment rates during Kennedy's tenure. Kennedy adopted Keynesian economics and proposed a tax cut bill that
19530-473: The assassination gave rise to a wide array of conspiracy theories . Kennedy was the first Roman Catholic elected president, as well as the youngest candidate ever to win a U.S. presidential election. Historians and political scientists tend to rank Kennedy as an above-average president. In January 1960, Kennedy formally announced his candidacy in that year's presidential election. Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota emerged as Kennedy's primary challenger in
19740-473: The assassination gave rise to a wide array of conspiracy theories . Kennedy was the first Roman Catholic elected president, as well as the youngest candidate ever to win a U.S. presidential election. Historians and political scientists tend to rank Kennedy as an above-average president. In January 1960, Kennedy formally announced his candidacy in that year's presidential election. Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota emerged as Kennedy's primary challenger in
19950-481: The balance of Kennedy's New Frontier" after taking office following Kennedy's assassination. It has also been acknowledged that during his presidency, Kennedy had placed Johnson, a former Senate Majority Leader, in charge of getting his New Frontier proposals passed through Congress. Historians and political scientists were given prominent positions within the Kennedy administration . Several themes that were popular in
20160-601: The best ways to bolster the economy was to cut taxes, and December 14, 1962, Kennedy stated at the Economic Club of New York that: The final and best means of strengthening demand among consumers and business is to reduce the burden on private income and the deterrents to private initiative which are imposed by our present tax system; and this administration pledged itself last summer to an across-the-board, top-to-bottom cut in personal and corporate income taxes to be enacted and become effective in 1963. I am not talking about
20370-470: The blockade and an American promise to refrain from invading Cuba. At the president's direction, Robert Kennedy privately informed Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin that the U.S. would remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey "within a short time after this crisis was over." Few members of EXCOMM expected Khrushchev to agree to the offer, but on October 28 Khrushchev publicly announced that he would withdraw
20580-415: The blockade and an American promise to refrain from invading Cuba. At the president's direction, Robert Kennedy privately informed Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin that the U.S. would remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey "within a short time after this crisis was over." Few members of EXCOMM expected Khrushchev to agree to the offer, but on October 28 Khrushchev publicly announced that he would withdraw
20790-419: The bottle;" if it fell to communism, Eisenhower believed other Southeast Asian countries would as well. The Joint Chiefs proposed sending 60,000 American soldiers to uphold the friendly government, but Kennedy rejected this strategy in the aftermath of the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. He instead sought a negotiated solution between the government and the left-wing insurgents, who were backed by North Vietnam and
21000-419: The bottle;" if it fell to communism, Eisenhower believed other Southeast Asian countries would as well. The Joint Chiefs proposed sending 60,000 American soldiers to uphold the friendly government, but Kennedy rejected this strategy in the aftermath of the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. He instead sought a negotiated solution between the government and the left-wing insurgents, who were backed by North Vietnam and
21210-609: The breakaway Katanga that he led with the Congo, in advance of UN intervention. Fulgencio Batista , a Cuban dictator friendly towards the United States, had been forced out office in 1959 by the Cuban Revolution . Many in the United States, including Kennedy himself, had initially hoped that Batista's successor, Fidel Castro would preside over democratic reforms. Dashing those hopes, by the end of 1960 Castro had embraced Marxism , confiscated American property, and accepted Soviet aid. The Eisenhower administration had created
21420-543: The breakaway Katanga that he led with the Congo, in advance of UN intervention. Fulgencio Batista , a Cuban dictator friendly towards the United States, had been forced out office in 1959 by the Cuban Revolution . Many in the United States, including Kennedy himself, had initially hoped that Batista's successor, Fidel Castro would preside over democratic reforms. Dashing those hopes, by the end of 1960 Castro had embraced Marxism , confiscated American property, and accepted Soviet aid. The Eisenhower administration had created
21630-553: The cabinet and leading members of Congress about the situation, Kennedy announced on national television that the U.S. had discovered evidence of the Soviet deployment of missiles to Cuba. He called for the immediate withdrawal of the missiles, as well as the convening of the United Nations Security Council and the Organization of American States (OAS). Finally, he announced that the U.S. would begin
21840-406: The cabinet and leading members of Congress about the situation, Kennedy announced on national television that the U.S. had discovered evidence of the Soviet deployment of missiles to Cuba. He called for the immediate withdrawal of the missiles, as well as the convening of the United Nations Security Council and the Organization of American States (OAS). Finally, he announced that the U.S. would begin
22050-571: The cabinet remained an important body, Kennedy generally relied more on his staffers within the Executive Office of the President . Unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy did not have a chief of staff , but instead relied on a small number of senior aides, including appointments secretary Kenneth O'Donnell . National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy was the most important adviser on foreign policy, eclipsing Secretary of State Rusk. Ted Sorensen
