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131-494: Tuoba Tao was born in 408, while his father Tuoba Si was still the Prince of Qi under his grandfather, Emperor Daowu , without having officially been made crown prince but was the heir presumptive , as the oldest and most favored son of Emperor Daowu. (Tuoba Tao's mother was later referred to in history as Consort Du (杜貴嬪), but was likely actually named Duguhun, as by the time that Wei Shu (the official history of Northern Wei)

262-486: A Lushuihu man, Gai Wu, started an uprising against Northern Wei at Xingcheng (杏城, in modern Yan'an , Shaanxi ), and he was quickly joined by a large number of other " Hu " and Han people. Gai also submitted as a vassal to Liu Song, seeking Liu Song aid. Initial attempts by local officials to stamp out Gai's rebellion failed, and Gai became stronger and stronger, claiming the title of Prince of Tiantai. In spring 446, Emperor Taiwu personally attacked and defeated Gai's ally,

393-725: A conflict with the Northern Yan emperor Feng Ba over Feng Ba's insistence that Huniuyu kneel to him, and Feng Ba detained Huniuyu and refused to establish relations with Northern Wei. How successful the Rouran mission was is harder to gauge, for although initially it appeared to be successful, by new year 415 the Rouran Khan Yujiulü Datan (郁久閭大檀) invaded, and Emperor Mingyuan was forced to respond, chasing Yujiulü Datan back to his territory, but when Emperor Mingyuan sent his advisor Daxi Jin (達奚斤) to pursue Yujiulü Datan,

524-412: A cruel and arbitrary ruler. Feng Ba and his brother, Feng Sufu were charged with crimes against Xi, forcing them to flee to the countryside where they were determined to overthrow him. In 407, as Murong Xi was holding a funeral for Empress Fu , Feng Ba and his conspirators took control of the capital Longcheng and acclaimed Murong Yun as their leader. Xi initially led an assault on Longcheng but then fled

655-405: A daughter to one of his grandsons, he would be willing to marry a daughter to Emperor Wen's son, Liu Jun (who was then defending Pengcheng), to establish long-term peace. Emperor Wen's crown prince Liu Shao favored the proposal, but Jiang Dan (江湛) opposed, and the marital proposal was not accepted. In spring 451, worried that his forces were being overstretched and would be attacked in the rear by

786-402: A feature of Emperor Mingyuan's reign was the commissioning of construction projects to expand Pingcheng as a capital and general state infrastructure. In 414, Emperor Mingyuan sent ambassadors to Later Qin , Northern Yan, Jin , and Rouran, to try to establish peaceful relationships. The Later Qin and Jin missions were apparently largely successful, but his ambassador Huniuyu Shimen (忽忸于什門) had

917-429: A fine on those who did not properly raise tax from those under them. Whether these policies had any effect on official corruption is unknown, but official corruption was still a major problem in the reign of his successor Emperor Taiwu. In 415, the northern regions of Northern Wei suffered a major famine, causing Emperor Mingyuan to consider moving the capital southward to Yecheng (鄴城, in modern Handan , Hebei ), but at

1048-498: A gold statue by her hands could be empress, and Princess Xiping was unable to, so Emperor Mingyuan only created her an imperial consort, but within the palace honored her as wife and empress. In 415-6, Emperor Mingyuan would have to deal with a major rebellion - that of the Xiongnu of Shangdang and Henei commanderies. Initial efforts to defeat the rebellion were unsuccessful, but in 416, on the advice of Cui Hong, Emperor Mingyuan sent

1179-538: A group of families had declared allegiance to Northern Wei upon Later Qin's destruction, and Emperor Mingyuan established the official Kou Zan (寇讚) in position to manage these people. They eventually grew to number tens of thousands of households, and so Emperor Mingyuan created a new province of Southern Yong to govern them, and it is described that the number of refugees entering the southern border of Northern Wei tripled after this. In 420, Emperor Mingyuan's wife Consort Yao died, and regretting that he could never give her

1310-489: A high-level official for him since the days that he was crown prince, he had Anchi execute Qiudun and take over his position. For the time being, Emperor Taiwu left Helian Ding alone, while preparing an assault on Rouran instead, since Rouran had been harassing the northern border region. In light of the Xia campaign, the historian Sima Guang wrote this commentary about Emperor Taiwu, in his Zizhi Tongjian : The emperor of Wei

1441-642: A high-level official, who had opposed attacking Rouran, was accused by Cui Hao of being so jealous of Cui, whose suggestions of attacking Rouran were accepted by Emperor Taiwu, that he sabotaged Emperor Taiwu's war efforts by giving the generals the wrong times for rendezvous, and then further planning to have Emperor Taiwu captured by Rouran and then making Emperor Taiwu's brother Tuoba Pi emperor. Emperor Taiwu put Dugu to death, and Tuoba Pi died from anxiety. Further, because Dugu implicated them while being interrogated, fellow officials Zhang Song (張嵩) and Kudi Lin (庫狄鄰) were also put to death. In summer 444, eight nephews of

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1572-477: A hostage. Despite this, he continued to consider conquering Northern Liang, but at Li Shun's urging, delayed it. In 438, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran, but Rouran forces largely eluded his, and he made little gain. In 439, aggravated that Juqu Mujian's sister and sister-in-law Lady Li (with whom Juqu Mujian was having an affair) had tried to poison Princess Wuwei, and also unhappy that Juqu Mujian had friendly relations with Rouran, decided to launch

1703-524: A major attack on Northern Liang. Li Shun, who had previously advised him to attack Northern Liang, by this point had somehow switched positions and, along with Tuxi Bi, opposed such military actions, stating falsely that there was so little water and grass for grazing in Northern Liang that Northern Wei troops would suffer from thirst and hunger. At Cui Hao's insistence, however, Emperor Taiwu believed that he could conquer Northern Liang, and he launched

1834-533: A major attack on Northern Wei, again hoping to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River, making a two-pronged attack—with the eastern prong attacking Qiaoao (碻磝, in modern Liaocheng , Shandong ) and Huatai, and the western prong attacking Shancheng and Tong Pass . Under Emperor Taiwu's orders, Northern Wei forces abandoned Qiaoao while defending Huatai, and he himself headed south to relieve Qiaoao while having Crown Prince Huang head north to defend against

1965-452: A major attack on rival Liu Song , Tuoba Tao headed north to guard against a possible Rouran attack. In 423, soon after capturing most of modern Henan from Liu Song, Emperor Mingyuan died. Tuoba Tao succeeded to the throne as Emperor Taiwu. Almost immediately after Emperor Taiwu took the throne, Rouran attacked after its Mouhanheshenggai Khan, Yujiulü Datan heard about Emperor Mingyuan's death. Emperor Taiwu engaged Rouran troops, and on

2096-443: A major attack, and Emperor Taiwu, judging his own defenses south of the Yellow River to be unable to withstand a Liu Song attack, withdrew them north, judging correctly that Liu Song forces would stop at the Yellow River, planning to counterattack in the winter after the river froze. Meanwhile, hearing that Liu Song and Xia had subsequently entered into a treaty to attack him and divide Northern Wei lands, he judged correctly that despite

