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112-485: The Minangkabau who settled at Negeri Sembilan , in present-day Malaysia at the end of the 17th century ruled by a "penghulu" or headman who was chosen from the noble families of Sakai and Jakun belonging to the Biduanda clan. These "penghulus" , notably that of Sungai Ujong , Jelebu , Johol and Rembau became powerful enough to exalt themselves above the other "penghulus" . These penghulus later acknowledged by

224-423: A consequence of the arecoline that is found in areca nuts. The habit also exposes the fetus to various other toxic components linked to cancer . In 2017, world production of areca nut was 1.3 million tonnes , with India providing 54% of the total. As other leading producers, Myanmar , Indonesia, Bangladesh and Taiwan combined contributed 38% of the world total. In India (the largest consumer of areca nut) and

336-468: A day, fast during the month of Ramadan, and express the desire to make the holy pilgrimage ( Hajj ) to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Each Minangkabau neighbourhood has a Musalla , which means "a temporary place of prayer" in Arabic. In the neighbourhood Musalla , men and women pray together, although separated into their respective gender-designated sections. A high percentage of women and girls wear

448-415: A day. Fruits are mainly seasonal, although fruits such as banana, papaya and citrus are continually available. Three meals a day are typical with lunch being the most important, except during the fasting month of Ramadan when lunch is not eaten. Meals commonly consist of steamed rice, a hot fried dish and a coconut milk dish, with a little variation from breakfast to dinner. Meals are generally eaten from

560-500: A distinction between high and low inheritance. "High inheritance" is the property, including the home and land, which passes among women. "Low inheritance" is what a father passes to his children out of his professional earnings. This latter inheritance follows Islamic law, a complex system which dictates, in part, that sons get twice as much as daughters. Minangkabau ceremonies and festivals include: Traditional Minangkabau music includes saluang jo dendang, which consists of singing to

672-627: A form other than whole or carved kernels of nuts can be stopped at the discretion of US Customs officers on the grounds of food, agricultural, or medicinal drug violations. In the United Kingdom the betel nut is legal. Possession of areca nut or betel leaf is banned in the UAE and is a punishable offence. Chewing the mixture of areca nut and betel leaf constitutes an important and popular cultural activity in many South Asian , Southeast Asian , East Asian and Oceanic countries. Why or when

784-482: A large number of consumers. To meet the steady year-round demand, two kinds of betel-nut shops sell betel and nuts, as well as cigarettes and drinks, including beer: Small mom and pop shops , often poorly maintained and with unassuming façades , and shops which will often consist of nothing more than a single, free-standing room, or booth. The latter is usually elevated one meter above the street, and measures less than 3 by 2 m. Large picture windows comprise two or more of

896-461: A living out of selling betel nut, so are resistant to bans in their areas. On Manus Island , young men are exposed to piracy when they use small boats to travel to the northern coast to purchase betel nuts to trade, and several have disappeared. In Australia, the importation, use, and sale of areca nut is banned, but it has been sold illegally in several South Asian supermarkets. In Taiwan, bags of 20 to 40 areca nuts are purchased fresh daily by

1008-565: A long history of oral traditions. One is the pidato adat (ceremonial orations) which are performed by clan chiefs ( panghulu ) at formal occasions such as weddings, funerals, adoption ceremonies, and panghulu inaugurations. These ceremonial orations consist of many forms including pantun , aphorisms ( papatah-patitih ), proverbs ( pameo ), religious advice ( petuah , parables ( tamsia ), two-line aphorisms ( gurindam ), and similes ( ibarat ). Minangkabau traditional folktales ( kaba ) consist of narratives that present

1120-700: A modern education system. The 20th century marked a rise and cultural and political nationalism, culminating in the demand for Indonesian independence. Later rebellions against the Dutch occupation occurred such as the 1908 Anti-Tax Rebellion and the 1927 Communist uprising. During World War II the Minangkabau territories were occupied by the Japanese, and when the Japanese surrendered in August 1945 Indonesia proclaimed independence. The Dutch attempts to regain control of

1232-604: A number of penghulu and representatives of the Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821. The first phase of the war ended in 1825 when the Dutch signed an agreement with the Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol to halt hostilities, allowing them to redeploy their forces to fight the Java War . When fighting resumed in 1832, the reinforced Dutch troops were able to more effectively attack

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1344-417: A part of social greeting and socialising. It is a tradition to offer pan-tamul (betel leaves and raw areca nut) to guests immediately upon arrival, and after tea or meals, served in a brass plate with stands called bota . In traditional Assamese societies carrying a pouch of tamul-pan upon one's person during journeys or during farming activities, and sharing of the same, was an essential requirement. Among