22260-448: The cabinet remained an important body, Kennedy generally relied more on his staffers within the Executive Office of the President . Unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy did not have a chief of staff , but instead relied on a small number of senior aides, including appointments secretary Kenneth O'Donnell . National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy was the most important adviser on foreign policy, eclipsing Secretary of State Rusk. Ted Sorensen
22470-518: The campaign. Not wanting to concede any state as "unwinnable," Nixon undertook a fifty-state strategy , while Kennedy focused the states with the most electoral votes. Major issues in the campaign included the economy, Kennedy's Catholicism , Cuba , and whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. On November 8, 1960, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections in American history. Kennedy won
22680-466: The campaign. Not wanting to concede any state as "unwinnable," Nixon undertook a fifty-state strategy , while Kennedy focused the states with the most electoral votes. Major issues in the campaign included the economy, Kennedy's Catholicism , Cuba , and whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. On November 8, 1960, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections in American history. Kennedy won
22890-498: The candidate's personal and individual accomplishment as counter to a collectivist ethos . Schlesinger's work along with Richard Neustadt 's and other thinkers were key influences in the development of the New Frontier-era policies. The Kennedy Administration pushed an economic stimulus program through congress in an effort to kick-start the American economy following an economic downturn. On February 2, 1961, Kennedy sent
23100-499: The central government. By November 1963, the program waned and officially ended in 1964. On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) – "Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)". " Operation Ranch Hand ", a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam initiating the use of
23310-407: The central government. By November 1963, the program waned and officially ended in 1964. On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) – "Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)". " Operation Ranch Hand ", a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam initiating the use of
23520-447: The city, which were quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall . Kennedy acquiesced to the wall, though he sent Vice President Johnson to West Berlin to reaffirm U.S. commitment to the enclave's defense. In the following months, in a sign of rising Cold War tensions, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended a moratorium on nuclear weapon testing. A brief stand-off between U.S. and Soviet tanks occurred at Checkpoint Charlie in October following
23730-447: The city, which were quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall . Kennedy acquiesced to the wall, though he sent Vice President Johnson to West Berlin to reaffirm U.S. commitment to the enclave's defense. In the following months, in a sign of rising Cold War tensions, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended a moratorium on nuclear weapon testing. A brief stand-off between U.S. and Soviet tanks occurred at Checkpoint Charlie in October following
23940-536: The deployment of the missiles in Cuba as a way to close the " missile gap " and provide for the defense of Cuba. By late 1962, both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of delivering nuclear payloads, but the U.S. maintained well over 100 ICBMs, as well as over 100 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBMs). By contrast, the Soviet Union did not possess SLBMs, and had less than 25 ICBMs. The placement of missiles in Cuba thus threatened to significantly enhance
24150-536: The deployment of the missiles in Cuba as a way to close the " missile gap " and provide for the defense of Cuba. By late 1962, both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of delivering nuclear payloads, but the U.S. maintained well over 100 ICBMs, as well as over 100 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBMs). By contrast, the Soviet Union did not possess SLBMs, and had less than 25 ICBMs. The placement of missiles in Cuba thus threatened to significantly enhance
24360-403: The disastrous Bay of Pigs Invasion . Kennedy Administration John F. Kennedy 's tenure as the 35th president of the United States began with his inauguration on January 20, 1961, and ended with his assassination on November 22, 1963. Kennedy, a Democrat from Massachusetts , took office following his narrow victory over Republican incumbent vice president Richard Nixon in
24570-491: The early years of his administration. Full text [REDACTED] Kennedy spent the eight weeks following his election choosing his cabinet, staff and top officials. He retained J. Edgar Hoover as Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Allen Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence . C. Douglas Dillon , a business-oriented Republican who had served as Eisenhower's Undersecretary of State ,
24780-427: The early years of his administration. Full text [REDACTED] Kennedy spent the eight weeks following his election choosing his cabinet, staff and top officials. He retained J. Edgar Hoover as Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Allen Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence . C. Douglas Dillon , a business-oriented Republican who had served as Eisenhower's Undersecretary of State ,
24990-490: The extent of the Soviet military build-up. On October 14, 1962, the spy planes took photographs of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites being built in Cuba by the Soviets. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16, and a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature. Following the Vienna Summit, Khrushchev came to believe that Kennedy would not respond effectively to provocations. He saw