2227-547: A major building project—the building of a wall on the northern borders to defend against Rouran attacks. In winter 423, Emperor Mingyuan died from Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning . Crown Prince Tao took the throne as Emperor Taiwu. The Book of Wei would later emphasise Emperor Mingyuan's interest in Chinese scholarship and history. He compiled 30 chapters of literary works throughout his life. Consorts and Issue: Northern Yan Yan , known in historiography as

2358-450: A major construction project, conscripting 100,000 labourers from four provinces to build a large enclosing wall around the capital of Pingcheng to fortify it against Rouran attacks. However, Emperor Taiwu would end the project in 448 after a major famine in several provinces. In 447, believing that Juqu Mujian had secretly hidden Northern Liang treasures that he had claimed to be lost to pillaging troops, Emperor Taiwu first slaughtered nearly

2489-465: A major political mystery occurred in Northern Wei—for reasons not completely clear now, Emperor Taiwu had Cui Hao put to death, along with his particular cadet branch of his clan and any other person named Cui from Cui's home commandery of Qinghe (清河, roughly modern Xingtai , Hebei ), as well as the cadet branches of several other clans with marital relations to Cui's. The publicly announced reason

2620-411: A marriage between the two imperial families to Liu Song. (Based on subsequent events, it appeared to be a proposal of marriage between a son of his and a daughter of Emperor Wen's, but by this point it was not completely clear.) Emperor Wen responded to it ambiguously. From this point on, Emperor Taiwu would repropose the marriage on a nearly yearly basis, with the same kind of response from Emperor Wen. At

2751-412: A policy to encourage farming—by mandatorily requiring those who had extra cattle to loan them to those without, to be animals of burden, with the lease being paid for by those without cattle by tilling the grounds of the cattle owners, increasing the efficiency of the farmlands greatly. In 444, the first major incident of much political infighting during Emperor Taiwu's late reign occurred. Dugu Jie (獨孤絜),

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2882-500: A potential Rouran attack. The Liu Song general Wang Xuanmo (王玄謨), whose army was strong, initially received popular support among the people near Huatai, but lost that popularity when he demanded that those who joined his forces to provide a large supply of pears—800 per household. With the popular support lost, he was unable to capture Huatai quickly, and as Emperor Taiwu arrived, the Liu Song forces collapsed. Upon hearing this, although

3013-515: A problem common in Northern Wei, because officials had no proper salary. In 414, he ordered that people be allowed to go to the palace to make direct reports to him on the illegal actions of officials, and when sending officials to check the wealth of the officials, he ordered that everything that was not used to sustain their family be confiscated as illegally obtained goods. In 415, believing the local officials to be idle in their jobs, he issued

3144-475: A rebellion by his cousins in 410. On two occasions, Feng Ba had Wei envoys detained. In 416 and 418, Wei clashed with Yan, but due to pressure from stronger neighbours like the Hu Xia, they were unable to launch any substantial campaign throughout Feng Ba's reign. Northern Yan also continued Later Yan's dual administrative system between their Han Chinese and " Hu " subjects, as Feng Ba appointed his Crown Prince as

3275-628: A rebellion. He was killed in battle, and Emperor Taiwu had Helian Chang's brothers put to death. Also in spring 434, after initially refusing a peace offer from Northern Yan, Emperor Taiwu accepted after Feng Hong made an offer to give his daughter to Emperor Taiwu as a consort and returned the detained Northern Wei ambassador Huniuyu Shimen (忽忸于什門), who had been imprisoned by Feng Hong's brother and predecessor Feng Ba in 414 after being commissioned by Emperor Mingyuan. Emperor Taiwu, however, ordered Feng Hong to also send his crown prince Feng Wangren (馮王仁) to Pingcheng to meet him, and Feng Hong refused, ending

3406-404: A young age for an unknown reason, and was raised by his wet nurse Lady Dou instead. When Tuoba Tao knew about the situation regarding his mother, he became very mournful, which earned him the praise of his father Emperor Mingyuan. In 420, Consort Du died. (The Book of Southern Qi , compiled by the later Liang dynasty, recorded that Consort Du was killed due to the Northern Wei custom of killing

3537-428: A young emperor. After Tuoba Si left his father's presence, because of the affection that he had for his mother, he mourned greatly. Hearing this, Emperor Daowu summoned him back to the palace—and, because Emperor Daowu, in his late reign, often displayed great paranoid and violent tendencies, the new crown prince's attendants suggested that he not go to the palace but hide in the country. Tuoba Si agreed and did so, fleeing

3668-510: Is generally regarded by historians to be an intelligent and rational ruler. Tuoba Si was born in 392 after his father Tuoba Gui had founded Northern Wei in 386 but before he had conquered most of rival Later Yan 's territory and claimed imperial title in 399. His mother was Tuoba Gui's favorite consort, Consort Liu, the daughter of the Tiefu chief Liu Toujuan (劉頭眷). He was born at the capital Yunzhong (雲中, in modern Hohhot , Inner Mongolia .) He

3799-587: Is not close to being conclusively shown, and why Emperor Taiwu suddenly so rashly and so severely punished the man that he had trusted for decades is fairly unclear. (It should be further noted that during the entire incident, Cui was described as being so fearful that he could not speak a single word, which appeared highly inconsistent with Cui's personality and character, suggesting that Cui had himself been poisoned; it should be further noted that immediately after executing Cui, Emperor Taiwu expressed regret of having done so.) In fall 450, Liu Song's Emperor Wen launched

3930-633: The Disaster of Yongjia . Ba's father, Feng An (馮安) served as a military general under the Western Yan . After Later Yan conquered Western Yan in 394, the Feng clan resettled in Longcheng . Feng Ba appeared to have grew up under heavy Xianbei influence, as his nickname Qizhifa (乞直伐) suggests Xianbei origin. In 401, Murong Yun's adoptive uncle, Murong Xi came to power, and he was described in records as

4061-801: The Liu Song dynasty , even becoming a vassal to them in 435, but Wei continued their assault nonetheless. Finally, a major Wei invasion in 436 prompted Feng Hong to flee to Goguryeo for protection, ending the Northern Yan. Feng Hong remained in Goguryeo until 438. While the Goguryeo king, Jangsu initially refused to hand him over to Wei, Feng Hong repeatedly offended him and tried to escape to Liu Song, resulting in Jangsu executing him and his sons. In Northern Wei, Feng Ba's granddaughter grew to become Empress Dowager Feng , an important figure in Wei's history. In 1965,

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4192-542: The Northern Yan ( Chinese : 北燕 ; pinyin : Běi Yān ; 407 or 409–436), Eastern Yan ( simplified Chinese : 东燕 ; traditional Chinese : 東燕 ; pinyin : Dōng Yān ) or Huanglong ( simplified Chinese : 黄龙 ; traditional Chinese : 黃龍 ), was a dynastic state of China during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms . Some historians consider Gao Yun , a member of the Goguryeo royal family , to be

4323-537: The Sixteen Kingdoms era and starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. He continued to treat Juqu Mujian as a brother-in-law, and Juqu Mujian was allowed to continue carry the title of Prince of Hexi. Previously in Northern Wei, because the state frequently entered wars, military prowess was the prevailing value in Northern Wei society, and most aristocrats did not care for scholarly pursuits. After

