Tres Vírgenes is a complex of volcanoes located in the Mulegé Municipality in the state of Baja California Sur , on the Baja California Peninsula in northwestern Mexico . This Volcano is part of a volcanic ridge that extends from Baja California towards the Guaymas Basin.
113-514: It is composed of three volcanoes, aligned northeast–southwest, with El Viejo, the oldest, to the northeast, El Azufre in the middle, and the youngest, El Vírgen, to the southwest. El Vírgen, being by far the most conspicuous of the three, is commonly known as "Las Tres Vírgenes". Volcán Las Tres Vírgenes is part of a cluster that includes the central vent structure of El Azufre and El Viejo. The off-shore volcanic ridges extend from Tres Vírgenes–Aguajito–La Reforma towards sea-floor spreading centers in
226-702: A South Slavic ethnic group native to Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina and other neighboring countries in Central and Southeastern Europe who share a common Croatian ancestry , culture , history and language . They also form a sizeable minority in a number of neighboring countries, namely Slovenia , Austria , the Czech Republic , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Montenegro , Romania , Serbia and Slovakia . Due to political, social and economic reasons, many Croats migrated to North and South America as well as New Zealand and later Australia, establishing
339-1059: A diaspora in the aftermath of World War II , with grassroots assistance from earlier communities and the Roman Catholic Church . In Croatia (the nation state ), 3.9 million people identify themselves as Croats, and constitute about 90.4% of the population. Another 553,000 live in Bosnia and Herzegovina , where they are one of the three constituent ethnic groups , predominantly living in Western Herzegovina , Central Bosnia and Bosnian Posavina . The minority in Serbia number about 70,000, mostly in Vojvodina . The ethnic Tarara people , indigenous to Te Tai Tokerau in New Zealand, are of mixed Croatian and Māori (predominantly Ngāpuhi ) descent. Tarara Day
452-554: A federation consisting of 6 republics, and Croats became one of two constituent peoples of two – Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats in the Serbian autonomous province of Vojvodina are one of six main ethnic groups composing this region. Following the democratization of society, accompanied with ethnic tensions that emerged ten years after the death of Josip Broz Tito , the Republic of Croatia declared independence, which
565-514: A Slav, by contemporary sources. A closer reading of the DAI suggests that Constantine VII's consideration about the ethnic origin and identity of the population of Lower Pannonia, Pagania , Zachlumia and other principalities is based on tenth century political rule and does not indicate ethnicity, and although both Croats and Serbs could have been a small military elite which managed to organize other already settled and more numerous Slavs, it
678-638: A branch of the old Croatian noble Gusić family from Krbava (14th–16th centuries); Babonić who ruled from western Kupa to eastern Vrbas and Bosna rivers, and were bans of Slavonia (13th–14th centuries); Iločki family who ruled over Slavonian stronghold-cities, and in the 15th century rose to power. During this period, the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller also acquired considerable property and assets in Croatia. In
791-659: A single buoyant jet of magma from the Earth's core instead of cracks in the ocean floor. This is reflected in the decreasing age of the islands east to west from Fuerteventura to El Hierro. There are about 60 volcanoes in Ethiopia, located in east Africa. In Southern Ethiopia, the Omo Kibish Rock Formation is composed of layers of tephra and sediment. Within these layers, several fossils have been discovered. In 1967, 2 Homo sapiens fossils were discovered in
904-526: A single eruption—to create a chronological framework in which paleoenvironmental or archaeological records can be placed. Often, when a volcano explodes, biological organisms are killed and their remains are buried within the tephra layer. These fossils are later dated by scientists to determine the age of the fossil and its place within the geologic record. Tephra is any sized or composition pyroclastic material produced by an explosive volcanic eruption and precise geological definitions exist. It consists of
1017-689: A time, with the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, its possessions in eastern Adriatic mostly came under the authority of France which passed its rights to Austria the same year. Eight years later they were restored to France as the Illyrian Provinces , but won back to the Austrian crown 1815. Though now part of the same empire, Dalmatia and Istria were part of Cisleithania while Croatia and Slavonia were in Hungarian part of
1130-464: A variant of the feudal system . Large fiefs were granted to individuals who would defend them against outside incursions thereby creating a system for the defence of the entire state. However, by enabling the nobility to seize more economic and military power, the kingdom itself lost influence to the powerful noble families. In Croatia the Šubić were one of the oldest Croatian noble families and would become particularly influential and important, ruling
1243-560: A variety of materials, typically glassy particles formed by the cooling of droplets of magma , which may be vesicular, solid or flake-like, and a varying proportions of crystalline and mineral components originating from the mountain and the walls of the vent. As the particles fall to the ground, they are sorted to a certain extent by the wind and gravitational forces and form layers of unconsolidated material. The particles are further moved by ground surface or submarine water flow. The distribution of tephra following an eruption usually involves
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#17327726619731356-523: A volcanic deposit was dated at approximately 6515 years before present. A basaltic lava flow, which must be younger than the actual eruption, was dated at approximately 24 thousand years B.P., which agrees with a dating of tephra fragments from El Vírgen that yielded an age of approximately 36 thousand years B.P. for the eruption. Croats North America South America Oceania The Croats ( / ˈ k r oʊ æ t s / ; Croatian : Hrvati , pronounced [xr̩ʋǎːti] ) are