25200-427: The extent of the Soviet military build-up. On October 14, 1962, the spy planes took photographs of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites being built in Cuba by the Soviets. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16, and a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature. Following the Vienna Summit, Khrushchev came to believe that Kennedy would not respond effectively to provocations. He saw
25410-630: The federal courts. Among them was Thurgood Marshall , who later joined the Supreme Court. Ivy League undergraduate colleges were attended by 9% of the appointees; 19% attended Ivy League law schools. In terms of religion, 61% were Catholics, 38% were Protestant, and 11% were Jewish. Almost all (91%) were Democrats, but few had extensive experience in electoral politics. An agency to enable Americans to volunteer in developing countries appealed to Kennedy because it fit in with his campaign themes of self-sacrifice and volunteerism, while also providing
25620-567: The federal courts. Among them was Thurgood Marshall , who later joined the Supreme Court. Ivy League undergraduate colleges were attended by 9% of the appointees; 19% attended Ivy League law schools. In terms of religion, 61% were Catholics, 38% were Protestant, and 11% were Jewish. Almost all (91%) were Democrats, but few had extensive experience in electoral politics. An agency to enable Americans to volunteer in developing countries appealed to Kennedy because it fit in with his campaign themes of self-sacrifice and volunteerism, while also providing
25830-408: The flexible response strategy would allow the U.S. to counter Soviet influence without resorting to war. At the same time, he ordered a massive build-up of the nuclear arsenal to establish superiority over the Soviet Union. In pursuing this military build-up, Kennedy shifted away from Eisenhower's deep concern for budget deficits caused by military spending. In contrast to Eisenhower's warning about
26040-408: The flexible response strategy would allow the U.S. to counter Soviet influence without resorting to war. At the same time, he ordered a massive build-up of the nuclear arsenal to establish superiority over the Soviet Union. In pursuing this military build-up, Kennedy shifted away from Eisenhower's deep concern for budget deficits caused by military spending. In contrast to Eisenhower's warning about
26250-494: The herbicide Agent Orange on foliage and to combat guerrilla defendants . Initially under consideration as to whether or not the use of the chemical would violate the Geneva Convention , Secretary of State Dean Rusk argued to Kennedy that "[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by
26460-427: The herbicide Agent Orange on foliage and to combat guerrilla defendants . Initially under consideration as to whether or not the use of the chemical would violate the Geneva Convention , Secretary of State Dean Rusk argued to Kennedy that "[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by
26670-482: The incentive to invest and the supply of internal funds for investment will be increased. There will be new interest in taking risks, in increasing productivity, in creating new jobs and new products for long-term economic growth." The Presidential Commission on the Status of Women was an advisory commission established on December 14, 1961, by Kennedy to investigate questions regarding women's equality in education, in
26880-500: The island. The Soviet Union planned to allocate in Cuba 49 medium-range ballistic missiles , 32 intermediate-range ballistic missiles , 49 light Il-28 bombers and about 100 tactical nuclear weapons . The Kennedy administration viewed the growing Cuba-Soviet alliance with alarm, fearing that it could eventually pose a threat to the United States. Kennedy did not believe that the Soviet Union would risk placing nuclear weapons in Cuba, but he dispatched CIA U-2 spy planes to determine
27090-500: The island. The Soviet Union planned to allocate in Cuba 49 medium-range ballistic missiles , 32 intermediate-range ballistic missiles , 49 light Il-28 bombers and about 100 tactical nuclear weapons . The Kennedy administration viewed the growing Cuba-Soviet alliance with alarm, fearing that it could eventually pose a threat to the United States. Kennedy did not believe that the Soviet Union would risk placing nuclear weapons in Cuba, but he dispatched CIA U-2 spy planes to determine
27300-510: The large number of East Germans who had fled to West Berlin. Khrushchev had clashed with Eisenhower over the issue but had tabled it after the 1960 U-2 incident ; with the inauguration of a new U.S. president, Khrushchev was once again determined to bring the status of West Berlin to the fore. Kennedy's handling of the Bay of Pigs crisis convinced him that Kennedy would wither under pressure. Kennedy, meanwhile, wanted to meet with Khrushchev as soon as possible in order to reduce tensions and minimize
27510-510: The large number of East Germans who had fled to West Berlin. Khrushchev had clashed with Eisenhower over the issue but had tabled it after the 1960 U-2 incident ; with the inauguration of a new U.S. president, Khrushchev was once again determined to bring the status of West Berlin to the fore. Kennedy's handling of the Bay of Pigs crisis convinced him that Kennedy would wither under pressure. Kennedy, meanwhile, wanted to meet with Khrushchev as soon as possible in order to reduce tensions and minimize
27720-701: The latter, who was quickly confirmed by the Senate. A second vacancy arose later in 1962 due to the retirement of Felix Frankfurter . Kennedy quickly appointed Goldberg, who easily won confirmation by the Senate. Goldberg resigned from the court in 1965 to accept appointment as ambassador to the United Nations , but White remained on the court until 1993, often serving as a key swing vote between liberal and conservative justices. The president handled Supreme Court appointments. Other judges were selected by Attorney General Robert Kennedy. Including new federal judgeships created in 1961, 130 individuals were appointed to
27930-637: The latter, who was quickly confirmed by the Senate. A second vacancy arose later in 1962 due to the retirement of Felix Frankfurter . Kennedy quickly appointed Goldberg, who easily won confirmation by the Senate. Goldberg resigned from the court in 1965 to accept appointment as ambassador to the United Nations , but White remained on the court until 1993, often serving as a key swing vote between liberal and conservative justices. The president handled Supreme Court appointments. Other judges were selected by Attorney General Robert Kennedy. Including new federal judgeships created in 1961, 130 individuals were appointed to