4454-510: The Yangtze River and destroy the Liu Song capital Jiankang . Both his main army and the other branch armies that he sent out carried out heavy slaughters and arsons, laying Liu Song's Huai River region to waste. Around the new year 451, Emperor Taiwu had reached Guabu (瓜步, in modern Nanjing , Jiangsu ), across the river from Jiankang, but at this point he reproposed the marriage-peace proposal he made earlier—that if Emperor Wen married

4585-521: The Yellow River that Emperor Mingyuan captured in 422 and 423, would attack.) Emperor Taiwu pointed out that even if Liu Song could attack, it became even more crucial to defeat Rouran first, lest that Rouran attacked at the same time that Liu Song did. He surprised Yujiulü Datan, whose people scattered, forcing him to flee. However, as he chased Yujiulü Datan, he himself became hesitant to advance further, and he withdrew. Only later did he hear that he

4716-453: The Yellow River , Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang , Henan ), the Northern Wei general Yuchi Jian (尉遲建), apprehensive of the Jin forces, abandoned Huatai and fled back north of the Yellow River. Emperor Mingyuan executed Yuchi and then sent messengers to rebuke Liu Yu and Wang Zhongde, both of whom restated that the target was Later Qin, not Northern Wei, and that the city would be returned as soon as

4847-460: The Crown Prince's advisor. From this point on, most matters, particularly domestic matters, were ruled on by Crown Prince Tao, while Emperor Mingyuan himself only ruled on important matters. Later in 422, after hearing about the death of Liu Yu (who had seized the Jin throne in 420 and established Liu Song ), Emperor Mingyuan broke off relations with Liu Song and called his council, informing

4978-507: The Duke of Kuaiji; he also rewarded Yuchi and Anchi greatly and created them dukes. Subsequently, Daxi, humiliated that his subordinates captured Helian Chang and he himself appeared helpless, aggressively pursued Helian Ding, but instead was defeated and captured by Helian Ding. In fear, Qiudun and Tuoba Li (拓拔禮) the Prince of Gaoliang abandoned Chang'an as well and fled to Puban, allowing Xia to recapture Chang'an. In anger, although Qiudun had been

5109-539: The Grand Chanyu to supervise the tribes, along with introducing other offices to assist the Grand Chanyu. Feng Ba became deathly ill in 430. Conflict arose between his Crown Prince, Feng Yi (馮翼) and favourite concubine, Consort Song (宋夫人), who wanted her own son to inherit the throne. The situation soon leaked to Feng Ba's brother, the Prime Minister Feng Hong , who led his troops and took over

5240-581: The Han rebel Xue Yongzong (薛永宗), before facing Gai. Gai fled into the mountains, and Emperor Taiwu carried out harsh reprisals against those who had supported Gai, slaughtering them without mercy. After Emperor Taiwu reached Chang'an, he found a number of Buddhist temples with weapons in them, and he believed that the monks must be working with Gai, so he slaughtered the monks in Chang'an. Cui used this opportunity to encourage Emperor Taiwu to slaughter all monks throughout

5371-553: The Later Qin capital Chang'an . In spring 417, The Later Qin emperor Yao Hong (Yao Xing's son) requested emergency assistance. Emperor Mingyuan summoned his council to consider whether to launch armies to try to stop Jin advances to try to save Later Qin. Most of his advisors, apprehensive at whether Liu Yu actually intended to attack Northern Wei as well, suggested that Emperor Mingyuan try to intercept Liu Yu's forces. However, Cui Hao opined that this would precisely make Northern Wei

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5502-652: The Liu Song forces garrisoned at Pengcheng and Shouyang, Emperor Taiwu began a withdraw, and on the way, insulted by the Liu Song general Zang Zhi (臧質), he put Xuyi (盱眙, in modern Huai'an , Jiangsu ) under siege, and, after both sides suffered heavy losses but with the defense holding, quickly withdrew. This campaign appeared to heavily wear out both empires and demonstrated the cruel parts of Emperor Taiwu's personality well, as Sima Guang described it in this manner: Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei ((北)魏明元帝) (392 – 24 December 423), Chinese name Tuoba Si (拓拔嗣), Xianbei name Mumo (木末),

5633-455: The Marquess of Yuancheng, suffered a major defeat at the hands of rebel forces backed by Xia , and then, once demoted to governorship of Bing Province (并州, modern central and southern Shanxi ), indulged in alcohol while neglecting affairs of state, and Emperor Mingyuan executed him (Because Tuoba Qu's son Tuoba Mohun (拓拔磨渾) had major contributions in helping Emperor Mingyuan defeat Tuoba Shao,

5764-416: The Northern Wei forces ran into severe weather and suffered many casualties based on frostbite. This would start a theme that would last for centuries—often, Rouran would attack, and Northern Wei would counter-attack successfully, but then become unable to have decisive victories over Rouran. Late in 414, Emperor Mingyuan began to have his official Cui Hao (the son of his key advisor Cui Hong (崔宏)) teach him

5895-466: The Northern Wei forces were unable to capture the capital of Qing Province, Dongyang (東陽, in modern Qingzhou , Shandong ), and were eventually forced to withdraw after food supplies ran out and a large number of soldiers grew ill. Northern Wei forces also stalled in their siege of Hulao, defended by the capable Liu Song general Mao Dezu (毛德祖), but were meanwhile able to capture Luoyang and Xuchang (許昌, in modern Xuchang , Henan ) in spring 423, cutting off

6026-472: The Northern Wei general Tuxi Bi (吐奚弼) engaged Helian Ding as Helian Ding was trying to relieve Pingliang, defeating him and surrounding him at the Chungu Plains (鶉觚原, in modern Pingliang). Northern Wei forces surrounded him, and his army became hungry and thirsty. After several days, he forcibly fought his way out of the siege, but his forces mostly collapsed, and he himself was badly injured. He gathered

6157-957: The Northern Wei troops intruded into Tongwan before withdrawing with much loot, while in the south, Helian Chang's generals Helian Yidou (赫連乙斗) and Helian Zhuxing (赫連助興) abandoned not only Puban, but also Chang'an , allowing Daxi to occupy the Guanzhong region. In spring 427, Helian Chang sent his brother Helian Ding south to try to recapture Chang'an, but Helian Ding's forces became stalemated with Daxi's. In response, Emperor Taiwu made another attack on Tongwan. Helian Chang initially took Helian Ding's suggestion to try to defend Tongwan until he could defeat Daxi, but misinformation that Helian Chang received then induced him to come out of Tongwan to engage Northern Wei forces. Emperor Taiwu defeated him in battle, causing him to be unable to return to Tongwan and forcing him to flee to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui , Gansu ), allowing Emperor Taiwu to capture Tongwan. In

6288-451: The Northern Yan emperor Feng Hong 's son Feng Chong (馮崇), who had feared that his father would put him to death because of false accusations by his stepmother Princess Murong , surrendered the important Northern Yan city of Liaoxi (遼西, in modern Tangshan , Hebei ) to Northern Wei. To reward Feng Chong, Emperor Taiwu not only sent his brother Tuoba Jian (拓拔健) the Prince of Yongchang to save Feng Chong from his father's siege, but created him

