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130-421: ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) The Tulunids ( Arabic : الطولونيون ), were a Mamluk dynasty of Turkic origin who were the first independent dynasty to rule Egypt , as well as much of Syria , since the Ptolemaic dynasty . They were independent from 868, when they broke away from the central authority of the Abbasid Caliphate , to 905, when the Abbasids restored the Tulunid domains to their control. In

260-728: A Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120. The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the Almoravid dynasty in governing Morocco by 1147, when Abd al-Mu'min (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself caliph. They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa, and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172. The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1214)

390-451: A Persian slave called Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz . His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors ( majlis ). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam , a Khawarij . Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period

520-541: A center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan . The Abbasid Caliphate had, however, lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920. By 945, the loss of power became official when the Buyids conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties. In

650-411: A crown decorated with the bull's head and two wings. In one of the issues, the legend is: šb’lk’ yyp MLK’ ( Išbara Jeb ˇ [= yabghu] šah , on the obverse) and pnˇcdh. h. wsp’ ("[minted in his] 15th [regnal year at] Khusp", on the reverse). This would date the coin to 645 CE, with a location for the mint at Khusp , Kuhistan . Other known mints are Herat and Shuburgan . After 650 however, the power of

780-718: A faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the Kharijites , to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan , Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing

910-666: A hostage. From 719 CE, Tegin Shah was the king of the Turk Shahis. He then abdicated in 739 CE in favour of his son Fromo Kesaro , probable phonetic transcription of "Caesar of Rome" in honor of "Caesar", the title of the then East Roman Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, and sent an embassy through Central Asia in 719 CE. Fromo Kesaro appears to have fought vigorously against

1040-627: A hostage. The Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, sent an embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 CE which probably met with the Tokhara Yabghus and the Turk Shahis , who in honour of the Byzantine Emperor even named one of their own rulers "Caesar of Rome" (which they rendered phonetically as King " Fromo Kesaro "). The Chinese annals record that "In

1170-484: A leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of Saqifah , though he did face contention as

1300-591: A multi-ethnic army. His military prowess, in fact, was strengthened by his multi-ethnic regiments of black Sudanese soldiers, Greek mercenaries and fresh Turkic troops from Turkestan . Ibn Tulun founded an élite guard to surround the Tulunid family. These formed the core of the Tulunid army, around which other larger regiments were built. These troops are said to have been from the region of Ghūr in Afghanistan , during Ibn Tulun's reign, and from local Arabs during

1430-524: A new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca ), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar , both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with

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1560-457: A palace scandal when Tardu's firstborn son Ishbara Tegin fallen in love with his new step-mother (also aunt) and poisoned Tardu in 630. Ishbara Yabgu ( Chinese : 阿史那沙钵罗 ; pinyin : Ashina Shaboluo ) was the son of Tardu Shad, and took over as Tokharistan Yabgu. He was the first Tokharistan Yabghu to mint coins. In these coins, in Sasanian style, his effigy represents him bearing

1690-601: A person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim world ( ummah ). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and

1820-519: A prominent player in the Near Eastern political stage, he negotiated two treaties with the Abbasids. In the first treaty in 886, al-Muwaffak recognized Tulunid authority over Egypt and the regions of Syria for a thirty-year period. The second treaty, reached with al-Muʿtadid in 892, confirmed the terms of the earlier accord. Both treaties also sought to confirm the status of the Tulunid governor as

1950-530: A relative of Uthman and governor ( wali ) of Syria , succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty . In areas which were previously under Sasanian Empire or Byzantine rule, the caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by

2080-512: A result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib , initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for

2210-577: A shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels". A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate, and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mohammed Omar , former head of the Taliban of Afghanistan , neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside

2340-586: A significant party is as follows: During the reign of Ahmad ibn Tulun, the Egyptian economy remained prosperous. There were propitious levels of agricultural production, stimulated by consistent high flooding of the Nile . Other industries, particularly textiles , also thrived. In his administration, ibn Tulun asserted his autonomy, refusing to pay taxes to the central Abbasid government in Baghdad. He also reformed

2470-830: A sophistication and cosmopolitanism comparable to other works of art of the Silk Road such as those of Kizil , are attributable to the sponsorship of the Turks. Buddhism in Tokharistan is said to have enjoyed a revival under the Turks. Several monasteries of Tokharistan dated to the 7th–8th centuries display beautiful Buddhist works of art, such as Kalai Kafirnigan , Ajina Tepe , Khisht Tepe or Kafyr Kala , around which Turkic nobility and populations followed Hinayana Buddhism. The Turks were apparently quite tolerant of other religions. The mural paintings of Bamiyan display male devotees in double-lapel caftans, also attributable to