28140-734: The leaders and people of the Third World, expanding economic aid and appointing knowledgeable ambassadors. His administration established the Food for Peace program and the Peace Corps to provide aid to developing countries in various ways. The Food for Peace program became a central element in American foreign policy, and eventually helped many countries to develop their economies and become commercial import customers. During his presidency, Kennedy sought closer relations with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru through increased economic and
28350-565: The leaders and people of the Third World, expanding economic aid and appointing knowledgeable ambassadors. His administration established the Food for Peace program and the Peace Corps to provide aid to developing countries in various ways. The Food for Peace program became a central element in American foreign policy, and eventually helped many countries to develop their economies and become commercial import customers. During his presidency, Kennedy sought closer relations with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru through increased economic and
28560-493: The legislation passed by Congress during the Kennedy Administration , unemployment benefits were expanded, aid was provided to cities to improve housing and transportation, funds were allocated to continue the construction of a national highway system started under Eisenhower , a water pollution control act was passed to protect the country's rivers and streams, and an agricultural act to raise farmers' incomes
28770-468: The long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation , Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy had reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but further negotiations were derailed by
28980-403: The long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation , Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy had reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but further negotiations were derailed by
29190-473: The missiles from Cuba. Negotiations over the details of the withdrawal continued, but the U.S. ended the naval blockade on November 20, and most Soviet soldiers left Cuba by early 1963. The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its missiles in Italy and Turkey; the missiles were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped with UGM-27 Polaris missiles. In
29400-421: The missiles from Cuba. Negotiations over the details of the withdrawal continued, but the U.S. ended the naval blockade on November 20, and most Soviet soldiers left Cuba by early 1963. The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its missiles in Italy and Turkey; the missiles were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped with UGM-27 Polaris missiles. In
29610-400: The modernization, replacement, and expansion of our productive plant and equipment. We have done this through the 1962 investment tax credit and through the liberalization of depreciation allowances—two essential parts of our first step in tax revision which amounted to a 10 percent reduction in corporate income taxes worth $ 2.5 billion." President Kennedy went on to say he preferred tax cuts for
29820-468: The morning of October 24, over 150 U.S. ships were deployed to enforce the blockade against Cuba. Several Soviet ships approached the blockade line, but they stopped or reversed course to avoid the blockade. On October 25, Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles if the U.S. promised not to invade Cuba. The next day, he sent a second message in which he also demanded the removal of PGM-19 Jupiter missiles from Turkey . EXCOMM settled on what has been termed
30030-468: The morning of October 24, over 150 U.S. ships were deployed to enforce the blockade against Cuba. Several Soviet ships approached the blockade line, but they stopped or reversed course to avoid the blockade. On October 25, Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles if the U.S. promised not to invade Cuba. The next day, he sent a second message in which he also demanded the removal of PGM-19 Jupiter missiles from Turkey . EXCOMM settled on what has been termed
30240-516: The nations of the world to join to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." To these admonitions he added: All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of
30450-516: The nations of the world to join to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." To these admonitions he added: All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of
30660-512: The new minimum, over $ 400 million in aid to over 1,000 distressed counties, over $ 200 million in extra welfare payments to 750,000 children and their parents, and nearly $ 800 million in extended unemployment benefits for nearly three million unemployed Americans. Under the Kennedy Administration, the most significant tax reforms since the New Deal were carried out, including a new investment tax credit. President Kennedy said one of
30870-627: The new world strong and free - an example to the world. ... Some would say that those struggles are all over, that all the horizons have been explored, that all the battles have been won. That there is no longer an American frontier. ... And we stand today on the edge of a new frontier, the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils. ... Beyond that frontier are uncharted areas of science and space, unsolved problems of peace and war, unconquered problems of ignorance and prejudice, unanswered questions of poverty and surplus. ... I'm asking each of you to be pioneers towards that New Frontier. My call
31080-510: The number of military advisers and special forces in the area, from 11,000 in 1962 to 16,000 by late 1963, but he was reluctant to order a full-scale deployment of troops. However, Kennedy, who was wary about the region's successful war of independence against France, was also eager to not give the impression to the Vietnamese people that the United States was acting as the region's new colonizer, even stating in his journal at one point that