6419-526: The Prince of Gaoliang in pursuit, Murong Muliyan fled west and occupied Yutian ( Khotan ). (However, after a few years, Tuyuhun would return to its original position.) In 445, angry that Zhenda (真達), the king of Shanshan had refused Emperor Taiwu's messengers passage through Shanshan to other Xiyu kingdoms, Emperor Taiwu sent his general Tuwan Dugui (吐萬度歸) to attack Shanshan, and by fall 445 Zhenda had surrendered. Northern Wei occupied Shanshan. In fall 445, responding to prophecies that "Wu" would destroy Wei,

6550-402: The Prince of Liaoxi with 10 commanderies as his fief. In 433, Juqu Mengxun died, and Emperor Taiwu began to consider conquering Northern Liang. Still, initially, he continued to accept Juqu Mengxun's son Juqu Mujian as a vassal, and he took Juqu Mujian's sister as an imperial consort. In spring 434, Helian Chang, for reasons lost to history, fled out of Pingcheng and apparently tried to start

6681-429: The Prince of Taiping, crown prince, and then transfer some of the authorities to the crown prince so that his own burdens could be lessened. Baba Song also agreed, and Emperor Mingyuan created Tuoba Tao crown prince, and further had Crown Prince Tao take the throne to serve as the secondary emperor. He commissioned his key advisors Baba, Cui, Daxi Jin, Anchi Tong (安遲同), Qiumuling Guan (丘穆陵觀), and Qiudun Dui (丘敦堆) to serve as

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6812-605: The Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti stability and anti family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nofullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti Buddhist campaign. In fall 443, while attacking Rouran, Emperor Taiwu suddenly encountered Yujiulü Wuti, and Crown Prince Huang, who

6943-475: The Tuoba tradition that when an heir is decided upon, his mother must be put to death, Emperor Daowu forced Consort Liu to commit suicide. Either before or after he did so, he summoned Tuoba Si to explain to him that this tradition was also in accordance with Emperor Wu of Han 's rationale to put his favorite concubine, Consort Zhao ( Emperor Zhao of Han 's mother) to death, to avoid overly great maternal influence on

7074-646: The Tuyuhun khan Murong Muliyan (慕容慕利延), after their brother Murong Weishi (慕容緯世) had been put to death by their uncle, surrendered to Northern Wei and suggested that he attack Tuyuhun. In response, Emperor Taiwu sent his son Tuoba Fuluo (拓拔伏羅) the Prince of Jin to attack Tuyuhun and defeated Tuyuhun forces, forcing Murong Muliyan to flee into the Bailan Mountains (白蘭山, in modern southwestern Qinghai ). In 445, with Emperor Taiwu's distant cousin Tuoba Na (拓拔那)

7205-408: The Yellow River when it froze in winter 430, and quickly recaptured Luoyang and Hulao . They soon forced the retreat of the main Liu Song force, under the command of the Liu Song general Dao Yanzhi (到彥之), and trapped the remaining Liu Song troops at Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang , Henan ). A relief mission by the Liu Song general Tan Daoji could not reach Huatai, and by spring 431, Huatai fell. All

7336-461: The advice of Cui Hao and the official Zhou Dan (周澹), who believed that such a move would quickly expose the actual numerical inferiority of the Xianbei to the Han, he kept the capital at Pingcheng, but also pursuant to Cui and Zhou's suggestion, moved a number of impoverished Xianbei to the modern Hebei region. After the famine, Emperor Mingyuan issued an edict to encourage land cultivation. From then,

7467-424: The advisors that he planned to attack and seize three major cities south of the Yellow River from Liu Song—Luoyang, Hulao , and Huatai, despite Cui's opposition. He commissioned Daxi as the commander of the forced to attack Liu Song. Daxi first put Huatai under siege, but after he was unable to capture it quickly, Emperor Mingyuan personally led an army south to aid Daxi. He also had Crown Prince Tao lead an army to

7598-469: The agricultural situation greatly improved, leading to a thriving livestock economy. In winter 415, pursuant to a peace agreement they had reached earlier, Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing sent his daughter the Princess Xiping to Northern Wei to be married to Emperor Mingyuan. He welcomed her with ceremony fitting an empress. However, Tuoba customs dictated that only a consort who was able to craft

7729-450: The ancient texts of I Ching and Hong Fan (洪範) – both mystical texts. Emperor Mingyuan had always been fond of mysticism and divination, and also often asked Cui Hao to make predictions based on those texts, which often came true. Cui Hao therefore became increasingly trusted and consulted by Emperor Mingyuan for important decisions. In 414-5, Emperor Mingyuan became frustrated with the rampant corruption that officials were engaging in -

7860-515: The assassins killed, and the officials acclaimed him as the new Heavenly King. The Northern Yan was relatively weak compared to Northern Wei, so Feng Ba formed good relations with the Eastern Jin , Hu Xia , Rouran , Khitan and Kumo Xi . He secured the support of his people by actively participating in politics, promoting agriculture and reducing tax burdens. However, he was also wary of handing out higher offices to his retainers, which led to

7991-474: The attack. In summer 446, Gai returned to Xingcheng and restrengthened himself quickly. Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren to attack him, and Tuoba Na captured Gai's two uncles. Initially, Gai's uncles were to be delivered to Pingcheng, but the general Buliugu Qi (步六孤俟) suggested instead to make an oath with Gai's uncles and have them assassinate Gai. Tuoba Na agreed, and Gai's uncles assassinated him, ending Gai's rebellion. Also in 446, Emperor Taiwu began

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8122-482: The battle alone in panic. After his forces collapsed, Xi was later found and executed by Yun. The founding year of the Northern Yan is up to debate; some historians consider Feng Ba as the first ruler of Northern Yan while others assert that it was Gao Yun. The reason is that Gao Yun was a member of the Later Yan imperial family as Murong Bao's adopted son, and so he should be considered the last ruler of Later Yan. On

8253-509: The brief peace, and by summer 434, Northern Wei resumed its periodic attacks on Northern Yan. Meanwhile, around this time, he also took the sister of Rouran Chilian Khan Yujiulü Wuti , Lu Zuo Zhaoyi , as an imperial consort and married his sister or cousin Princess Xihai to Yujiulü Wuti, to further cement the peaceful relations. In fall 434, while attacking the Xiongnu rebel Bai Long (白龍), Emperor Taiwu took Bai's forces lightly, and

8384-569: The burden on populations affected by flooding, and he would reduce or exempt the taxes of people who lived near places where he had been on tour. The state saw plentiful harvests during this period, and experienced relative stability, and after 417 there were no popular uprisings for the rest of his reign. Throughout Emperor Mingyuan's reign, due to the relative stability of Northern Wei compared to other states that were experiencing turmoil, many people submitted or migrated to Northern Wei, which received an influx of these migrants. As an example of this,

8515-625: The campaign was over. (However, Jin did not actually return Huatai, and Northern Wei would not have a major presence south of the Yellow River again until 422.) Also in 416, because the general Kunuguan Bin (庫傉官斌) had earlier defected from Northern Yan to Northern Wei but then back to Northern Yan, Emperor Mingyuan used this as a pretext to launch an attack on Northern Yan, and his forces not only killed Kunuguan Bin but his relatives Kunuguan Chang (庫傉官昌) and Kunuguan Ti (庫傉官提), both of whom held important posts in Northern Yan. Jin forces quickly captured Later Qin's major city Luoyang and then headed toward