2600-559: A stable economy and a wealthy polity from his father. The treasury was worth ten million dīnārs at the young Tulunid's succession. When Ḵh̲umārawayh was killed in 896, the treasury was empty, and the dinar had sunk to one-third its value. Part of this financial disaster is attributed to his addiction to luxury, while squandering wealth to win loyalty was also another cause. Ḵh̲umārawayh, unlike his father, spent lavishly. For example, he gave his daughter, Ḳaṭr al-Nadā, an extraordinary dowry of 400,000 - 1,000,000 dīnārs, for her wedding in 892 to

2730-588: A vassal of the caliphal family seated in Baghdad. Despite his gains, Khumārawayh's reign also set the stage for the demise of the dynasty. Financial exhaustion, political infighting and strides by the Abbasids would all contribute to the ruin of the Tulunids. Khumārawayh was also totally reliant on his Turkish and sub-Saharan soldiers. Under the administration of Khumārawayh, the Syro-Egyptian state's finances and military were destabilized. The later emirs of

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2860-510: A warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh , would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah , by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose

2990-622: Is known as the Fitna , or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali. ) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect. Under the Rāshidun, each region ( Sultanate , Wilayah , or Emirate ) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir ). Muāwiyah ,

3120-833: The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate , the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman caliphate was formally abolished as part of the 1924 secularisation of Turkey . An attempt to preserve the title was tried, with the Sharifian Caliphate , but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the Sultanate of Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia ), leaving

3250-492: The Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering. Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign. Their major city and capital Baghdad began to flourish as

3380-724: The Ahl al-Bayt (the "Household of the Prophet"). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR , the war on terror and the Arab Spring , various Islamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims. Before

3510-665: The Khwaja Salimullah were popularly given the term khalifa . The Bornu Caliphate, which was headed by the Bornu emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger Kanem-Bornu Empire , its rulers held the title of caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the British Colony of Nigeria and Northern Cameroons Protectorate . The British recognised them as the 'sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became

3640-496: The Mihna . During his reign, Ibn Tulun created a Tulunid army and navy. The need for the establishment of an autonomous armed force became apparent after the revolt of ʿĪsā ibn al-Shaykkh, governor of Palestine, in 870. In response, Ibn Tulun organized an army composed of Sudanese and Greek slave-soldiers. Other reports indicate the soldiers may have been Persians and Sudanese. Ḵh̲umārawayh continued his father's policy of having

3770-587: The Mughal Empire , who were the only Sunni rulers whose territory and wealth could compete with that of the Ottomans, started assuming the title of caliph and calling their capital as the Dar-ul-khilafat ("abode of the caliphate") since the time of the third emperor Akbar like their Timurid ancestors. A gold coin struck under Akbar called him the "great sultan , the exalted khalifah ". Although

3900-534: The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea , were lost to the Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became

4030-569: The Turk Shahi (665–850 CE), a probable political extension and vassals of the neighbouring Yabghus of Tokharistan, remained an obstacle to the eastward expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate . c.  650 CE , the Arabs attacked Shahi territory from the west, and captured Kabul . But the Turk Shahi were able to mount a counter-offensive and repulsed the Arabs, taking back the areas of Kabul and Zabulistan (around Ghazni ), as well as

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4160-520: The Zanj rebellion (and perhaps limit the autonomy of the Tulunids). This pressing need for funds drew the attention of Baghdad to the considerably more wealthy Egypt. The situation came to a head in 877, when al-Muwaffak, upon not receiving the demanded funds, sent an army to depose Ahmad ibn Tulun. Nevertheless, on at least two occasions, Ibn Tulun remitted considerable sums of revenue, along with gifts, to

4290-569: The al-Madhara'i family. During the period of 870–872, Ibn Tulun asserted more control over Egypt's financial administration. In 871, he took control of the kharaj taxes as well as the thughūr from Syria. He also achieved victory over Ibn al-Mudabbir, the head of the finance office and member of the Abbasid bureaucratic élite. The de facto ruler of the Abbasid caliphate, al-Muwaffak, took issue with Ibn Tulun's financial activities. He wanted to secure Egyptian revenue for his campaign against

4420-728: The de facto ruler of the caliphate. As a result of this uncertainty, Ahmad ibn Tulun could establish and expand his authority. Thus the Tulunids wielded regional power, largely unhindered by imperial will; as such, the Tulunids can be compared with other 9th-century dynasties of the Muslim world, including the Aghlabids and the Tahirids . Ahmad ibn Ṭūlūn was a member of the mostly Central Asian Turkish guard formed initially in Baghdad , then later settled in Samarra , upon its establishment as

4550-532: The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922. On 3 March 1924, the first president of the Turkish Republic , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , as part of his reforms , constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. Atatürk offered