1469-896: A wide secret diplomatic negotiations with a number of nations, including Louis XIV of France , the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Sweden , the Republic of Venice and even the Ottoman Empire , to free Croatia from the Habsburg sovereignty. Imperial spies uncovered the conspiracy and on 30 April 1671 executed four esteemed Croatian and Hungarian noblemen involved in it, including Zrinski and Frankopan in Wiener Neustadt . The large estates of two most powerful Croatian noble houses were confiscated and their families relocated, soon after extinguished. Between 1670 and
1582-454: Is 0.1 km and it covers an area of 7.5 km. Then it also consists of a dacite central dome which is located atop the Azufre Volcano. It has a height of 0.3 km and an exposed area of 0.78 km. The lava varies from dark-gray to pinkish-gray and the dome shows sub-rounded lava blocks with dark gray enclaves. El Virgen is by far the most conspicuous of the three. It is made up of at least 6 scoria cones all spread out around
1695-484: Is a religious site for locals. It last erupted in 1903. In 2017, new fossil evidence was discovered that determined the date of Paektu Mountain's first eruption, which had been a mystery. A team of scientists directed by Dr. Clive Oppenheimer, British volcanologist , discovered a larch trunk embedded within Paektu Mountain. After radiocarbon dating, the larch was determined to be 264 years old which coincides with
1808-732: Is celebrated every 15 March to commemorate their "highly regarded place in present-day Māoridom ". Croats are mostly Catholics . The Croatian language is official in Croatia , the European Union and Bosnia and Herzegovina . Croatian is a recognized minority language within Croatian autochthonous communities and minorities in Montenegro, Austria ( Burgenland ), Italy ( Molise ), Romania ( Carașova , Lupac ) and Serbia ( Vojvodina ). The foreign ethnonym variation "Croats" of
1921-469: Is disputed. Unlike Petar Krešimir IV, he was also an ally of the Normans , with whom he joined in wars against Byzantium. He married in 1063 Helen of Hungary , the daughter of King Bela I of the Hungarian Árpád dynasty , and the sister of the future King Ladislaus I . As King Zvonimir died in 1089 in unknown circumstances, with no direct heir to succeed him, Stjepan II ( r. 1089–1091) last of
2034-466: Is over forty thousand years old and has erupted 11 times since 1800. In South America , there are several historic active volcanoes. In southern Chile , the Chaitén volcano erupted in 2011 adding 160 meters to its rim. Prehistoric weapons and tools, formed from obsidian tephra blocks, were dated at 5,610 years ago and were discovered 400 km away. Due to the location of the subduction zone of
2147-404: Is overlain by the puerta dacite dome and has a 0.1 km thick lobe-like lava. The dome has light gray lava with mottled structure due to the abundance of enclaves which are dark gray aphanitic that come in different shapes. The puerta dacite is well exposed compared to the other two domes. The dome is covered by a blocky lava surface with a crumble breccia at the base. It is 0.19 km thick and
2260-783: Is possible evidence of population continuity between Gothic and Croatian times in parts of Dalmatia, the idea of a Gothic origin of Croats was more rooted in 20th century Ustaše political aspirations than historical reality. Other, distinct polities and ethno-political groups existed around the Croat duchy. These included the Guduscans (based in Liburnia), Pagania (between the Cetina and Neretva River), Zachlumia (between Neretva and Dubrovnik ), Bosnia , and Serbia in other eastern parts of ex-Roman province of "Dalmatia". Also prominent in
2373-467: Is possible that Narentines, Zachlumians and others also arrived as Croats or with Croatian tribal alliance. The Croats became the dominant local power in northern Dalmatia, absorbing Liburnia and expanding their name by conquest and prestige. In the south, while having periods of independence, the Naretines merged with Croats later under control of Croatian Kings. With such expansion, Croatia became
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#17327726619732486-581: Is used in broad context within an account by Aristotle of an eruption on Vulcano (Hiera) in Meteorologica . The release of tephra into the troposphere affects the environment physically and chemically. Physically, volcanic blocks damage local flora and human settlements. Ash damages communication and electrical systems, coats forests and plant life, reducing photosynthesis , and pollutes groundwater . Tephra changes below- and above-ground air and water movement. Chemically, tephra release can affect
2599-745: The Arpads , expelled them over the Sava River , and united (western) Pannonian and Dalmatian Croats into one state. Tomislav (910–928) became king of Croatia by 925. The chief piece of evidence that Tomislav was crowned king comes in the form of a letter dated 925, surviving only in 16th-century copies, from Pope John X calling Tomislav rex Chroatorum . According to De Administrando Imperio , Tomislav's army and navy could have consisted approximately 100,000 infantry units, 60,000 cavaliers, and 80 larger ( sagina ) and 100 smaller warships ( condura ), but generally isn't taken as credible. According to
2712-636: The Battle of Szigetvar in 1566. During the Ottoman conquest tens of thousands of Croats were taken in Turkey, where they became slaves. The Battle of Mohács (1526) and the death of King Louis II ended the Hungarian-Croatian union. In 1526, the Hungarian parliament elected two separate kings János Szapolyai and Ferdinand I Habsburg , but the choice of the Croatian sabor at Cetin prevailed on
2825-533: The Canary Islands . The most recent El Hierro eruption occurred underwater, in 2011, and caused earthquakes and landslides throughout the Canary Islands. Instead of ash, floating rocks, 'restingolites' were released after every eruption. After the 2011 eruption, fossils of single-celled marine organisms were found in the restingolites verifying the origin theory that Canary Island growth comes from
2938-558: The Dinaric hinterland and appears to have been depopulated, as virtually all hilltop settlements, from Noricum to Dardania , were abandoned and few appear destroyed in the early 7th century. Although the dating of the earliest Slavic settlements was disputed, recent archaeological data established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats have been in late 6th and early 7th century. Much uncertainty revolves around
3051-686: The Duchy of Croatia and Principality of Lower Pannonia . Having been under Avar control, lower Pannonia became a march of the Carolingian Empire around 800. Aided by Vojnomir in 796, the first named Slavic Duke of Pannonia, the Franks wrested control of the region from the Avars before totally destroying the Avar realm in 803. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, Frankish influence decreased on