31290-451: The number of military advisers and special forces in the area, from 11,000 in 1962 to 16,000 by late 1963, but he was reluctant to order a full-scale deployment of troops. However, Kennedy, who was wary about the region's successful war of independence against France, was also eager to not give the impression to the Vietnamese people that the United States was acting as the region's new colonizer, even stating in his journal at one point that
31500-591: The perils of the military-industrial complex , Kennedy focused on rearmament. From 1961 to 1964 the number of nuclear weapons increased by 50 percent, as did the number of B-52 bombers to deliver them. The new ICBM force grew from 63 intercontinental ballistic missiles to 424. He authorized 23 new Polaris submarines, each of which carried 16 nuclear missiles. Meanwhile, he called on cities to prepare fallout shelters for nuclear war. In January 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev declared his support for wars of national liberation . Kennedy interpreted this step as
31710-591: The perils of the military-industrial complex , Kennedy focused on rearmament. From 1961 to 1964 the number of nuclear weapons increased by 50 percent, as did the number of B-52 bombers to deliver them. The new ICBM force grew from 63 intercontinental ballistic missiles to 424. He authorized 23 new Polaris submarines, each of which carried 16 nuclear missiles. Meanwhile, he called on cities to prepare fallout shelters for nuclear war. In January 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev declared his support for wars of national liberation . Kennedy interpreted this step as
31920-407: The permanent establishment of the Peace Corps program on September 22, 1961. Tanganyika (present-day Tanzania ) and Ghana were the first countries to participate in the program. Kennedy took great pride in the Peace Corps, and he ensured that it remained free of CIA influence, but he largely left its administration to Shriver. Kennedy also saw the program as a means of countering the stereotype of
32130-407: The permanent establishment of the Peace Corps program on September 22, 1961. Tanganyika (present-day Tanzania ) and Ghana were the first countries to participate in the program. Kennedy took great pride in the Peace Corps, and he ensured that it remained free of CIA influence, but he largely left its administration to Shriver. Kennedy also saw the program as a means of countering the stereotype of
32340-565: The poor was increased, and there was an expansion in school milk and school lunch distribution. The most comprehensive farm legislation since 1938 was carried out, with expansions in rural electrification , soil conservation, crop insurance, farm credit, and marketing orders. In September 1961, the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency was established as the focal point in government for the "planning, negotiation, and execution of international disarmament and arms control agreements." Altogether,
32550-482: The popular vote by a narrow margin of 120,000 votes out of a record 68.8 million ballots cast. He won the electoral vote by a wider margin, receiving 303 votes to Nixon's 219. 14 unpledged electors from two states— Alabama and Mississippi —voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did one faithless elector in Oklahoma . In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained wide majorities in both
32760-427: The popular vote by a narrow margin of 120,000 votes out of a record 68.8 million ballots cast. He won the electoral vote by a wider margin, receiving 303 votes to Nixon's 219. 14 unpledged electors from two states— Alabama and Mississippi —voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did one faithless elector in Oklahoma . In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained wide majorities in both
32970-530: The post- World War II American histories were apparent during the administration and also reflected in the television series Profiles in Courage . Arthur Schlesinger Jr. was an important figure in the post-war efforts to create a "moderately liberal domestic consensus". Beginning in 1961, Schlesinger served as a special assistant to Kennedy. He was a member of the liberal lobbying group Americans for Democratic Action and in 1949 he published The Vital Center ,
33180-621: The powers resumed negotiations over a test ban treaty. Negotiations were facilitated by the Vatican and by the shuttle diplomacy of editor Norman Cousins. On June 10, 1963, Kennedy delivered a commencement address at the American University in Washington, D.C. Also known as "A Strategy of Peace", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also "laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at
33390-437: The powers resumed negotiations over a test ban treaty. Negotiations were facilitated by the Vatican and by the shuttle diplomacy of editor Norman Cousins. On June 10, 1963, Kennedy delivered a commencement address at the American University in Washington, D.C. Also known as "A Strategy of Peace", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also "laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at
33600-403: The presence of a United Nations peacekeeping force (supported by Kennedy); Moïse Tshombe , leader of State of Katanga , declared its independence from the Congo and the Soviet Union responded by sending weapons and technicians to underwrite their struggle. The crisis, exacerbated by Cold War tensions, continued well into the 1960s. Kennedy and his incoming advisers were apparently unaware of
33810-403: The presence of a United Nations peacekeeping force (supported by Kennedy); Moïse Tshombe , leader of State of Katanga , declared its independence from the Congo and the Soviet Union responded by sending weapons and technicians to underwrite their struggle. The crisis, exacerbated by Cold War tensions, continued well into the 1960s. Kennedy and his incoming advisers were apparently unaware of