4680-589: The Abbasid al-Muʿtaḍid. This move is speculated by some scholars to have been an attempt by the Abbasids to drain the Tulunid treasury. Tokhara Yabghus The Turks initially occupied the area of north of the Oxus ( Transoxonia , Sogdiana ) following their destruction of the Hephthalites in 557–565 CE through an alliance with the Sasanian Empire . The Sasanians, on the other hand, took control of

4810-431: The Abbasid army had recovered Syria and was on the verge of invading Egypt itself. Harun's successor, his uncle Shayban ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun , was unable to resist an Abbasid invasion under the command of Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib , with naval support from frontier forces under Damian of Tarsus . This brought an end to his reign and that of the Tulunids. Ahmad ibn Tulun founded his own capital, al-Qatā'i , north of

4940-666: The American ambassador to Ottoman Turkey , Oscar Straus , to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order the Tausūg people of the Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines to submit to American suzerainty and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under

5070-535: The Arabs in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, the Yabghu of Tokharistan . In 710, the Umayyad general Qutayba ibn Muslim was able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkhan, who was executed on the orders of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , while the Yabghus, who had ruled parts of Tokharistan as well as Badakhshan, was exiled to Damascus and kept there as

5200-582: The Arabs, and his victories may have forged the Tibetan epic legend of King Phrom Ge-sar . The Turk Shahis eventually weakened against the Arabs in the late 9th century CE. Kandahar , Kabul and Zabul were lost to the Arabs, while in Gandhara the Hindu Shahi took over. The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was deposed by a Brahmin minister, possibly named Vakkadeva, in c. 850, signaling

5330-686: The Chinese entry for this account by Puluo is: 六年十一月丁未阿史特勒僕羅上書訴曰：僕羅克吐火羅葉護部下管諸國王都督刺史總二百一十二人謝芄王統領兵馬二十萬眾潯齬王統領兵馬二十萬眾骨吐國王石汗那國王解蘇國王石匿國王悒達國王護密國王護時健國王範延國王久越德建國王勃特山王各領五萬眾。僕羅祖父已來並是上件諸國之王蕃望尊重。 On the Dingwei day of the eleventh month in the sixth year [of the Kaiyuan era (713–741 CE)], Ashi Tegin Puluo writes to the emperor: the Kings of States, Commander-in-chiefs (都督 Dudu ) and Regional Inspectors (刺史 Cishi ) under

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5460-495: The Foundations of Governance . The argument of this book has been summarised as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government". He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate. Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as

5590-819: The Hephthalites, formerly vassals of the Sasanian Empire, accepted Turk supremacy and became vassals of the Western Turk qaghan, and the Alchon Huns continued to rule in Kabul and Gandhara , but the Turks apparently did not permanently occupy the territory south of the Oxus. The Hephthalites aspired to independence from the Turks, and in 581 or 582 CE, they revolted in alliance with the Sasanians against

5720-523: The Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor Aurangzeb has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula. He received support from the Ottoman sultans such as Suleiman II and Mehmed IV . As a memoriser of Quran, Aurangzeb fully established sharia in South Asia via his Fatawa 'Alamgiri . He re-introduced jizya and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included

5850-407: The Mughals did not acknowledge the overlordship of Ottomans, they nevertheless used the title of caliph to honour them in diplomatic exchanges. Akbar's letter to Suleiman the Magnificent addressed the latter as having attained the rank of the caliphate, while calling Akbar's empire as the "Khilafat of realms of Hind and Sind." The fifth emperor Shah Jahan also laid claim to the Caliphate. Although

5980-519: The Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over Al-Andalus , reclaimed the title of caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. During the Umayyad dynasty, the Iberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from Damascus . The Umayyads lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750, and Abd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated

6110-524: The Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in British India to comply with the British government. The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India, and the Ottoman sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan Selim III and Sultan Abdulmejid I . Around 1880, Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted

6240-413: The Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire. Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina , which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However,

6370-409: The Sasanian Peroz III was able to establish some level of control with the help of the yabghu of Tokharistan in Seistan . In 705, P’an-tu-ni-li, the yabghu of Tokharistan, is recorded as having sent a mission to the Chinese court. He ruled from Badakshan , as the area of Balkh and the central areas of his territory were occupied by the Arabs, including Shuburgan, Khusp and Herat. According to

6500-415: The Sasanian Empire was into a difficult war with the Byzantine Empire , the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 . According to Cefu Yuangui , these principalities were Zabulistan , Kapisa - Gandhara , Khuttal , Chaghaniyan , Shignan , Shuman , Badhgis , Wakhan , Guzgan , Bamiyan , Kobadiyan and Badakhshan . The areas of Khuttal and Kapisa - Gandhara had remained independent kingdoms under