8646-463: The campaign. He quickly reached the Northern Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei , Gansu ) in the fall, capturing it after a short siege. Meanwhile, Yujiulü Wuti had launched a surprise attack on Pingcheng to try to save Northern Liang, but was repelled. (Cui Hao, who was a political enemy of Li Shun's, would attribute Li's switch in position to bribes by Juqu Mujian, and later Emperor Taiwu would force Li to commit suicide.) Northern Liang territory

8777-566: The capital Pingcheng , where Emperor Daowu had moved the capital in 398. Meanwhile, Emperor Daowu had, because of Tuoba Shao's crimes, imprisoned Tuoba Shao's mother Consort Helan and planned to execute her. Consort Helan sent her son a message, asking him to save her. In response, Tuoba Shao assassinated Emperor Daowu and then tried to take over as emperor, and he tried to seize the troops. Tuoba Si, upon hearing this news, returned to Pingcheng but hid himself, while trying to gather supporters gradually. Tuoba Shao tried to seek him out to kill him, but

8908-530: The capital Pingcheng to examine the defenses on the northern and eastern fronts (with Rouran and Northern Yan ), to make sure that his state would be properly defended against enemies. Another feature of his early reign was that he would frequently have to raise armies to put down rebellions. In 411, due to frequent floods and droughts in Northern Wei, Emperor Mingyuan reduced palace expenses by releasing excess palace women, and he ordered that they marry unmarried men to increase labour and population. Like his father,

9039-544: The capital region to find land to work. In 442, at Kou Qianzhi's urging, Emperor Taiwu ascended a platform and formally received Taoist amulets from Kou, and changed the color of his flags to blue, to show his Taoist beliefs and to officially approve Taoism as the state religion. From that point on, it became a tradition for Northern Wei emperors, when they took the throne, to receive Taoist amulets. Also at Kou and Cui Hao's urging, he started building Jinglun Palace (靜輪宮), intended to be so high that it would be quiet and close to

9170-481: The capital. Feng Ba died soon after, and Feng Hong took the throne for himself, slaughtering all of Feng Ba's sons including Feng Yi. At the time, the Wei had dealt with the Hu Xia threat in the west and began focusing on conquering Northern Yan. From 432 onwards, Yan faced periodic attacks from Wei. In 433, a succession issue led to Feng Hong's sons handing over Liaoxi Commandery to Wei. Feng Hong refused to surrender and attempted to secure his position by allying with

9301-427: The city of Anding (安定, in modern Pingliang , Gansu ). However, Daxi's subordinates Yuchi Juan (尉遲眷) and Anchi Jia (安遲頡) made a surprise attack and captured Helian Chang. Helian Ding took over as the emperor of Xia. Meanwhile, Emperor Taiwu treated Helian Chang as an honored guest, supplying Helian Chang with the same supplies that he himself used, and he married his sister Princess Shiping to Helian Chang and created him

9432-415: The conquered people of Xia a seven-year exemption from taxes and government service in order to appease them. These were part of a larger series of amnesties and tax exemptions Emperor Taiwu gave in order to try to relieve the burden of frequent warfare, however by the end of his reign these exemptions appear to have only had limited effect in doing so. In summer 431, Emperor Taiwu made his first proposal of

9563-418: The conquest of Northern Liang, the scholar Chang Shuang (常爽) established an academy and attracted students. Only after this did scholarship start to become popular in Northern Wei. Also at this time, on the advice of the official Gao Yun , Emperor Taiwu removed all seals on fertile land and granted the land to use for agriculture, as by 439, much of this land had been sealed off, making it difficult for people in

9694-464: The contemporaneous Southern Yan , and unlike the Later Yan, their capital remained at Longcheng in the north throughout their existence. Gao Yun was a descendant of the Goguryeo royal family. When the Former Yan captured the Goguryeo capital, Hwando in 342, they also captured several members of the royal family and moved them to Qingshan (青山, in modern Jinzhou , Liaoning ), where Gao Yun

9825-483: The defenses of the capital and remodel the palace, arguing that I Ching said, "Princes and dukes establish defenses to secure their home and states," and that Xiao He said, "An emperor may be at home throughout his empire, but if his home were not sufficiently grand and luxurious, he could not show his strength," he responded, "The ancient also said, 'What counts is grace, not secure defenses.' Helian Bobo used boiled earth to build his city, and I destroyed his state; it

9956-455: The empire and destroy the temples, statues, and sutras, and notwithstanding Kou's opposition, Emperor Taiwu proceeded to slaughter the monks in Chang'an, destroy the statues, and burn the sutras. He then issued an empire-wide prohibition of Buddhism. Crown Prince Huang, however, used delaying tactics in promulgating the edict, allowing Buddhists to flee or hide, but it was said that not a single Buddhist temple remained standing in Northern Wei. This

10087-468: The entire Juqu clan, and then forced Juqu Mujian and Consort Juqu to commit suicide. In 448, Emperor Taiwu created his general Chudahan Ba (出大汗拔) the Prince of Shanshan, effectively making Shanshan a part of his empire. He also had Tuwan Dugui attack a number of other Xiyu kingdoms, forcing their submission. In autumn 448, Emperor Taiwu ordered that all central and regional armies enforce martial law . In winter of that year, because Emperor Taiwu considered

10218-496: The eunuch Chou Luoqi (仇洛齊), Emperor Taiwu carried out a reform of the household registration, as previously, Emperor Daowu had sought out unregistered households by shipping silk to them, and although these households responded to the call, they were not properly assigned to the registers of local tax-collecting officials. As a result, Northern Wei lacked a sufficient taxpaying population, leading to greater demand on those who did pay tax and provide labour. Emperor Taiwu properly assigned

10349-423: The first Northern Yan monarch, while others consider Feng Ba of Han ethnicity to be the founder. All rulers of the Northern Yan took the title of Tiān Wáng ( Heavenly King ). The Northern Yan inherited what was left of the preceding Later Yan regime, whose territory occupied western Liaoning and parts of northeastern Hebei . In historiography, they are given the prefix of "Northern" to distinguish it with

10480-419: The floor, but he also showed how quickly that temper went away by not demoting Baba. He then sent Daxi Jin to attack Puban (蒲阪, in modern Yuncheng , Shanxi ) and Pu Ji (普幾) to attack Shancheng (陝城, in modern Sanmenxia , Henan ), while himself making a fast, cavalry-based attack on the Xia's heavily fortified capital Tongwan (統萬, in modern Yulin , Shaanxi ). Catching the Xia emperor Helian Chang by surprise,

10611-406: The general Yizhan Jian (乙旃建) to supervise the army he had sent to quell the rebellion. The rebellion was crushed, and Yizhan Jian captured a large amount of the rebel force. In 416, the Jin general Liu Yu launched a major attack on Later Qin, intending to destroy it. As part of Liu Yu's force, a fleet commanded by the general Wang Zhongde (王仲德), approached Northern Wei's only main outpost south of