34020-465: The private economy too large a share of personal and business purchasing power; that it reduces the financial incentives for personal effort, investment, and risk-taking. Kennedy specifically advocated cutting the corporate tax rate in this same speech. "Corporate tax rates must also be cut to increase incentives and the availability of investment capital. The Government has already taken major steps this year to reduce business tax liability and to stimulate
34230-486: The public sector was the key to economic growth: "In short, to increase demand and lift the economy, the Federal Government's most useful role is not to rush into a program of excessive increases in public expenditures, but to expand the incentives and opportunities for private expenditures." President Kennedy told the economic club the impact he expected from tax cuts. "Profit margins will be improved and both
34440-539: The ratified treaty on October 7, 1963. The treaty represented an important deescalation of Cold War tensions, but both countries continued to build their respective nuclear stockpiles. The U.S. and the Soviet Union also reached an agreement whereby the U.S. sold millions of bushels of wheat to the Soviet Union. When briefing Kennedy, Eisenhower emphasized that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority. Eisenhower considered Laos to be "the cork in
34650-476: The ratified treaty on October 7, 1963. The treaty represented an important deescalation of Cold War tensions, but both countries continued to build their respective nuclear stockpiles. The U.S. and the Soviet Union also reached an agreement whereby the U.S. sold millions of bushels of wheat to the Soviet Union. When briefing Kennedy, Eisenhower emphasized that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority. Eisenhower considered Laos to be "the cork in
34860-632: The recruitment of the Hmong people . As a U.S. congressman in 1951, Kennedy became fascinated with Vietnam after visiting the area as part of a fact-finding mission to Asia and the Middle East, even stressing in a subsequent radio address that he strongly favored "check[ing] the southern drive of communism." As a U.S. senator in 1956, Kennedy publicly advocated for greater U.S. involvement in Vietnam. During his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to
35070-521: The recruitment of the Hmong people . As a U.S. congressman in 1951, Kennedy became fascinated with Vietnam after visiting the area as part of a fact-finding mission to Asia and the Middle East, even stressing in a subsequent radio address that he strongly favored "check[ing] the southern drive of communism." As a U.S. senator in 1956, Kennedy publicly advocated for greater U.S. involvement in Vietnam. During his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to
35280-441: The release of the 1,189 survivors. After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for a ransom of $ 53 million worth of food and medicine. Despite the lack of direct U.S. military involvement, the Soviet Union, Cuba, and the international community all recognized that the U.S. had backed the invasion. Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. In
35490-441: The release of the 1,189 survivors. After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for a ransom of $ 53 million worth of food and medicine. Despite the lack of direct U.S. military involvement, the Soviet Union, Cuba, and the international community all recognized that the U.S. had backed the invasion. Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. In
35700-585: The resulting Cuban Missile Crisis carried a risk of nuclear war , but ended in a compromise with the Soviets publicly withdrawing their missiles from Cuba and the U.S. secretly withdrawing some missiles based in Italy and Turkey. To contain Communist expansion in Asia, Kennedy increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18; a further escalation of the American role in
35910-415: The resulting Cuban Missile Crisis carried a risk of nuclear war , but ended in a compromise with the Soviets publicly withdrawing their missiles from Cuba and the U.S. secretly withdrawing some missiles based in Italy and Turkey. To contain Communist expansion in Asia, Kennedy increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18; a further escalation of the American role in
36120-413: The resumption of nuclear testing. In his address to the United Nations on September 25, 1961, Kennedy challenged the Soviet Union "not to an arms race, but to a peace race." Unsuccessful in his efforts to reach a diplomatic agreement, Kennedy reluctantly announced the resumption of atmospheric testing on April 25, 1962. Soviet-American relations improved after the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, and
36330-413: The resumption of nuclear testing. In his address to the United Nations on September 25, 1961, Kennedy challenged the Soviet Union "not to an arms race, but to a peace race." Unsuccessful in his efforts to reach a diplomatic agreement, Kennedy reluctantly announced the resumption of atmospheric testing on April 25, 1962. Soviet-American relations improved after the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, and
36540-418: The rich as well as the poor: Next year's tax bill should reduce personal as well as corporate income taxes, for those in the lower brackets, who are certain to spend their additional take-home pay, and for those in the middle and upper brackets, who can thereby be encouraged to undertake additional efforts and enabled to invest more capital. On the same evening, President Kennedy said the private sector and not
36750-405: The risk of nuclear war. Prior to the summit, Harriman advised Kennedy, "[Khrushchev's] style will be to attack you and see if he can get away with it. Laugh about it, don't get into a fight. Rise above it. Have some fun." On the way to the summit, Kennedy stopped in Paris to meet French President Charles de Gaulle , who advised him to ignore Khrushchev's abrasive style. The French president feared
36960-405: The risk of nuclear war. Prior to the summit, Harriman advised Kennedy, "[Khrushchev's] style will be to attack you and see if he can get away with it. Laugh about it, don't get into a fight. Rise above it. Have some fun." On the way to the summit, Kennedy stopped in Paris to meet French President Charles de Gaulle , who advised him to ignore Khrushchev's abrasive style. The French president feared