3164-593: The First World War and dissolution of Austria-Hungary , most Croats were united within the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes , created by unification of the short-lived State of SHS with the Kingdom of Serbia . Croats became one of the constituent nations of the new kingdom. The state was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929 and the Croats were united in the new nation with their neighbors –
3277-507: The Omo Kibish Formation by Richard Leaky , a paleoanthropologist. After radiocarbon dating, they were determined to be 195 thousand years old. Other mammals discovered in the formation include Hylochoerus meinertzhageni (forest hog) and Cephalophus (antelope). In Asia, several volcanic eruptions are still influencing local cultures today. In North Korea, Paektu Mountain , a stratovolcano, first erupted in 946 AD and
3390-704: The Roman culture. Also, in Italy, Stromboli volcano , a stratovolcano, last erupted in July 2019. Several volcanic eruptions have been studied in North America . On 18 May 1980, Mount St. Helens , a stratovolcano in Washington state , erupted, spreading five hundred million tons of tephra ash across Washington, Oregon, Montana and Idaho causing earthquakes , rockslides , and megatsunami which severely altered
3503-719: The Turkish incursion into Europe started, Croatia once again became a border area between two major forces in the Balkans . Croatian military troops fought in many battles under command of Italian Franciscan priest fra John Capistrano , the Hungarian Generalissimo John Hunyadi , and Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus , like in the Hunyadi's long campaign (1443–1444), battle of Varna (1444), second battle of Kosovo (1448) , and contributed to
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3616-631: The battle of Sisak in 1593, 100 years after the defeat at Krbava field, and the short Long Turkish War ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606, after which Croatian classes tried unsuccessfully to have their territory on the Military Frontier restored to rule by the Croatian Ban, managing only to restore a small area of lost territory but failed to regain large parts of Croatian Kingdom (present-day western Bosnia and Herzegovina ), as
3729-554: The native name "Hrvati" derives from Medieval Latin Croāt , itself a derivation of North-West Slavic * Xərwate , by liquid metathesis from Common Slavic period *Xorvat , from proposed Proto-Slavic *Xъrvátъ which possibly comes from the 3rd-century Scytho-Sarmatian form attested in the Tanais Tablets as Χοροάθος ( Khoroáthos , alternate forms comprise Khoróatos and Khoroúathos ). The origin of
3842-429: The palaeographic analysis of the original manuscript of De Administrando Imperio , an estimation of the number of inhabitants in medieval Croatia between 440 and 880 thousand people, and military numbers of Franks and Byzantines – the Croatian military force was most probably composed of 20,000–100,000 infantrymen, and 3,000–24,000 horsemen organized in 60 allagions . The Croatian Kingdom as an ally of Byzantine Empire
3955-803: The revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire , the Croatian Ban Jelačić cooperated with the Austrians in quenching the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 by leading a military campaign into Hungary, successful until the Battle of Pákozd . Croatia was later subject to Hungarian hegemony under ban Levin Rauch when the Empire was transformed into a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867. Nevertheless, Ban Jelačić had succeeded in
4068-527: The water cycle . Tephra particles can cause ice crystals to grow in clouds, which increases precipitation . Nearby watersheds and the ocean can experience elevated mineral levels, especially iron , which can cause explosive population growth in plankton communities. This, in turn, can result in eutrophication . In addition to tephrochronology, tephra is used by a variety of scientific disciplines including geology , paleoecology , anthropology , and paleontology , to date fossils, identify dates within
4181-426: The 11th and 12th centuries "the Croats were never unified under a strong central government. They lived in different areas - Pannonian Croatia, Dalmatian Croatia, Bosnia - which were at times ruled by indigenous kings but more frequently controlled by agents of Byzantium, Venice and Hungary. Even during periods of relatively strong centralized government, local lords frequently enjoyed an almost autonomous status". In
4294-596: The 946 AD eruption. Its tree rings are being studied and many new discoveries are being made about North Korea during that time. In northeastern China, a large volcanic eruption in the early Cretaceous caused the fossilization of an entire ecosystem known as the Jehol Biota when powerful pyroclastic flows inundated the area. The deposits include many perfectly preserved fossils of dinosaurs , birds , mammals , reptiles , fish , frogs , plants , and insects . Europe's volcanoes provide unique information about
4407-649: The Bulgarian army led by military commander Alogobotur , and stopped Simeon's extension westwards. The central town in the Duvno field was named Tomislavgrad ("Tomislav's town") in his honour in the 20th century. Tomislav was succeeded by Trpimir II (928–935), and Krešimir I (935–945), this period, on the whole, however, is obscure. Miroslav (945–949) was killed by his ban Pribina during an internal power struggle, losing part of islands and coastal cities. Krešimir II (949–969) kept particularly good relations with
4520-538: The Carinthian Duke Arnulf , the future East Frankish King and Emperor. However, Frankish control was far from smooth. The Royal Frankish Annals mention several Bulgar raids, driving up the Sava and Drava rivers, as a result of a border dispute with the Franks, from 827. By a peace treaty in 845, the Franks were confirmed as rulers over Slavonia , whilst Srijem remained under Bulgarian clientage. Later,
4633-626: The Christian victories over the Ottomans in the siege of Belgrade (1456) and Siege of Jajce (1463). At the time they suffered a major defeat in the battle of Krbava field ( Lika , Croatia) in 1493 and gradually lost increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Empire. Pope Leo X called Croatia the forefront of Christianity ( Antemurale Christianitatis ) in 1519, given that several Croatian soldiers made significant contributions to