6630-530: The Sasanians under Bahram Chobin , who entered the area north of the Oxus and killed the Turkish Khagan. A war broke out between the Sassanians and the Hephthalites in 606–607 or 616–617 CE, the Second Perso-Turkic War . At that time, the Turkic Khagan sent an army to help the Hephthalites, and was able to bring a great defeat upon the Sasanians, advancing his troops as far as Ray and Isfahan , but Sheguy Kaghan recalled his armies without pressing his advantage. The Turks definitely intended to take control of

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6760-419: The Tibetans in 749 CE, and received this help from the Chinese, and in 758 CE Wu-na-to (Udita?) visited in person the Chinese court and participated in the fight against the rebel An Lu-shan . In the Nestorian Stele of Xi'an , erected in 781 CE, the Nestorian monk Jingjing mentioned in Syriac that his grandfather was a missionary-priest from Balkh in Tokharistan. In the area of Kapisa - Gandhara ,

6890-409: The Tulunid period have Samarran-style stucco panels. Ḵh̲umārawayh's reign exceeded his father's in spending. He built luxuriant palaces and gardens for himself and those he favored. To the Tulunid Egyptians, his "marvellous" blue-eyed palace lion exemplified his prodigality. His stables were so extensive that, according to popular lore, Khumarawaih never rode a horse more than once. Though he squandered

7020-399: The Tulunids were to pay 300,000 dīnārs (though this figure may be inaccurate) annually. The Tūlūnid administration over Egypt bore several notable features. The style of rule was highly centralized and "pitiless" in its execution. The administration was also backed by Egypt's commercial, religious and social élite. Ahmad ibn Tulun replaced Iraqi officials with an Egyptian bureaucracy. Overall,

7150-479: The Turk Empire. Tong Yabghu Qaghan then installed his son Tardush Shad ( Chinese : 達頭设 ; pinyin : Dátóu Shè ), as the first yabgu (sub-king) of Tokharistan , controlling all the new Turk realm south of the Oxus, from his capital at Kunduz . Tardush Shad ( Chinese : 達頭设 ; pinyin : Dátóu Shè ) was installed in Tokharistan, and ruled in Kunduz with title of Tokharistan Yabgu ( Chinese : 吐火羅葉護 ; pinyin : Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù ). He

7280-408: The Turk Kaghan Tardu . In 588–589, the Turks under Bagha Qaghan entered into a direct conflict with the Sasanians, in the First Perso-Turkic War . The Turks invaded the Sasanian territories south of the Oxus, where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed in Balkh , and then proceeded to conquer the city along with Talaqan , Badghis , and Herat . But the Turks were defeated by

7410-501: The Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km ), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen and the seventh largest ever to exist in history. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected by Shura and suggestions of impious behaviour,

7540-424: The Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Some supported prominent early Muslims like Zubayr ibn al-Awwam ; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim , or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays ). At

7670-408: The Umayyad dynasty, named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, Umayya ibn Abd Shams . Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary. Under the Umayyads, the caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the Caucasus , Transoxiana , Sindh , the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula ( Al-Andalus ) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent,

7800-468: The Yabghu of Tokharistan, the elder brother of Puluo, number two hundred and twelve, in all. The king of Zabul is in charge of infantry and cavalry numbering two hundred thousand, and the king of Kabul is also in charge of two hundred thousand infantry and cavalry. The Kings of the States of Khuttal , Chaghanian , Jiesu , Shughnan , Yeda , Humi , Guzganan , Bamiyan , Quwādhiyān , and Badakhshan each lead fifty thousand troops. Since

7930-465: The Yabghus of Tokharistan fragmented, as they came, as least partially, under Tang suzerainty. A Türk yabghu of Tokharistan recorded under the name of "Wu-shih-po of the A-shih-na dynasty" was the first yabghu to be confirmed by the Chinese Emperor. In 652–653 CE, the Arabs under Abdallah ibn Amir conquered the whole of Tokharistan and captured the city of Balkh , as part of the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan . The Western Turkic Khaganate itself

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8060-452: The administration relied on the powerful merchant community for both financial and diplomatic support. For example, Maʿmar al-Ḏj̲awharī, a leading member of the merchant community in Egypt, served as Ibn Ṭūlūn's financier. The Tulunid administration also helped the economy prosper, by maintaining political stability, which in Egypt is a sine qua non . Isolated revolts among the Copts and some Arab nomads in upper Egypt, which never threatened

8190-411: The administration, aligning himself with the merchant community, and changing the taxation system. Under the Tulunids, there were also repairs in the agricultural infrastructure. The key sector of production, investment, and participation in their Mediterranean-wide commerce, was textiles, linen in particular (Frantz, 281–5). The financial bureaucracy throughout the Tulunid period was headed by members of