37170-565: The sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons (positioned approximately 90 mi (140 km) away from the Florida coast). The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the Western Hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after
37380-441: The sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons (positioned approximately 90 mi (140 km) away from the Florida coast). The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the Western Hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after
37590-505: The strike because it would emphasize the American sponsorship of the invasion. CIA director Allen Dulles later stated that they thought the president would authorize any action required for success once the troops were on the ground. The invading force was defeated within two days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces ; 114 were killed and over 1,100 were taken prisoner. Kennedy was forced to negotiate for
37800-418: The strike because it would emphasize the American sponsorship of the invasion. CIA director Allen Dulles later stated that they thought the president would authorize any action required for success once the troops were on the ground. The invading force was defeated within two days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces ; 114 were killed and over 1,100 were taken prisoner. Kennedy was forced to negotiate for
38010-404: The ticket would appeal to Southern voters, and he thought that Johnson could serve as a valuable liaison to the Senate. Incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon easily won the 1960 Republican Party presidential primaries . Nixon chose Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. , the chief U.S. delegate to the United Nations , as his running mate. Both presidential nominees traveled extensively during the course of
38220-404: The ticket would appeal to Southern voters, and he thought that Johnson could serve as a valuable liaison to the Senate. Incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon easily won the 1960 Republican Party presidential primaries . Nixon chose Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. , the chief U.S. delegate to the United Nations , as his running mate. Both presidential nominees traveled extensively during the course of
38430-532: The views of Roosevelt and the labor unions, opposed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). They feared the ERA would end the special privileges needed by women and accorded to women that were not given to men. In the early 1960s, full-time working women were paid on average 59 percent of the earnings of their male counterparts. In order to eliminate some forms of sex-based pay discrimination, Kennedy signed
38640-406: The workplace, and under the law. The commission, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt until her death in 1962, was composed of 26 members including legislators, labor union activists and philanthropists who were active in women's rights issues. The main purpose of the committee was to document and examine employment policies in place for women. The commission's final report, American Woman (also known as
38850-425: The world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities at home and abroad would be one of the main tensions running through
39060-425: The world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities at home and abroad would be one of the main tensions running through
39270-435: The younger Kennedy became the "assistant president" who advised on all major issues. McNamara and Dillon also emerged as important advisers from the cabinet. Kennedy scrapped the decision-making structure of Eisenhower, preferring an organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president; he was ready and willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment. Though
39480-435: The younger Kennedy became the "assistant president" who advised on all major issues. McNamara and Dillon also emerged as important advisers from the cabinet. Kennedy scrapped the decision-making structure of Eisenhower, preferring an organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president; he was ready and willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment. Though
39690-495: Was a naval blockade , designed to prevent further arms shipments to Cuba. Though he had initially favored an immediate air strike, the president quickly came to favor the naval blockade the first method of response, while retaining the option of an airstrike at a later date. EXCOMM voted 11-to-6 in favor of the naval blockade, which was also supported by British ambassador David Ormsby-Gore and Eisenhower, both of whom were consulted privately. On October 22, after privately informing
39900-495: Was a naval blockade , designed to prevent further arms shipments to Cuba. Though he had initially favored an immediate air strike, the president quickly came to favor the naval blockade the first method of response, while retaining the option of an airstrike at a later date. EXCOMM voted 11-to-6 in favor of the naval blockade, which was also supported by British ambassador David Ormsby-Gore and Eisenhower, both of whom were consulted privately. On October 22, after privately informing
40110-497: Was a key advisor on domestic issues who also wrote many of Kennedy's speeches. Other important advisers and staffers included Larry O'Brien , Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. , press secretary Pierre Salinger , General Maxwell D. Taylor , and W. Averell Harriman . Kennedy maintained cordial relations with Vice President Johnson, who was involved in issues like civil rights and space policy, but Johnson did not emerge as an especially influential vice president. William Willard Wirtz Jr.
40320-497: Was a key advisor on domestic issues who also wrote many of Kennedy's speeches. Other important advisers and staffers included Larry O'Brien , Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. , press secretary Pierre Salinger , General Maxwell D. Taylor , and W. Averell Harriman . Kennedy maintained cordial relations with Vice President Johnson, who was involved in issues like civil rights and space policy, but Johnson did not emerge as an especially influential vice president. William Willard Wirtz Jr.