10742-406: The gods. (Crown Prince Huang, a Buddhist , opposed the construction project on the basis of cost - and the project did appear to be a major drain on the treasury, but Emperor Taiwu disagreed with him.) An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under

10873-402: The imperial guards gradually shifted to Tuoba Si's side, and the imperial guards arrested Tuoba Shao and presented him to Tuoba Si. Tuoba Si executed Tuoba Shao, Consort Helan, and Tuoba Shao's associates. He then took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan. Emperor Mingyuan, contrary to his father's dictatorial style, instituted a council of eight officials to advise him on all important decisions, with

11004-411: The intent to hear different opinions and then take informed actions. The council mostly constituted of ethnic Xianbei from his tribe, but also included Han and other ethnicities. This became a tradition that was followed by his descendants as well. At the time of Emperor Mingyuan's ascension to power, the paranoia and violence of Tuoba Gui's late reign had caused many problems within Northern Wei, with

11135-408: The lands lost to Liu Song a year earlier had been regained. (Emperor Taiwu, in another action typical of him, rewarded the Liu Song general Zhu Xiuzhi (朱脩之), who had held Huatai for months faithfully, by giving him a daughter of an imperial clan member in marriage.) Emperor Taiwu granted the soldiers who partook in these campaigns a ten-year exemption from taxes and government service. He also granted

11266-543: The later historian Hu Sanxing , in his annotations to the Zizhi Tongjian, criticised Emperor Mingyuan's execution of Tuoba Qu as ungrateful for Tuoba Mohun's contributions). In 410, Emperor Mingyuan sent one of his advisors, Baba Song (拔拔嵩) the Duke of Nanping to attack the Rouran , and when Baba was surrounded by Rouran troops, Emperor Mingyuan personally led an army to relieve Baba. For the next years, he often left

11397-456: The marriage negotiations that Emperor Taiwu had with Liu Song's Emperor Wen appeared to reach some fruition, as Emperor Wen sent his official Liu Xibo (劉熙伯) to Northern Wei to discuss details of how one of his daughters would be married into the Northern Wei imperial household, but at this time, Emperor Wen's daughter died, and the negotiations ended. Also in 437, exasperated by the rampant corruption that his local officials were engaging in (which

11528-494: The minister An Tong (安同) conscripted people for labour without permission, the other ministers suggested that he be punished harshly, yet Emperor Mingyuan believed that An Tong's motives were in the interests of the common people, so he pardoned An Tong. Despite this, Emperor Mingyuan was also known for being perceptive in his investigations, and his standards were so exacting that his officials would often receive punishment. For example, in 413, one of his key advisors, Tuoba Qu (拓拔屈)

11659-487: The mother of the crown prince. However, this appears unlikely, as Consort Du died two years before Tuoba Tao became crown prince, and the Book of Wei and Book of Song do not record her cause of death). In 422, Emperor Mingyuan created Tuoba Tao the Prince of Taiping. Later that year, when he suffered a major illness, at Cui Hao 's suggestion, he not only created Tuoba Tao crown prince, but further had Crown Prince Tao take

11790-463: The northern bank defensive posture as soon as Jin forces reboarded their ships. Angry at this harassment, Liu Yu sent his general Ding Wu (丁旿) to land on the northern bank and deal Northern Wei forces a major defeat. This ended Emperor Mingyuan's attempts to save Later Qin, and there were no further Jin/Northern Wei battles throughout the campaign, as while Emperor Mingyuan still planned to cut off Liu Yu's path if he were stopped by Later Qin forces, Liu Yu

11921-452: The northern border, to guard against a Rouran attack. Huatai then fell, and Daxi then approached Hulao and Luoyang. Meanwhile, Emperor Mingyuan also sent Yizhan Jian and the generals E Qing (娥清), Lü Dafei (閭大肥) and Pu Ji (普幾) east, capturing several commanderies in modern western Shandong . However, while other cities in Song's Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) fell as well,

12052-427: The officials described as idle and arrogant, the law as not properly enforced, crime so common that criminals would act in public without fear of repercussions, and many people too afraid to go outside in alleyways. Emperor Mingyuan established officials to hear the people's lawsuits and ensure that legal cases were judged fairly, restored officials who had earlier been removed from office, and issued government relief for

12183-724: The other hand, he was ethnically Goguryeo and reverted back to his old family name shortly after ascending. Thus, Northern Yan's founding year can either be 407 or 409. Gao Yun took the title of Heavenly King . The Later Yan was previously at war with Goguryeo, but Yun managed to establish friendly relations between them and Northern Yan. However, conflict with the Northern Wei also began as the Yan Inspector of You Province , Murong Yi (慕容懿) defected to Wei. Worried by his lack of reputation, Yun attempted to protect himself by empowering his favourites, but in 409, two of them, Li Ban (離班) and Tao Ren (桃仁) assassinated him. Feng Ba's men then had

12314-444: The path of any Liu Song relief force for Hulao. In summer 423, Hulao fell. The campaign then ceased, with Northern Wei now in control of much of modern Henan and western Shandong. Despite his fierce resistance to Northern Wei, Emperor Mingyuan respected Mao Dezu's loyalty to his state in defending Hulao, and so in an action that appeared typical for him, he spared the lives of the defenders of Hulao. In 423, Emperor Mingyuan also started

12445-469: The people's hardships. Due to this, many of the problems of Tuoba Gui's later years were eliminated. Emperor Mingyuan himself was known for his competence in handling state affairs, and his reputation for this was such that the officials in charge of enforcing justice would be stern in their enforcement of the law in order to avoid making mistakes. However, Emperor Mingyuan did have the capacity for forgiveness and leniency in his decisions. As an example, when

12576-419: The people, obey the laws, and how do I dare to view them lightly?" However, he was cruel and often punished by execution, and he often regretted executions deeply. In 429, with only Cui Hao in support and most other officials opposing, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran. (The officials who opposed largely worried that Emperor Wen of Liu Song , who had for years wanted to regain the provinces south of

12707-673: The prescribed punishment. However, it was also from this point that officials became known for their rampant corruption in seeking wealth. In spring 432, Emperor Taiwu honored his wet nurse, Nurse Empress Dowager Dou, empress dowager . He also created one of Helian Bobo's daughters as his empress , and his oldest son Tuoba Huang , by his deceased concubine Consort Helan, crown prince. In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Xia destroyed, began to attack Northern Yan in earnest. By fall 432, he had put Northern Yan's capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou , Liaoning ) under siege. While he had several victories over Northern Yan forces, he chose to withdraw at

12838-405: The remaining forces and fled to Shanggui. Around the new year 431, Helian Shegan surrendered. Nearly all former Xia territory was now in Northern Wei hands. (Upon recovering Daxi Jin from Xia captivity, Emperor Taiwu punished him for his failures by temporarily making him the imperial porter in charge of serving meals, but soon pardoned him and restored him to his princely title.) (By 432, Helian Ding

12969-508: The same time, however, he did enter into peaceful relations with Rouran, by returning a number of captured Rouran generals. Late in 431, Emperor Taiwu commissioned Cui Hao to revise the Northern Wei legal code, which had not had a major revision since 398-9 during Emperor Daowu's reign. The new legal code appeared to be more lenient than the older one, with four-year and five-year imprisonment terms replaced with one-year terms, and allowed officials to be punished by being demoted in rank instead of