8320-421: The advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title malik 'king', or another from the same Semitic root . The term caliph ( / ˈ k eɪ l ɪ f , ˈ k æ l ɪ f / ) derives from the Arabic word khalīfah ( خَليفة , pronunciation ), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy'—and has traditionally been considered a shortening of Khalīfah rasūl Allāh 'successor of

8450-442: The affairs of the state. In 905, the Tulunids were unable to resist an invasion by the Abbasid troops, who restored direct caliphal rule in Syria and Egypt. The Tulunid period was marked by economic and administrative reforms alongside cultural ones. Ahmad ibn Tulun changed the taxation system and aligned himself with the merchant community. He also established the Tulunid army. The capital was moved from Fustat to al-Qata'i , where

8580-401: The alliance of the Turks and the Sasanians. In 569–570, the Turks launched an offensive against the Sasanian Empire, and conquered the Hephthalite principalities south of the Oxus belonging to the Sasanian Empire. At that time the Sasanian Empire was embroiled in a war in the west, with the Byzantine Empire . It seems the Turks reached the Kabul – Gandhara area in 570. The principalities of

8710-422: The area south of the Oxus, with Chaganiyan , Sind , Bust, Rukhkhaj , Zabulistan , Tokharistan , Turistan and Balistan being transformed into vassal kingdoms and principalities. After this time, a tense Turco-Persian border existed along the Oxus , which lasted several decades. The area south of the Oxus contained numerous Hephthalites principalities, remnants of the great Hephthalite Empire destroyed by

8840-466: The borders of their respective countries. Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Muslim Brotherhood . The AKP government in Turkey, a former Muslim Brotherhood ally who has adopted Neo-Ottomanist policies throughout its rule, has been accused of intending to restore

8970-486: The bride's family has also been absent in Islamic marriages, where mahr , or bride price has been the custom. Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn's support to Sunni scholars also allowed for the development in Egypt of Islamic sciences, especially hadith transmission, which contributed to the Islamization of the hinterland. The official support granted by ibn Ṭūlūn to the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence did much to resuscitate and popularize it after it went into decline during

9100-404: The buildings of al-Andalus were constructed in this period. The Almohad Caliphate ( Berber languages : Imweḥḥden , from الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun , " the Monotheists " or "the Unifiers") was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century. The Almohad movement was started by Ibn Tumart among the Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established

9230-408: The caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi , on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid . The title was then claimed by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and Hejaz , leader of the Arab Revolt , but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by ibn Saud in 1925. Egyptian scholar Ali Abdel Raziq published his 1925 book Islam and

9360-404: The caliphate were sent against him, due to his insufficient payment of tribute. Ahmad ibn Tulun, however, maintained his power, and took Syria the following year. His reign of more than ten years allowed him to leave behind a well-trained military, a stable economy and an experienced bureaucracy to oversee the state affairs. He appointed his son, Khumārawayh, as the heir. With full autonomy, once

9490-469: The caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Ali himself. The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Copts . The Shiʻa Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty , who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed

9620-808: The caliphate. After the Umayyad campaigns in India and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties were founded by the Ghurid dynasty and the Ghaznavids , most notably the Delhi Sultanate . The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since the Ottoman Empire was already observing the caliphate. The emperors of

9750-569: The capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until Ar-Radi (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Muhammad ibn Ra'iq . In 1261, following the Mongol conquest of Baghdad , the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring

9880-476: The casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of Byzantine–Persian warfare . Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the companions at the Battle of Siffin . The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused

10010-474: The celebrated mosque of Ibn Tulun was constructed. The rise and fall of the Tulunids occurred against a backdrop of increasing regionalism in the Muslim world . The Abbasid caliphate was struggling with political disturbances and losing its aura of universal legitimacy. There had previously been Coptic and Shia Alid -led movements in Egypt and Baghdad, without more than temporary and local success. There

10140-399: The central Abbasid administration. Under Ahmad's son, Khumarawayh, the Abbasids formally entered into a treaty with the Tulunids, thereby ending hostilities and resuming the payment of tribute. Financial provisions were made in the first treaty in 886 with al-Muwaffak . A second treaty with al-Muʿtaḍid, the son of al-Muwaffak, in 892, re-affirmed the political terms of the first. Financially,

10270-612: The chronicles of the Chinese Cefu Yuangui , a young brother of Pantu Nili named Puluo (僕羅 púluó in Chinese sources) again visited the Tang court in 718 and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region. Puluo described the power of "the Kings of Tokharistan", explaining that "Two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" recognize the authority of the Yabghus, and that it has been so since