1456-408: A plate using the fingers of the right hand. Snacks are more frequently eaten by people in urban areas than in villages. Western food has had little impact upon Minangkabau consumption and preference. Rendang is a dish which is considered to be a characteristic of Minangkabau culture; it is cooked 4–5 times a year. This particular dish is one of the world's renowned dish, especially after crowned

1568-526: A relatively advantageous position in their society compared to most patriarchal societies, because though they do not rule, they are at the center of their society. The Minangkabau language ( Baso Minangkabau ) is an Austronesian language belonging to the Malayic linguistic subgroup, which in turn belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. The Negri Sembilan dialect of Malay used by people in

1680-454: A royal system seems to have involved conflict and violence, eventually leading to a division of villages into one of two systems of tradition, Bodi-Caniago system based on Adat Perpatih and Koto-Piliang system based on Adat Temenggung , the latter having overt allegiances to royalty. By the 16th century, the time of the next report after the reign of Adityawarman, royal power had been split into three recognised reigning kings. They were

1792-601: A small quantity of tobacco is called gutka . The easily discarded, small plastic supari or gutka pouches are a ubiquitous pollutant of the South Asian environment. Some of the liquid in the mouth is usually disposed of by spitting, producing bright red spots wherever the expectorate lands. In the Maldives , areca nut chewing is very popular, but spitting is frowned upon and regarded as an unrefined, repulsive way of chewing. Usually, people prefer to chew thin slices of

1904-470: A token of friendship every time they met. In Bhutan , the areca nut is called doma . The soft and moist raw areca nut is very potent. When chewed it can cause palpitation and vasoconstriction . This form is eaten in the lower regions of Bhutan and in North Bengal, where the nut is cut into half and put into a local paan leaf with a generous amount of lime. In the rest of Bhutan the raw nut, with

2016-551: Is a cause of oral submucous fibrosis , a condition which may progress to mouth cancer . It has also been linked to throat cancer . When chewed with additional tobacco in its preparation (like in gutka ), there is an even higher risk for cancer, especially for oral and oropharyngeal cancers . With tobacco it also raises the risk of fatal coronary artery disease , fatal stroke and non-fatal ischaemic heart disease Women who chew areca nut formulations, such as paan , during pregnancy significantly increase adverse outcomes for

2128-475: Is a folk theatre tradition which incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the silat martial art. Randai is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals, and complex stories may span a number of nights. It is performed as a theatre-in-the-round to achieve an equality and unity between audience members and the performers. Randai performances are a synthesis of alternating martial arts dances, songs, and acted scenes. Stories are delivered by

2240-1042: Is a good remedy against bad breath . Diplomat Edmund Roberts noted that Chinese people would mix areca nut with Uncaria gambir during his visit to China in the 1830s. After chewing a betelnut, the red residue is generally spat out. Accordingly, places have banned chewing this nut to avoid eyesores . The major alkaloid in betel nut is arecoline . There are other compounds, such as arecaidine , guvacine , isoguvacine , and guvacoline . Tannins present in betel nut are mainly proanthocyanidins along with catechins and arecatannin. Two new alkaloids were recently discovered and named acatechu A and acatechu B. Several non-alkaloid compounds including benzenoids, terpenes , carboxylic acids , aldehydes , alcohols, and esters were also identified. Chewing areca nut causes multiple forms of cancer and cardiovascular disease, with or without added tobacco. Betel nut chewing causes an increased risk of head and neck cancers and esophageal cancer . Betel quid affects almost all parts of

2352-520: Is about a mother who acts as teacher and adviser to her two growing children. Initially her son is vain and headstrong and only after her perseverance does he become a good son who listens to his mother. Malin Kundang is about the dangers of treating your mother badly. A sailor from a poor family voyages to seek his fortune, becoming rich and marrying. After refusing to recognise his elderly mother on his return home, being ashamed of his humble origins, he

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2464-415: Is about the traditions of Minangkabau royalty. The story involves a mythical Minangkabau queen, Bundo Kanduang, who embodies the behaviours prescribed by adat . Cindua Mato, a servant of the queen, uses magic to defeat hostile outside forces and save the kingdom. Sabai nan Aluih (The genteel Sabai) is about a girl named Sabai who despite being famous for being a gentle girl with perfect wife skills, avenged

2576-515: Is an even higher risk, especially for oral and oropharyngeal cancers . With tobacco it also raises the risk of fatal coronary artery disease , fatal stroke , and adverse reproductive effects including stillbirth , premature birth , low birth weight . Consumption by hundreds of millions of people worldwide—mainly of South/Southeast Asian origins—has been described as a public health emergency. The term areca originated from Dravidian languages , cognates of which are: The terms dates back to

2688-500: Is based upon egalitarian principles with all panghulu (clan chiefs) being equal while the Koto Piliang /Adat Katumangguangan system is more autocratic with there being a hierarchy of panghulu . Each village ( nagari ) in the darek was an autonomous "republic", and governed independently of the Minangkabau kings using one of the two adat systems. After the darek was settled, new outside settlements were created and ruled using