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4746-721: The Croatians were possibly a Sarmatian tribe from the Pontic region who were part of a larger movement at the same time that the Slavs were moving toward the Adriatic . The major basis for this connection was the perceived similarity between Hrvat and inscriptions from the Tanais dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, mentioning the name Khoro(u)athos . Similar arguments have been made for an alleged Gothic -Croat link. Whilst there
4859-646: The Dalmatian cities, while his son Stjepan Držislav (969–997) established better relations with the Byzantine Empire and received a formal authority over Dalmatian cities. His three sons, Svetoslav (997–1000), Krešimir III (1000–1030) and Gojslav (1000–1020), opened a violent contest for the throne, weakening the state and further losing control. Krešimir III and his brother Gojslav co-ruled from 1000 until 1020, and attempted to restore control over lost Dalmatian cities now under Venetian control. Krešimir
4972-720: The Great (1342–1382), relying on the lower nobility and towns. Both kings ruled without the Parliament, and inner nobility struggles only helped them in their intentions. This led to Mladen's defeat at the battle of Bliska in 1322 by a coalition of several Croatian noblemen and Dalmatian coastal towns with support of the King himself, in exchange of Šubić's castle of Ostrovica for Zrin Castle in Central Croatia (thus this branch
5085-629: The Guayamas basin. It is located within the Gulf of California rift zone. It is a part of a volcanic ridge that extends from the eastern coast of Baja California towards active sea floor spreading in the Guaymas basin. The ground floor of Las Tres Vírgenes volcano holds the oldest rock in the region which is a granitic rock of the Cretaceous era. Above this intrusive rock layer is a volcanic cover from
5198-409: The King of Hungary. After his death in 1312, his son Mladen II Šubić was the Ban of Bosnia (1304–1322) and Ban of Croatia (1312–1322). The kings from House of Anjou intended to strengthen the kingdom by uniting their power and control, but to do so they had to diminish the power of the higher nobility. Charles I had already tried to crash the aristocratic privileges, intention finished by his son Louis
5311-652: The Kingdom of Croatia in force, and negotiated with the Croatian feudal lords resulting in joining of Hungarian and Croatian crowns (with the crown of Dalmatia held separate from that of Croatia). According to The New Cambridge Medieval History , "at the beginning of the eleventh century the Croats lived in two more or less clearly defined regions" of the "Croatian lands" which "were now divided into three districts" including Slavonia/Pannonian Croatia (between rivers Sava and Drava) on one side and Croatia/Dalmatian littoral (between Gulf of Kvarner and rivers Vrbas and Neretva) and Bosnia (around river Bosna ) on other side. In
5424-430: The Kingdom of Italy under Lothair I , since 828. The Croatian Prince Mislav (835–845) built up a formidable navy, and in 839 signed a peace treaty with Pietro Tradonico , doge of Venice . The Venetians soon proceeded to battle with the independent Slavic pirates of the Pagania region, but failed to defeat them. The Bulgarian king Boris I (called by the Byzantine Empire Archont of Bulgaria after he made Christianity
5537-507: The Magyars. The subsequent history of Savia again becomes murky, and historians are not sure who controlled Savia during much of the 10th century. However, it is likely that the ruler Tomislav , the first crowned King, was able to exert much control over Savia and adjacent areas during his reign. It is at this time that sources first refer to a "Pannonian Croatia", appearing in the 10th century Byzantine work De Administrando Imperio . The Dalmatian Croats were recorded to have been subject to
5650-405: The Monarchy. In the 19th century Croatian romantic nationalism emerged to counteract the non-violent but apparent Germanization and Magyarization . The Croatian national revival began in the 1830s with the Illyrian movement . The movement attracted a number of influential figures and produced some important advances in the Croatian language and culture. The champion of the Illyrian movement
5763-420: The Ottoman Empire. This caused unrest among the Croatian and Hungarian nobility which plotted against the emperor. Nikola Zrinski participated in launching the conspiracy which later came to be known as the Magnate conspiracy , but he soon died, and the rebellion was continued by his brother, Croatian ban Petar Zrinski , Fran Krsto Frankopan and Ferenc Wesselényi . Petar Zrinski, along the conspirators, went on
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#17327726619735876-500: The South Slavs- Yugoslavs . In 1939, the Croats received a high degree of autonomy when the Banovina of Croatia was created, which united almost all ethnic Croatian territories within the Kingdom. In the Second World War , the Axis forces created the Independent State of Croatia led by the Ustaše movement which sought to create an ethnically pure Croatian state on the territory corresponding to present-day countries of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Post-WWII Yugoslavia became
5989-534: The Venetian navy. Their ground forces defeated the Pannonian duke Kocelj (861–874) who was suzerain to the Franks, and thereby shed the Frankish vassal status. Wars of Domagoj and his son liberated Dalmatian Croats from supreme Franks rule. Zdeslav deposed him in 878 with the help of the Byzantines. He acknowledged the supreme rule of Byzantine Emperor Basil I . In 879, the Pope asked for help from prince Zdeslav for an armed escort for his delegates across southern Dalmatia and Zahumlje , but on early May 879, Zdeslav
6102-457: The Virgen volcano. El Virgen is by far the most complex of the three volcanoes as you can see by everything that it consists of such as the lavas, cones, and domes. The last eruption of the volcanoes in the complex was of El Vírgen, but the date is disputed. A map drawn by the Croatian Jesuit missionary Ferdinand Konščak contains a reference to an eruption in 1746. Radiometric datings, however, do not agree with this. A charcoal fragment found in
6215-481: The Virgen volcano. Three of these cones are on the southern flank of El Azufre and they have elongated and coalesced shapes and are crudely aligned in N-S direction. They cover an area of 0.46 km and averages a height of 0.06 km. These scoria cones consist of massive grain supported poorly sorted fallout beds. It also consists of 6 andesite lava being the Cueva de Gel, Lower Pintos, Upper Pintos, Lower Virgen, Pintos dacite, and Upper Virgen andesite lava. Adding to