10400-403: The city of Cairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar Louis Massignon dubbed the fourth century AH /tenth century CE as the " Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of

10530-419: The claim in dormancy . Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were hereditary monarchies , have claimed to be caliphates. Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Shia Muslims , however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from

10660-706: The command of Yazid son of Muawiya, an army led by Umar ibn Saad, a commander by the name of Shimr Ibn Thil-Jawshan killed Ali's son Hussein and his family at the Battle of Karbala in 680, solidifying the Shia-Sunni split . Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shi‘at ‘Alī , "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when

10790-539: The control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty." Political Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal After the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the military occupation of Constantinople and Treaty of Versailles (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) which imposed

10920-487: The designated heir. The first challenge he faced was the invasion of Syria by armies sent by al-Muwaffak, the de facto ruler during the reign of caliph al-Mu'tamid. Khumārawayh also had to deal with the defection of Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Wasiti, a long-time and key ally of his father's, to the invaders' camp. The young Tulunid achieved political and military gains, enabling him to extend his authority from Egypt into northern Iraq, and as far north as Tarsus by 890. Being now

11050-454: The dynastic wealth, he also encouraged a rich cultural life with patronage of scholarship and poetry. His protégé and the teacher of his sons was the famed grammarian Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad Muslim (d. 944). An encomium was written by Ḳāsim b . Yaḥyā al-Maryamī (d. 929) to celebrate Khumarawaih's triumphs on the battlefield. Through the mediation of his closest adviser, al-Ḥusayn ibn Jaṣṣāṣ al-Jawharī, Khumārawayh arranged for one of

11180-414: The dynasty were all ineffectual rulers, relying on their Turkish and black soldiers to run the affairs of the state. Khumarawayh's son Abu 'l-Asakir (also known as Jaysh) was deposed by the Tulunid military command in 896, shortly after coming to power. He was succeeded by his brother, Harun . Though he would rule for eight years, he was unable to revitalize the dynasty, and was assassinated in 904, after

11310-513: The dynasty's power, were actually a response to the more efficient Tulunid fiscal practices. The economy was strengthened by reforms introduced both immediately before the Tulunids and during their reign. There were changes in the tax assessment and collection system. There was also an expansion in the use of tax-contracts , which were the source of an emergent land-holding élite in this period. Ahmad ibn Tulun's agrarian and administrative reforms encouraged peasants to work their lands with zeal, despite

11440-414: The earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage. It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule. The outcome of

11570-633: The east and lives in Badakhshan . Now Balkh belongs to the Arabs' domain. (...) The King, the nobles and the people revere the Three Jewels (Buddhism). There are many monasteries and monks; they practice the Hinayana teachings. Chinese sources mention a few years later yabghus who sent missions to the Tang court: Ku-tu-lu Tun Ta-tu (Qutluγ Ton Tardu) asked for help against the Arabs in 729 CE, Shih-li-mang-kia-lo (Sri Mangala) asked for help against

11700-476: The easternmost "Hephthalites" (actually Alchon Hun ) under kings such as Narendra , before being taken over as vassals by the Western Turks. The appearance of the "crown with a bull's head" on the coin portraits of the last rulers of Kapisa-Gandhara Narendra II, can be considered as a sign of recognition of Turk sovereignty, since the title buqa (bull) had been in use from 599, when Khagan Tardu united

11830-543: The end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, and the beginning of the Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul. These was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Yabghus of Tokharistan during 7th–8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development of Buddhist art . The works of art of this period in Afghanistan, with

11960-538: The existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate. Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, when Abd al-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Al-Mu'tadid , Abd al-Rahman III claimed

12090-536: The first month of the seventh year of the period Kaiyuan [719 CE] their Lord [拂菻王, "the King of Fulin "] sent the Ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [吐火羅, Tokhara] (...) to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent Ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our court with tribute." Turk ( "T’u-chüeh" ) kingdoms were in the territories of Gandhara, Kapisa and Zabulistan around 723–729 CE, according to

12220-424: The forces of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Hepthalites and their allies captured Termez in 689, repelled the Arabs, and occupied the whole region of Khorasan for a brief period, with Termez as they capital, described by the Arabs as "the headquarters of the Hephthalites" ( dār mamlakat al-Hayāṭela ). The Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate under Yazid ibn al-Muhallab re-captured Termez in 704. Nezak Tarkan ,

12350-531: The grandfather of Puluo, the Yehu Tuhuolo [Yabghu of Tokharistan] has become king of the above-mentioned states: he is greatly respected." Puluo, writing in 718 CE, finally reaffirmed the loyalty of the Tokhara Yabghus towards the Tang dynasty, probably since the time of the fall of the Western Turks to China (657), confirming at least nominal control of the Chinese administration over the region for