40530-671: Was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency. Kennedy placed Clark Clifford in charge of his transition effort. Kennedy was inaugurated as the nation's 35th president on January 20, 1961, on the East Portico of the United States Capitol . Chief Justice Earl Warren administered the oath of office . In his inaugural address, Kennedy spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He also invited
40740-538: Was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency. Kennedy placed Clark Clifford in charge of his transition effort. Kennedy was inaugurated as the nation's 35th president on January 20, 1961, on the East Portico of the United States Capitol . Chief Justice Earl Warren administered the oath of office . In his inaugural address, Kennedy spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He also invited
40950-550: Was also trained and equipped for counterinsurgency operations. Though the U.S. Army Special Forces had been created in 1952, Kennedy visited the Fort Bragg U.S. Army Special Warfare Center in a blaze of publicity and gave his permission for the Special Forces to adopt the green beret. The other services launched their own counterinsurgency forces in 1961; the U.S. Air Force created the 1st Air Commando Group and
41160-472: Was appointed Secretary of Defense. Rejecting liberal pressure to choose Stevenson as Secretary of State, Kennedy instead turned to Dean Rusk , a restrained former Truman official, to lead the Department of State. Stevenson accepted a non-policy role as the ambassador to the United Nations. In spite of concerns over nepotism , Kennedy's father insisted that Robert F. Kennedy become Attorney General, and
41370-413: Was appointed Secretary of Defense. Rejecting liberal pressure to choose Stevenson as Secretary of State, Kennedy instead turned to Dean Rusk , a restrained former Truman official, to lead the Department of State. Stevenson accepted a non-policy role as the ambassador to the United Nations. In spite of concerns over nepotism , Kennedy's father insisted that Robert F. Kennedy become Attorney General, and
41580-406: Was approved by Kennedy and South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem . It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from communist insurgents. It was hoped that these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and
41790-406: Was approved by Kennedy and South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem . It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from communist insurgents. It was hoped that these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and
42000-671: Was made law. A significant amount of anti-poverty legislation was passed by Congress, including increases in social security benefits and in the minimum wage, several housing bills, and aid to economically distressed areas. A few antirecession public works packages, together with a number of measures designed to assist farmers, were introduced. Major expansions and improvements were made in Social Security (including retirement at 62 for men), hospital construction, library services, family farm assistance and reclamation. Food stamps for low-income Americans were reintroduced, food distribution to
42210-507: Was not effective in stemming communist-inspired Third World revolutions. Fearful of the possibility of a global nuclear war , Kennedy implemented a new strategy known as flexible response . This strategy relied on conventional arms to achieve limited goals. As part of this policy, Kennedy expanded the United States special operations forces , elite military units that could fight unconventionally in various conflicts. Kennedy hoped that
42420-445: Was not effective in stemming communist-inspired Third World revolutions. Fearful of the possibility of a global nuclear war , Kennedy implemented a new strategy known as flexible response . This strategy relied on conventional arms to achieve limited goals. As part of this policy, Kennedy expanded the United States special operations forces , elite military units that could fight unconventionally in various conflicts. Kennedy hoped that
42630-582: Was passed into law as the Revenue Act of 1964 . Kennedy also established the Peace Corps and promised to land an American on the Moon and return him safely to Earth, thereby intensifying the Space Race with the Soviet Union. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, while visiting Dallas , Texas. The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in assassinating Kennedy, but
42840-414: Was passed into law as the Revenue Act of 1964 . Kennedy also established the Peace Corps and promised to land an American on the Moon and return him safely to Earth, thereby intensifying the Space Race with the Soviet Union. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, while visiting Dallas , Texas. The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in assassinating Kennedy, but
43050-764: Was selected as Secretary of the Treasury. Kennedy balanced the appointment of the relatively conservative Dillon by selecting liberal Democrats to hold two other important economic advisory posts; David E. Bell became the Director of the Bureau of the Budget , while Walter Heller served as the Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers . Robert McNamara , who was well known as one of Ford Motor Company 's " Whiz Kids ",
43260-437: Was selected as Secretary of the Treasury. Kennedy balanced the appointment of the relatively conservative Dillon by selecting liberal Democrats to hold two other important economic advisory posts; David E. Bell became the Director of the Bureau of the Budget , while Walter Heller served as the Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers . Robert McNamara , who was well known as one of Ford Motor Company 's " Whiz Kids ",
43470-721: Was the last surviving member of Kennedy's cabinet, and died on April 24, 2010. Kennedy made two appointments to the United States Supreme Court . After the resignation of Charles Evans Whittaker in early 1962, President Kennedy assigned Attorney General Kennedy to conduct a search of potential successors, and the attorney general compiled a list consisting of Deputy Attorney General Byron White , Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg , federal appellate judge William H. Hastie , legal professor Paul A. Freund , and two state supreme court justices. Kennedy narrowed his choice down to Goldberg and White, and he ultimately chose
43680-641: Was the last surviving member of Kennedy's cabinet, and died on April 24, 2010. Kennedy made two appointments to the United States Supreme Court . After the resignation of Charles Evans Whittaker in early 1962, President Kennedy assigned Attorney General Kennedy to conduct a search of potential successors, and the attorney general compiled a list consisting of Deputy Attorney General Byron White , Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg , federal appellate judge William H. Hastie , legal professor Paul A. Freund , and two state supreme court justices. Kennedy narrowed his choice down to Goldberg and White, and he ultimately chose
43890-406: Was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he personally thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring. President Kennedy called Berlin "the great testing place of Western courage and will." In the weeks immediately after the Vienna summit, more than 20,000 people fled from East Berlin to the western sector in reaction to statements from the Soviet Union. Kennedy began intensive meetings on
44100-406: Was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he personally thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring. President Kennedy called Berlin "the great testing place of Western courage and will." In the weeks immediately after the Vienna summit, more than 20,000 people fled from East Berlin to the western sector in reaction to statements from the Soviet Union. Kennedy began intensive meetings on
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