6328-442: The abolition of serfdom in Croatia, which eventually brought about massive changes in society: the power of the major landowners was reduced and arable land became increasingly subdivided, to the extent of risking famine. Many Croatians began emigrating to the New World countries in this period, a trend that would continue over the next century, creating a large Croatian diaspora . From 1804 to 1918, as many as 395 Croats received
6441-550: The aftermath of the Great Schism of 1054 . He was succeeded by Dmitar Zvonimir , who was of the Svetoslavić branch of the House of Trpimirović , and a Ban of Slavonia (1064–1075). He was crowned on 8 October 1076 at Solin in the Basilica of Saint Peter and Moses (known today as Hollow Church ) by a representative of Pope Gregory VII . He was in conflict with dukes of Istria , while historical records Annales Carinthiæ and Chronica Hungarorum note he invaded Carinthia to aid Hungary in war during 1079/83, but this
6554-409: The andesites has one neck which serves as a feeding vent of the volcano and is almost entirely covered by younger deposits of the volcano. The Virgen dacite lava cone is the only cone and represents the main structure of the La Virgen stratocone. As well as there being many andesite lavas there are 4 lava domes. The Mezquital dacite lava dome is made up of two and they are located on the southern apron of
6667-593: The area between Zrmanja and the Krka rivers. The local noble family from Krk island (who later took the surname Frankopan ) is often considered the second most important medieval family, as ruled over northern Adriatic and is responsible for the adoption of one of oldest European statutes , Law codex of Vinodol (1288). Both families gave many native bans of Croatia. Other powerful families were Nelipić from Dalmatian Zagora (14th–15th centuries); Kačić who ruled over Pagania and were famous for piracy and wars against Venice (12th–13th centuries); Kurjaković family,
6780-399: The calc–alkaline magma series. The volcanic complex has also emitted andesitic to dacitic magmas from 300 to 22ka. This complex of three stratovolcanoes began as mostly dacitic lava flows and domes which resulted in the formation of El Viejo (300 Ka). Volcanic activity later shifted southwest forming El Azufre (173 Ka). Finally, at about 112 Ka, volcanism migrated southwest yet again beginning
6893-581: The chancellor Metternich , the use of the Illyrian name and insignia in public was forbidden. This deterred the movement's progress but it couldn't stop the changes in the society that had already started. On 25 March 1848, was conducted a political petition " Zahtijevanja naroda ", which program included thirty national, social and liberal principles, like Croatian national independence, annexation of Dalmatia and Military Frontier, independence from Hungary as far as finance, language, education, freedom of speech and writing, religion, nullification of serfdom etc. In
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#17327726619737006-409: The control of Croatian kings". The lands which constitute modern Croatia fell under three major geographic-politic zones during the Middle Ages, which were influenced by powerful neighbor Empires – notably the Byzantines, the Avars and later Magyars , Franks and Bulgars . Each vied for control of the Northwest Balkan regions. Two independent Slavic dukedoms emerged sometime during the 9th century:
7119-437: The creation of El Virgen. Up until 22Ka, El Virgen initially had the largest cone of the three volcanoes at 31.2 km3. The next largest was El Viejo at 4.2 km3 and lastly, El Azufre at 3.8 km3. El Viejo is the oldest from the volcanoes that make up the Tres Virgenes. It is made up of three lava domes which are in oldest to youngest : the lower viejo dacite, puerta dacite, and the upper viejo dacite. The Lower Viejo dacite dome
7232-414: The dominant power and absorbed other polities between Frankish, Bulgarian and Byzantine empire. Although the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja has been dismissed as an unreliable record, the mentioned "Red Croatia" suggests that Croatian clans and families might have settled as far south as Duklja / Zeta . According to Martin Dimnik writing for The New Cambridge Medieval History , "at the beginning of
7345-497: The early 7th century, primarily on the basis of the later Byzantine document De Administrando Imperio . As such, the arrival of the Croats was seen as part of main wave or a second wave of Slavic migrations, which took over Dalmatia from Avar hegemony . However, as early as the 1970s, scholars questioned the reliability of Porphyrogenitus ' work, written as it was in the 10th century. Rather than being an accurate historical account, De Administrando Imperio more accurately reflects
7458-419: The eastern Pacific's Nazca Plate, there are twenty one active volcanoes in southern Peru . In 2006, fossils, found under a layer of volcanic ash in Peru, were excavated by a team of paleontologists led by Mark D. Uhen, professor at George Mason University. The fossils were identified as 3 different types of archaeocetes, prehistoric whales, and are older than 36.61 million years which, as of 2011, makes them
7571-452: The eleventh century the Croats lived in two more or less clearly defined regions" of the "Croatian lands" which "were now divided into three districs" including Slavonia/Pannonian Croatia (between rivers Sava and Drava) on one side and Croatia/Dalmatian littoral (between Gulf of Kvarner and rivers Vrbas and Neretva) and Bosnia (around river Bosna ) on other side, and that "Croats, along with Serbs, also lived in Bosnia which at times came under
7684-432: The ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably is from Proto-Ossetian / Alanian * xurvæt- or * xurvāt- , in the meaning of "one who guards" ("guardian, protector"). Early Slavs , especially Sclaveni and Antae , including the White Croats , invaded and settled Southeastern Europe in the 6th and 7th century. Archaeological evidence shows population continuity in coastal Dalmatia and Istria . In contrast, much of
7797-458: The exact circumstances of their appearance given the scarcity of literary sources during the 7th and 8th century Middle Ages . The ethnonym "Croat" is first attested during the 9th century AD, in the charter of Duke Trpimir ; and begins to be widely attested throughout central and eastern Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries. Traditionally, scholarship has placed the arrival of the White Croats from Great/White Croatia in Eastern Europe in