12480-402: The great political marriages of medieval Islamic history . He proposed his daughter's marriage to a member of the caliphal family in Baghdad. The marriage between the Tulunid princess Ḳaṭr al-Nadā with the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tadid took place in 892. The exorbitant marriage included an awesome dowry estimated at between 400,000 and one million dinars . Some speculate that the splendours of

12610-429: The heavy taxes. He also terminated the exactions of the administration's officers for their personal profit. One final feature of the administration under Ibn Ṭūlūn was the discontinuation of the practice of draining off the majority of his revenue to the metropolis. Instead, he initiated building programs to benefit other parts of Egypt. He also used those funds to stimulate commerce and industry. Ḵh̲umārawayh inherited

12740-608: The last sixty years: 然火羅葉護積代已來，於大唐忠赤，朝貢不絕。 The Yabghus of Tokharistan, for several generations until now, have been sincerely devoted to the great Tang dynasty , they have without interruption paid their respects and brought tribute. c.  689 CE , the Hephthalite ruler of Badghis and the Arab rebel Musa ibn Abd Allah ibn Khazim, son of the Zubayrid governor of Khurasan Abd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami , allied against

12870-546: The late 9th century, internal conflict amongst the Abbasids made control of the outlying areas of the empire increasingly tenuous, and in 868 the Turkic officer Ahmad ibn Tulun established himself as an independent governor of Egypt. He subsequently achieved nominal autonomy from the central Abbasid government. During his reign (868–884) and those of his successors, the Tulunid domains were expanded to include Jordan Rift Valley , as well as Hejaz , Cyprus and Crete . Ahmad

13000-490: The local sponsorship of the Western Turks. Seleucid Empire : Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Caliph List of forms of government A caliphate ( Arabic : خِلَافَةْ , romanized :  khilāfah [xi'laːfah] ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph ( / ˈ k æ l ɪ f , ˈ k eɪ -/ ; خَلِيفَةْ khalīfa [xæ'liːfæh] , pronunciation ),

13130-516: The messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'. In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina ) took place in the saqifa (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on

13260-530: The ninth century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks. By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of

13390-526: The official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory. According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with the Russian Empire in 1774, when the Empire retained moral authority on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire. The British would tactfully affirm

13520-642: The piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the Marinid dynasty , in 1215. The last representative of the line, Idris al-Wathiq , was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh , where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western Maghreb . The Fatimid Caliphate

13650-497: The previous capital Fustat , where he seated his government. One of the dominant features of this city, and indeed the feature that survives today, was the Mosque of Ibn Tulun . The mosque is built in a Samarran style that was common in the period during which the caliphate had shifted capitals from Baghdad to Samarra . This style of architecture was not just confined to religious buildings, but secular ones also. Surviving houses of

13780-468: The re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo . The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III , who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he

13910-458: The region of Arachosia as far as Kandahar . The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 697–698 CE, and their general Yazid ibn Ziyad was killed in the action. A few years later however the Arabs defeated and killed the Kabul Shah and conquered Kabul under Umayyad general Qutayba ibn Muslim . Nezak Tarkhan, the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a revolt against

14040-407: The reign of Ḵh̲umārawayh. In a ceremony held in 871, Ibn Tulun had his forces swear personal allegiance to him. Nevertheless, there were defections from the Tulunid army, most notably of the high-ranking commander Luʾluʾ in 883 to the Abbasids. Throughout its life the army faced such persistent problems of securing allegiance. Khumārawayh also established an elite corps called al-mukhtāra . The corps

14170-459: The ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a new revolt in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, the Yabghu of Tokharistan. In 710, Qutaiba ibn Muslim was able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkan who was executed on al-Hajjaj 's orders, despite promises of pardon, while the Yabghu was exiled to Damascus and kept there as

14300-406: The seat of the caliphate by al-Mu'tasim . In 254/868, Ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt as resident governor by Bāyakbāk (d. 256/870), the representative of the Abbasid caliph al-Muʿtazz. Ibn Tulun promptly established a financial and military presence in the province of Egypt by establishing an independent Egyptian army and taking over the management of the Egyptian and Syrian treasuries. In 877, troops of

14430-764: The sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. Thus, he has been compared to the second caliph, Umar bin Khattab, and Kurdish conqueror Saladin . The Mughal emperors continued to be addressed as caliphs until the reign of Shah Alam II . Other notable rulers such as Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji , Alauddin Khilji , Firuz Shah Tughlaq , Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , Babur , Sher Shah Suri , Nasir I of Kalat , Tipu Sultan , Nawabs of Bengal , and

14560-462: The state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were Ismaili imams and had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of the caliphate, as recognised by some Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali's wife Fatima ) and

14690-404: The succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty. Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by