13100-402: The start of what would be a string of marriages that could be characterized as either politically- or trophy-taking-related, he took three of Helian Bobo's daughters as his concubines . Upon hearing of Tongwan's fall, Helian Ding disengaged from Daxi and joined Helian Chang at Shanggui as well. In 428, Daxi and Qiudun Dui, trying to capture Helian Chang, instead became trapped by Helian Chang in

13231-503: The start of winter, after seizing a large number of Northern Yan's people and forcibly resettling them in his own state. For the next few years, he would launch yearly attacks against Northern Yan with the same pattern—seeking to weaken Northern Yan gradually. While Emperor Taiwu was concentrating on Northern Yan, he also had Northern Liang on his mind, but at the advice of his minister Li Shun (李順), he decided to wait until Northern Liang's long-time prince, Juqu Mengxun , died. In winter 432,

13362-440: The suggestion of his brother Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) the Prince of Leping, did not immediately carry out a campaign against Goguryeo. (By 438, however, Feng Hong and Goguryeo would have a fall out, and King Jangsu would have Feng Hong executed.) In late 436, the peaceful relations that Northern Wei had with Rouran since 431 ended, for reasons no longer known. Rouran continued its harassment of Northern Wei's northern border regions. In 437,

13493-446: The target of Jin attacks, and Emperor Mingyuan partially agreed, but still sent some 100,000 men, commanded by Baba Song, to guard the northern bank of the Yellow River to prepare for battle. If a Jin ship were blown by the wind to the northern bank, Northern Wei forces would seize the ship and kill or capture its crew, and when Jin forces then landed on the northern banks, Northern Wei forces would temporarily retreat, and then re-establish

13624-425: The throne to serve as the secondary emperor. He commissioned his key advisors Baba Song (拔拔嵩), Cui, Daxi Jin (達奚斤), Anchi Tong (安遲同), Qiumuling Guan (丘穆陵觀), and Qiudun Dui (丘敦堆) to serve as the Crown Prince's advisor. From this point on, most matters, particularly domestic matters, were ruled on by Crown Prince Tao, while Emperor Mingyuan himself only ruled on important matters. Later that year, when Emperor Mingyuan led

13755-474: The throne, Emperor Taiwu became a devout Taoist. It was around this time that the Taoist Kou Qianzhi became famed, and Cui Hao became Kou's follower and often praised Kou before Emperor Taiwu. Emperor Taiwu was pleased by prophecies that Kou was making, which implied that he was divine in origin, and he officially endorsed Kou's proselytization of his state. In 426, after receiving a memorial from

13886-401: The title in life, he posthumously honored her as an empress. In 422, Emperor Mingyuan suffered a major illness, which is attributed to his taking of the popular alchemical drug Cold Food Powder for many years. He consulted Cui Hao on what he should do to prepare for events after his death. Cui Hao predicted that he would recover, but advised him to create his oldest son, 14-year-old Tuoba Tao

14017-537: The treaty Liu Song had no intention to cross the Yellow River north, and he decided to destroy Xia once and for all. In fall 430, he made a surprise attack on the new Xia capital Pingliang (平涼, also in modern Pingliang), while Helian Ding was engaging Western Qin 's prince Qifu Mumo , putting Pingliang under siege, but although he then sent Helian Chang to Pingliang to try to persuade its defender, Helian Shegan (赫連社干, younger brother to both Helian Chang and Helian Ding), to surrender, Pingliang would not fall quickly. However,

14148-573: The unregistered households to local tax registers, solving the issue. Also in 426, Emperor Taiwu began to look for a target to make a concentrated attack—asking his officials for their opinions on whom to attack between Xia and Rouran, and his officials were divided in their opinions, and some proposed yet another third target, Northern Yan , although after the death of the Xia emperor Helian Bobo later that year, he settled on making Xia his target. When Baba Song opposed this, Emperor Taiwu showed his fierce temper by having his guards pound Baba's head on

14279-494: The very first engagement became surrounded by Rouran troops, but he fought his way out of danger, and subsequently, he made nearly yearly attacks against Rouran, and each year, Rouran forces would elude him by retreating north, only to return south after he withdrew. Meanwhile, in 425, he reestablished peaceful relations with Liu Song . He also, in an action that later became a Northern Wei tradition, honored his wet nurse Lady Dou as " nurse empress dowager ". Also, soon after he took

14410-679: The wedding and funerals of the time to be overly extravagant, he ordered that officials establish limits on the rites of these events. In winter 448 and spring 449, Emperor Taiwu and Crown Prince Huang attacked Rouran together, but Rouran's Chuluo Khan, Yujiulü Tuhezhen eluded them and did not engage them. In fall 449, however, Tuoba Na was able to inflict heavy losses on Rouran, and for several years Rouran did not attack. In 450, Emperor Taiwu, accusing Liu Song's Emperor Wen of having fostered Gai's rebellion, attacked Liu Song, putting Xuanhu (懸瓠, in modern Zhumadian , Henan ) under siege for 42 days but could not capture it, and he withdrew. Later in 450,

14541-668: The western Liu Song forces, under command of the general Liu Wenjing (柳文景), were successful in capturing Shancheng and Tong Pass and preparing to descend into the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen withdrew them. In retaliation for the Liu Song attack, Emperor Taiwu launched an all-out attack against Liu Song's northern provinces. Tuoba Ren quickly captured Xuanhu and Xiangcheng (項城, in modern Zhoukou , Henan ) and pillaging his way to Shouyang . Emperor Taiwu himself advanced on Pengcheng , but did not put that heavily fortified city under siege; rather, he advanced south, claiming that he would cross

14672-400: Was Tuoba Gui's oldest son, and his father was said to be so pleased by this late arrival of a son that he declared a general pardon. (Based on Northern Wei's official history, Tuoba Gui would only be 21 at this point; this might be further evidence corroborating the alternative version of his life history.) (The Book of Song , compiled by the rival Liu Song dynasty, would state that Tuoba Si

14803-459: Was Tuoba Gui's second son. However, since there are no clear inconsistencies with Tuoba Si being Tuoba Gui's eldest son as presented in the Book of Wei, the Book of Wei's account is generally considered to be the correct one.) As Tuoba Si grew, he was said to be a wise and kind young man, whose actions were all in accordance with proper protocol. In contrast, his oldest younger brother Tuoba Shao (拓拔紹)

14934-451: Was able to capture Chang'an and destroy Later Qin by fall 417, and Emperor Mingyuan's planned attacks never materialized. Many former Jin officials who opposed Liu Yu who had taken refuge with Later Qin fled to Northern Wei, and Emperor Mingyuan further ordered that anyone who could save and deliver members of the Yao imperial clan to Pingcheng would be greatly rewarded. (How effectively this order

15065-479: Was also a good judge of character, and was able to select generals from among soldiers, and he only commissioned officials who were capable, not those who were well-connected. He was sharp in his observations and could see hidden things, and his subjects could not deceive him. He awarded those of humble ranks if they deserved them, and he punished those of high ranks if they deserved them. He also did not protect those whom he usually favored, and often said, "I, along with