7910-489: The expanding power of Great Moravia also threatened Frankish control of the region. In an effort to halt their influence, the Franks sought alliance with the Magyars, and elevated the local Slavic leader Braslav in 892, as a more independent Duke over lower Pannonia. In 896, his rule stretched from Vienna and Budapest to the southern Croat duchies, and included almost the whole of ex-Roman Pannonian provinces. He probably died c. 900 fighting against his former allies,
8023-488: The expense of domestic element. Because of this the Croatian Sabor was losing its significance, and the nobility less attended it, yet went only to the one in Hungary. In the 18th century, Croatia was one of the crown lands that supported Emperor Charles 's Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and supported Empress Maria Theresa in the War of the Austrian Succession of 1741–48. Subsequently, the empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters, by making several changes in
8136-447: The feudal and tax system, administrative control of the Military Frontier, in 1745 administratively united Slavonia with Croatia and in 1767 organized Croatian royal council with the ban on head, however, she ignored and eventually disbanded it in 1779, and Croatia was relegated to just one seat in the governing council of Hungary, held by the ban of Croatia. To fight the Austrian centralization and absolutism, Croats passed their rights to
8249-509: The fossils record, and learn about prehistoric cultures and ecosystems. For example, carbonatite tephra found at Oldoinyo Lengai (a volcano in the East African Rift Valley) has buried and preserved fossilized footprints of humans near the site of the eruption. Under certain conditions, volcanic blocks can be preserved for billions of years and can travel up to 400 km away from the eruption. Volcanic eruptions around
8362-425: The ground, they remain as tephra unless hot enough to fuse into pyroclastic rock or tuff . When a volcano explodes, it releases a variety of tephra including ash, cinders, and blocks. These layers settle on the land and, over time, sedimentation occurs incorporating these tephra layers into the geologic record. Tephrochronology is a geochronological technique that uses discrete layers of tephra—volcanic ash from
8475-489: The history of Italy . One example is Mount Vesuvius , a stratovolcano located in southern Italy, which last erupted in March 1944. Earlier, in 79 AD, in an eruption which lasted 12 to 18 hours, Vesuvius had covered the city of Pompeii in molten lava, ash, pumice, volcanic blocks, and toxic gases. Much of the town was preserved and organic materials fossilized by the volcanic ash, and that has provided valuable information about
8588-515: The inland regions towards Pannonia , while instituting counties as a way of controlling his subordinates (an idea he picked up from the Franks). The first known written mention of the Croats, dates from 4 March 852, in statute by Trpimir. Trpimir is remembered as the initiator of the Trpimirović dynasty , that ruled in Croatia, with interruptions, from 845 until 1091. After his death, an uprising
8701-467: The largest boulders falling to the ground quickest, therefore closest to the vent, while smaller fragments travel further – ash can often travel for thousands of miles, even circumglobal, as it can stay in the stratosphere for days to weeks following an eruption. When large amounts of tephra accumulate in the atmosphere from massive volcanic eruptions (or from a multitude of smaller eruptions occurring simultaneously), they can reflect light and heat from
8814-543: The late Cenozoic era that includes andesite from the Santa Lucía Range, and Esperanza basalt. The Santa Rosalia Formation is beneath this volcanic cover which consists of shallow-water marine deposits identified by fossiliferous sandstone. Above all these layers, the region consists of a variety of pyroclastic particles from different stages of its most recent volcanic activity. These rocks produced at Las Tres Vírgenes volcanic region have characteristics like those of
8927-485: The lava contains sub-rounded 10 cm enclaves. The last dome being the youngest is the Upper Viejo dacite and this dome has a blocky surface as well and it contains sub-rounded enclaves. The average thickness of the dome is 0.26 km. This volcano has block and ash flow which pyroclastic fans that are dissected by radial drainage and at the fan toe is limited by volcaniclastic deposits. The average thickness
9040-616: The main Trpimirović line came to the throne but reigned for two years. After his death civil war and unrest broke out shortly afterward as northern nobles decided Ladislaus I for the Croatian King. In 1093, southern nobles elected a new ruler, King Petar Snačić ( r. 1093–1097), who managed to unify the Kingdom around his capital of Knin . His army resisted repelling Hungarian assaults, and restored Croatian rule up to
9153-461: The new king. This resulted in the Bloody Sabor of Križevci in 1397, loss of interest in the crown by Ladislaus and selling of Dalmatia to Venice in 1403, and spreading of Croatian names to the north, with those of Slavonia to the east. The dynastic struggle didn't end, and with the Ottoman invasion on Bosnia the first short raids began in Croatian territory, defended only by local nobles. As
9266-567: The official religion of Bulgaria) also waged a lengthy war against the Dalmatian Croats, trying to expand his state to the Adriatic . The Croatian Prince Trpimir I (845–864) succeeded Mislav. In 854, there was a great battle between Trpimir's forces and the Bulgars. Neither side emerged victorious, and the outcome was the exchange of gifts and the establishment of peace. Trpimir I managed to consolidate power over Dalmatia and much of
9379-399: The peasants in northern Croatia and Slovenia rebelled against their feudal lords due to various injustices. After the fall of Bihać fort in 1592, only small areas of Croatia remained unrecovered. The remaining 16,800 square kilometres (6,487 sq mi) were referred to as the reliquiae reliquiarum of the once great Croatian kingdom . Croats stopped the Ottoman advance in Croatia at
9492-527: The political situation during the 10th century. It mainly served as Byzantine propaganda praising Emperor Heraclius for repopulating the Balkans (previously devastated by the Avars , Sclaveni and Antes ) with Croats, who were seen by the Byzantines as tributary peoples living on what had always been 'Roman land'. Scholars have hypothesized the name Croat ( Hrvat ) may be Iranian , thus suggesting that