14820-668: The tax income no longer had to go to the Caliph in Baghdad, it was possible to develop irrigation works and build a navy, which greatly stimulated the local economy and trade. In 878, the Jordan valley was occupied by the Tulunids, extending in the north to the outposts in the Anti-Lebanon mountains on the Byzantine border, enabling them to defend Egypt against Abbasid attack. Following his father's death, Khumārawayh took control as

14950-628: The territories south of the Oxus, but were only ready sometime later, and took the opportunity when the Sasanian Empire again entered into conflict with the Byzantine Empire. In 625, Tong Yabgu invaded Tokharistan and forced the Hephtalite principalities to submit. He went as far as the Indus river and took control of all the intervening principalities, replacing Hepthalite rulers by Turk ones. The Turks were victorious, partly because

15080-460: The testimony the Korean pilgrim Hui Chao . Huei-chao also mentioned that in 726 CE, the Arabs occupied Balkh , and the Turks were forced to flee to Badakshan : I arrived in Tokharistan (吐火羅國 Tuhuoluo-guo ). The home city of the king is called Balkh (縛底那). At this time the troops of the Arabs (大寔國) are there and they occupy it. Its King, Wives and Court was forced to flee one month's journey to

15210-469: The time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of the establishment of the Yabghus of Tokharistan. This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 CE, formed of the territories north and south of the Hindu Kush , including the areas of Kabul and Zabul. The territory of Guzgan was also mentioned among the territories controlled by the Yabghus. Part of

15340-578: The title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Sunni Muslims of British India . By the eve of World War I , the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia. In 1899, John Hay , U.S. Secretary of State, asked

15470-532: The title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, before it fragmented into various taifas in the eleventh century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; many of

15600-602: The title of caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controlling Algeria , Tunisia and Libya , the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine , before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171 and was overtaken by Saladin of the Ayyubid dynasty . The caliphate

15730-603: The wedding were a calculated attempt by the Abbasids to ruin the Tulunids. The tale of the splendid nuptials of Ḳaṭr al-Nadā lived on in the memory of the Egyptian people well into the Ottoman period , and were recorded in the chronicles and the folk-literature. The marriage's importance arises from its exceptional nature: the phenomenon of marriage between royal families is rare in Islamic history . The concept of dowry given by

15860-588: Was also a struggle for power between the Turkish military command and the administration of Baghdad . Furthermore, there was a widening imperial financial crisis. All of these themes would recur during the Tulunid rule. The internal politics of the Abbasid caliphate itself seem to have been unstable. In 870, Abū Aḥmad (b. al-Mutawakkil) al-Muwaffaḳ (d. 891) was summoned from exile in Mecca to re-establish Abbasid authority over southern Iraq. Quickly, however, he became

15990-717: Was an Isma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based in Tunisia , that extended its rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb , Sicily, the Levant and the Hejaz . The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building

16120-548: Was claimed by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne . In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror 's conquest of Constantinople , the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople , present-day Istanbul . In 1517,

16250-405: Was composed of bedouins from the eastern Nile delta . By bestowing privileges upon the tribesmen, and converting them into an efficient and loyal bodyguard, he brought peace to the region between Egypt and Syria. He also re-asserted his control over this strategic region. The regiment also included one thousand Sudanese natives. A list of military engagements in which the Tulunid army constituted

16380-693: Was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile , Aragon , Navarre and Portugal . Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively. The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until

16510-532: Was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al-Mustamsik , but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517. The Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo. The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of

16640-651: Was destroyed by the Tang dynasty in 657 CE, and most of his territories became protectorates of the Tang Empire, and organized into regional commanderies. Kunduz became the site of the Yuezhi Commandery (月氏都督府, Yuèzhī Dūdùfû ) under administration of the Anxi Protectorate . During the rule of the Umayyad caliph Ali (656–661), the Arabs were expulsed from eastern Iran, as far as Nishapur and

16770-465: Was married two times – both a daughter of Qu Boya (麴伯雅) – ruler of Qocho . When Xuanzang visited Kunduz , he also brought a letter from his brother-in-law and ruler of Qocho Qu Wentai (麴文泰) to Tardu. Yabgu received him despite being in ill condition. It was Tardu to advise him to make a trip westward to Balkh (modern Afghanistan ), to see the Buddhist sites and relics. Xuanzang also witnessed

16900-473: Was succeeded by his son Khumarawayh, whose military and diplomatic achievements made him a major player in the Middle Eastern political stage. The Abbasids affirmed their recognition of the Tulunids as legitimate rulers, and the dynasty's status as vassals to the caliphate . After Khumarawayh's death, his successor emirs were ineffectual rulers, allowing their Turkic and black slave -soldiers to run

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