15196-539: Was an emperor of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China. He was the oldest son of the founding emperor Emperor Daowu . During his reign, Northern Wei's territory did not expand as much as it did under either his father's reign or the reign of his son Emperor Taiwu , but he helped the state stabilize over northern China, and started the tradition of meeting with important imperial officials to listen to their advice and make final decisions. He

15327-524: Was born and grew to become a minor general under the Later Yan. In 397, Gao Yun helped the Yan emperor, Murong Bao quell the rebellion of his son, Murong Hui . As a reward, Bao adopted him as his own son, changing his name to Murong Yun. It was around this time when Murong Yun became friends with the general, Feng Ba . Feng Ba was a Han Chinese whose family was originally from Changle Commandery before his grandfather, Feng He (馮和) moved to Shangdang during

15458-439: Was described as being a violent young man, and he would often go out on the streets to rob people and violently attack animals. Tuoba Si tried to correct his brother's behaviour with rebukes, but Tuoba Shao did not change, so Tuoba Si lived in fear of his brother. In 403, Tuoba Gui, by this point emperor (as Emperor Daowu), created him the Prince of Qi. In 409, Emperor Daowu was intent on creating Tuoba Si crown prince , but based on

15589-446: Was drunk, the Northern Wei forces could not give chase, and in anger, Emperor Taiwu imprisoned and then demoted both Tuxi and his deputy, the general E Qing (娥清) to being common soldiers, although he subsequently made them generals again. He then sent messengers to Goguryeo, demanding that Goguryeo turn Feng Hong over. Goguryeo's King Jangsu refused, albeit humbly requesting to serve Emperor Taiwu together with Feng Hong. Emperor Taiwu, at

15720-634: Was in fact very close to Yujiulü Datan's position and could have captured the Rouran khan had he chased further, and he regretted his withdrawal. On the way back, he also attacked Gaoche tribes, and along with the Rouran tribes that he captured, he resettled them south of the Gobi Desert and had them exercise agriculture. Due to this, livestock and leather became so abundant that they could be bought cheaply by Northern Wei's populace. He greatly rewarded Cui, and from this point Cui's advice became what he accepted at all times. In spring 430, Liu Song launched

15851-512: Was is not known, and most members of the Yao clan were captured and killed by Liu Yu.) In 418, Emperor Mingyuan launched a major attack on Northern Yan and put the Northern Yan capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou , Liaoning ) under siege, but was unable to capture Helong and forced to retreat. During Emperor Mingyuan's late reign, he requisitioned additional resources from the people in addition to regular taxes several times, however, Emperor Mingyuan also gave out several tax exemptions to reduce

15982-404: Was largely in Northern Wei's control, and although both Juqu Mujian's brother Juqu Wuhui and Tufa Baozhou (禿髮保周), a son of Southern Liang 's last prince Tufa Rutan , would try to hold various parts of Northern Liang territory, by 440 Tufa Baozhou would be dead by suicide after failures, and by 441 Juqu Wuhui had fled to Gaochang . Northern China was now united under Emperor Taiwu's reign, ending

16113-615: Was nearly captured in an ambush, saved only by the efforts of his guard Houmochen Jian (侯莫陳建). He subsequently defeated Bai and slaughtered Bai's tribe. In 436, Feng Hong sent another embassy, offering to send Feng Wangren as a hostage. Emperor Taiwu, not believing in Feng Hong's offer, refused, and prepared a final assault. When he arrived at Helong, however, Feng Hong had already requested assistance from Goguryeo , which sent troops to assist Feng Hong's plans of relocating his people to Goguryeo soil, and because Emperor Taiwu's general Tuxi Bi

16244-437: Was no longer able to hold Shanggui, and he, after destroying Qifu Mumo's Western Qin, tried to head west to attack Northern Liang , but was intercepted by the khan of Tuyuhun , Murong Mugui (慕容慕璝), defeated, and captured. In 433, Murong Mugui, with promises of rewards, turned Helian Ding over to Emperor Taiwu, and he had Helian Ding executed.) While Emperor Taiwu was on his Xia campaign, his generals, as he instructed, crossed

16375-558: Was not because it was not secure enough. Right now, the land is not in peace, and we need human power, and I loathe construction projects. What Xiao He said was incorrect." He also felt that money was the capital for affairs of the military and the state, and should not be easily wasted. He issued monetary awards only to the families of those who had died for the state or who had contributed greatly, never to his own relatives. When he sent generals out, he always personally advised them, and those who disobeyed his advice usually ended in failure. He

16506-588: Was somewhat necessary for them because at this point, no Northern Wei officials received a salary), he issued an edict creating incentives for low-level officials and commoners to report officials for corruption. However, the edict did not have its calculated effect, as the people who had evidence of the officials' corruption instead used the knowledge to blackmail the officials, and the officials continued to be corrupt. Later in 437, Emperor Taiwu married his sister Princess Wuwei to Juqu Mujian, and Juqu Mujian sent his heir apparent Juqu Fengtan (沮渠封壇) to Pingcheng to be

16637-500: Was strong and brave, and calm and settled. Regardless of whether it came to defending a city or fighting on the battlefield, he was always at the frontline. His guards might suffer casualties, but his expressions would be the same, and therefore his generals and soldiers were all fearful of and impressed by him, and willing to fight hard to their death. He was also frugal, and he was satisfied with his clothing and food as long as they were sufficient. When his officials requested to strengthen

16768-501: Was that Cui had unduly revealed imperial infamy, when he wrote and published an official history, but what Cui did was never fully stated. The modern historian Bo Yang speculated that Cui had revealed that Emperor Taiwu's grandfather Emperor Daowu had been a traitor, and also that Cui was then in a major political confrontation with Crown Prince Huang, who manufactured part of the charges against Cui. (See here for details.) However, Bo's speculation, while having some evidentiary support,

16899-619: Was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu . In spring 446, believing incorrectly that the Liu Song governor of Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong ), Du Ji (杜驥), was about to defect to him, Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren (拓拔仁, Tuoba Jian's son) the Prince of Yongchang to try to escort Du, and to attack Liu Song's Qing, Yan (兗州, modern western Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, and while Northern Wei forces did not capture or hold those provinces, those provinces were greatly disturbed by

17030-427: Was with him, advised an immediate attack, but Emperor Taiwu hesitated, allowing Yujiulü Wuti to escape. From that point on, Emperor Taiwu began to listen to Crown Prince Huang's advice in earnest, and in winter 443, he authorized Crown Prince Huang to carry out all imperial duties except the most important ones, under assistance from Qiumuling Shou (丘穆陵壽), Cui, Zhang Li (張黎), and Tuxi Bi. Crown Prince Huang soon instituted

17161-528: Was written, the Duguhuns had their name changed to Du by Emperor Xiaowen .) He was Tuoba Si's oldest son. After Tuoba Si became emperor in 409 (as Emperor Mingyuan) following Emperor Daowu's assassination by his son Tuoba Shao (拓拔紹) the Prince of Qinghe, Tuoba Tao was assumed to be the eventual heir, but not given that title for a while. In Tuoba Tao's childhood, he was given the nickname Foli. Tuoba Tao appears to have been separated from his mother Consort Du from

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