9605-471: The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome. In the first half of the 17th century, Croats fought in the Thirty Years' War on the side of Holy Roman Empire , mostly as light cavalry under command of imperial generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein . Croatian Ban, Juraj V Zrinski , also fought in the war, but died in a military camp near Bratislava , Slovakia , as he
9718-664: The rank of general or admiral , of which 379 in the army of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy , 8 in the Russian Empire , two each in the French and Hungarian armies, and one each in the armies of the Ottoman Empire , the Republic of Venice , Portuguese Empire and Serbia. By rank, 173 were brigadier generals , 142 major generals , 55 lieutenant generals , two generals, three staff generals , 17 rear admirals , one viceadmiral and two admirals. After
9831-594: The region, allowing Prince Ljudevit Posavski to raise a rebellion in 819. The Frankish margraves sent armies in 820, 821 and 822, but each time they failed to crush the rebels. Aided by Borna the Guduscan, the Franks eventually defeated Ljudevit, who withdrew his forces to the Serbs and conquered them, according to the Frankish Annals. For much of the subsequent period, Savia was probably directly ruled by
9944-399: The revolution of 1848, there would be only 2 bans of Croatian nationality. The period from 1670 to the Croatian cultural revival in the 19th century was Croatia's political Dark Age. Meanwhile, with the victories over Turks, Habsburgs all the more insistent they spent centralization and germanization, new regained lands in liberated Slavonia started giving to foreign families as feudal goods, at
10057-445: The river Sava . He reassembled his forces in Croatia and advanced on Gvozd Mountain , where he met the main Hungarian army led by King Coloman I of Hungary . In 1097, in the Battle of Gvozd Mountain , the last native king Peter was killed and the Croats were decisively defeated (because of this, the mountain was this time renamed to Petrova Gora , "Peter's Mountain", but identified with the wrong mountain). In 1102, Coloman returned to
10170-491: The sake of stopping the Ottoman conquering and possible assault on the capital of Vienna, the large areas of Croatia and Slavonia (even Hungary and Romania) bordering the Ottoman Empire were organized as a Military Frontier which was ruled directly from Vienna military headquarters. The invasion caused migration of Croats, and the area which became deserted was subsequently settled by Serbs , Vlachs , Germans and others. The negative effects of feudalism escalated in 1573 when
10283-401: The second half of the 13th century, during the Árpád and Anjou dynasty struggle, the Šubić family became hugely powerful under Paul I Šubić of Bribir , who was the longest Croatian Ban (1274–1312), conquering Bosnia and declaring himself "Lord of all of Bosnia" (1299–1312). He appointed his brother Mladen I Šubić as Ban of Bosnia (1299–1304), and helped Charles I from House of Anjou to be
10396-515: The side of Ferdinand I, as they elected him as the new king of Croatia on 1 January 1527, uniting both lands under Habsburg rule. In return they were promised the historic rights, freedoms, laws and defence of Croatian Kingdom. However, the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom was not enough well prepared and organized and the Ottoman Empire expanded further in the 16th century to include most of Slavonia, western Bosnia and Lika . For
10509-596: The size of the eruption. Tephra fragments are classified by size: The use of tephra layers, which bear their own unique chemistry and character, as temporal marker horizons in archaeological and geological sites, is known as tephrochronology . The word "tephra" and "pyroclast" both derive from Greek : The word τέφρα ( téphra ) means "ash", while pyroclast is derived from the Greek πῦρ ( pyr ), meaning "fire", and κλαστός ( klastós ), meaning "broken in pieces". The word τέφραv (means "ashes")
10622-960: The solemn divine service in St. Peter's church in Rome in 879, John VIII] gave his blessing to the duke and the Croatian people, about which he informed Branimir in his letters, in which Branimir was recognized as the Duke of the Croats ( Dux Chroatorum ). During his reign, Croatia retained its sovereignty from both the Holy Roman Empire and Byzantine rule, and became a fully recognized state. After Branimir's death, Prince Muncimir (892–910), Zdeslav's brother, took control of Dalmatia and ruled it independently of both Rome and Byzantium as divino munere Croatorum dux (with God's help, duke of Croats). In Dalmatia, duke Tomislav (910–928) succeeded Muncimir. Tomislav successfully repelled Magyar mounted invasions of
10735-680: The struggle against the Ottoman Turks . Among them there were ban Petar Berislavić who won a victory at Dubica on the Una river in 1513, the captain of Senj and prince of Klis Petar Kružić , who defended the Klis Fortress for almost 25 years, captain Nikola Jurišić who deterred by a magnitude larger Turkish force on their way to Vienna in 1532, or ban Nikola IV Zrinski who helped save Pest from occupation in 1542 and fought in
10848-404: The sun back through the atmosphere, in some cases causing the temperature to drop, resulting in a temporary " volcanic winter ". The effects of acidic rain and snow, the precipitation caused by tephra discharges into the atmosphere, can be seen for years after the eruptions have stopped. Tephra eruptions can affect ecosystems across millions of square kilometres or even entire continents depending on
10961-452: The territory of future Croatia was the polity of Prince Ljudevit who ruled the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers (" Pannonia Inferior "), centred from his fort at Sisak . Although Duke Liutevid and his people are commonly seen as a "Pannonian Croats", he is, due to the lack of "evidence that they had a sense of Croat identity" referred to as dux Pannoniae Inferioris , or simply
11074-460: The time of internal unrest. Besides King Louis's daughter Mary , Charles III of Naples was the closest king male relative with claims to the throne. In February 1386, two months after his coronation, he was assassinated by order of the queen Elizabeth of Bosnia . His supporters, bans John of Palisna , John Horvat and Stjepan Lacković planned a rebellion, and managed to capture and imprison Elizabeth and Mary. By orders of John of Palisna, Elizabeth
11187-536: The topography of nearby areas. In Yellowstone National Park , eruption-related flooding caused trees to collapse and wash into lake beds where they fossilized. Nearby forests were flooded, removing bark, leaves, and tree limbs. In 2006, the Augustine Volcano in Alaska erupted generating earthquakes, avalanches , and projected tephra ash approximately two hundred and ninety kilometers away. This dome volcano
11300-620: The union with Hungary, institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained through the Sabor (an assembly of Croatian nobles) and the ban (viceroy). In addition, the Croatian nobles retained their lands and titles. Coloman retained the institution of the Sabor and relieved the Croatians of taxes on their land. Coloman's successors continued to crown themselves as Kings of Croatia separately in Biograd na Moru . The Hungarian king also introduced
11413-610: The united government in Hungary, thus to together resist the intentions from Vienna. But the connection with Hungary soon adversely affected the position of Croats, because Magyars in the spring of their nationalism tried to Magyarize Croats, and make Croatia a part of a united Hungary. Because of this pretensions, the constant struggles between Croats and Magyars emerged, and lasted until 1918. Croats were fighting in unfavorable conditions, against both Vienna and Budapest, while divided on Banska Hrvatska, Dalmatia and Military Frontier. In such
11526-400: The world have provided valuable scientific information on local ecosystems and ancient cultures. The Waw an Namus volcano is surrounded by an apron of dark tephra, which has a notable color contrast to the surrounding Sahara Desert . Africa's volcanoes have had an impact on the fossil record. Geographically a part of Africa, El Hierro is a shield volcano and the youngest and smallest of
11639-446: Was Ljudevit Gaj who also reformed and standardized Croatian. The official language in Croatia had been Latin until 1847, when it became Croatian. The movement relied on a South Slavic and Panslavistic conception, and its national, political and social ideas were advanced at the time. By the 1840s, the movement had moved from cultural goals to resisting Hungarian political demands. By the royal order of 11 January 1843, originating from
11752-520: Was a common practice, and he forced the Venetians to start paying tribute for sailing near the eastern Adriatic coast. After Domagoj's death, Venetian chronicles named him "The worst duke of Slavs", while Pope John VIII referred to Domagoj in letters as "Famous duke". Domagoj's son, of unknown name, ruled shortly between 876 and 878 with his brothers. They continued the rebellion, attacked the western Istrian towns in 876, but were subsequently defeated by
11865-464: Was composed of twelve counties and was slightly larger than in Tomislav's time, and included the closest southern Dalmatian duchy of Pagania. From the outset, he continued the policies of his father, but was immediately commanded by Pope Nicholas II first in 1059 and then in 1060 to further reform the Croatian church in accordance with the Roman rite . This was especially significant to the papacy in
11978-561: Was followed by war . In the first years of the war, over 200,000 Croats were displaced from their homes as a result of the military actions. In the peak of the fighting, around 550,000 ethnic Croats were displaced altogether during the Yugoslav wars. Tephra Tephra is fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism. Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts . Once clasts have fallen to
12091-646: Was in conflict with the rising Bulgarian Empire ruled by Tsar Simeon I . In 923, due to a deal of Pope John X and a Patriarch of Constantinopole, the sovereignty of Byzantine coastal cities in Dalmatia came under Tomislav's Governancy. The war escalated on 27 May 927, in the battle of the Bosnian Highlands , after Serbs were conquered and some fled to the Croatian Kingdom. There Croats under leadership of their king Tomislav completely defeated
12204-570: Was killed near Knin in an uprising led by Branimir , a relative of Domagoj, instigated by the Pope, fearing Byzantine power. Branimir's (879–892) own actions were approved from the Holy See to bring the Croats further away from the influence of Byzantium and closer to Rome. Duke Branimir wrote to Pope John VIII affirming this split from Byzantine and commitment to the Roman Papacy . During
12317-511: Was named Zrinski ) in 1347. Eventually, the Babonić and Nelipić families also succumbed to the king's offensive against nobility, but with the increasing process of power centralization, Louis managed to force Venice by the Treaty of Zadar in 1358 to give up their possessions in Dalmatia. When King Louis died without successor, the question of succession remained open. The kingdom once again entered
12430-469: Was poisoned by von Wallenstein after a verbal duel. His son, future ban and captain-general of Croatia, Nikola Zrinski , participated during the closing stages of the war. In 1664, the Austrian imperial army was victorious against the Turks, but Emperor Leopold failed to capitalize on the success when he signed the Peace of Vasvár in which Croatia and Hungary were prevented from regaining territory lost to
12543-550: Was raised by a powerful nobleman from Knin – Domagoj , and his son Zdeslav was exiled with his brothers, Petar and Muncimir to Constantinople . Facing a number of naval threats by Saracens and Byzantine Empire, the Croatian Prince Domagoj (864–876) built up the Croatian navy again and helped the coalition of emperor Louis II and the Byzantine to conquer Bari in 871. During Domagoj's reign piracy
12656-488: Was strangled. In retaliation, Magyars crowned Mary's husband Sigismund of Luxembourg . King Sigismund's army was catastrophically defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396) as the Ottoman invasion was getting closer to the borders of the Hungarian-Croatian kingdom. Without news about the king after the battle, the then ruling Croatian ban Stjepan Lacković and nobles invited Charles III's son Ladislaus of Naples to be
12769-444: Was succeeded by his son Stjepan I (1030–1058), who continued his ambitions of spreading rule over the coastal cities, and during whose rule was established the diocese of Knin between 1040 and 1050 which bishop had the nominal title of "Croatian bishop" (Latin: episcopus Chroatensis ). Krešimir IV (1058–1074) managed to get the Byzantine Empire to confirm him as the supreme ruler of the Dalmatian cities. Croatia under Krešimir IV
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