2800-604: Is believed that betel chewing originally developed somewhere within the Philippines shortly after the beginning of the Austronesian expansion (~3000 BCE). From the Philippines, it spread back to Taiwan, as well as onwards to the rest of Austronesia and in neighboring cultures through trade and migration. In Vietnam, the areca nut and the betel leaf are such important symbols of love and marriage that in Vietnamese

2912-519: Is closest to the Malay language , though when the two languages split from a common ancestor and the precise historical relationship between Malay and Minangkabau culture is not known. Until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with plentiful fresh water, fertile soil, a cool climate, and valuable commodities. It

3024-590: Is cursed and dies when a storm ensues and turn him along with his ship to stone. The said stone is in Air Manis beach and is known by locals as batu Malin Kundang . Other popular folktales also relate to the important role of the woman in Minangkabau society. In the Cindua Mato epic the woman is the source of wisdom, while in the Sabai nan Aluih she is a gentle girl who takes action. Cindua Mato (Staring Eye)

3136-530: Is not to be confused with betel ( Piper betle ) leaves that are often used to wrap it. The practice of betel nut chewing , often together with other herbs as a stimulant drug , dates back thousands of years, and continues to the present day in many countries. Betel nut chewing is addictive due to the presence of the stimulant arecoline , and causes adverse health effects, mainly oral and esophageal cancers , and cardiovascular disease. When chewed with additional tobacco in its preparation (like in gutka ), there

3248-432: Is one of the crucial functions of the suku (female lineage unit). Because Minangkabau men, like Acehnese men, often migrate to seek experience, wealth, and commercial success, the women's kin group is responsible for maintaining the continuity of the family and the distribution and cultivation of the land. These family groups, however, are typically led by a penghulu (headman), elected by groups of lineage leaders. With

3360-485: Is preferably consumed in its fermented form, which is supposed to make the fruit harder and sweeter. The raw nut may also be eaten during certain seasons when the fermented variety becomes unavailable, although it has more of ritual importance. Standard sized pieces of the nut and leaf are usually consumed in combination with lime and a bit of tobacco. In Assam, betel nut and leaf has indispensable cultural value; offering betel leaf and nut, (together known as gua ) constitutes

3472-438: Is prevalent among taxi, bus and truck drivers, who rely on the stimulating effect of betel nut to cope with long work hours. For these reasons, oral cancer has been identified as a leading cause of death in professions with high betel nut-chewing rates. In Hainan and Hunan Province , China, where Xiangtan is a center of use and processing, a wide range of old and young people consume areca nut daily. Most, though, consume

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3584-556: Is probable that wet rice cultivation evolved in the Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in other parts of Sumatra, and predates significant foreign contact. Adityawarman , a follower of Tantric Buddhism with ties to the Singhasari and Majapahit kingdoms of Java, is believed to have founded a kingdom in the Minangkabau highlands at Pagaruyung and ruled between 1347 and 1375. The establishment of

3696-505: Is the fruit of the areca palm ( Areca catechu ). The palm is originally native to the Philippines , but was carried widely through the tropics by the Austronesian migrations and trade since at least 1500 BCE due to its use in betel nut chewing . It is widespread in cultivation and is considered naturalized in much of the tropical Pacific ( Melanesia and Micronesia ), South Asia , Southeast Asia , and parts of east Africa. It

3808-420: The 16th century when Dutch and Portuguese sailors took the nut from India to Europe. The areca nut is not a true nut , but rather the seed of a fruit categorized as a berry . It is commercially available in dried, cured, and fresh forms. When the husk of the fresh fruit is green, the nut inside is soft enough to be cut with a typical knife. In the ripe fruit, the husk becomes yellow or orange, and as it dries,

3920-573: The Benguet province. These restrictions were made under the idea that momma or moma (betel nut) chewing and spitting are improper during public transportation drivers' work hours and are considered stains to the city roads and sidewalks. Despite these restrictions, betel nut thrives across the Cordilleran market. An example of its commerciality can be observed in Ifugao , one of the provinces of

4032-647: The Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra , Indonesia . The Minangkabau's West Sumatera homelands was the seat of the Pagaruyung Kingdom , believed by early historians to have been the cradle of the Malay race , and the location of the Padri War (1821 to 1837). Minangkabau are the ethnic majority in West Sumatra and Negeri Sembilan . Minangkabau are also a recognised minority in other parts of Indonesia as well as Malaysia , Singapore , and

4144-465: The Netherlands . There are several possible etymologies for the term Minangkabau ( Minangkabau : Minang Jawi script : منڠ). While the word "kabau" undisputedly translates to "buffalo", the word "minang" is traditionally known as the pinang fruit ( areca nut ) chewed with sirih ( betel ) leaves. But there is also a folklore that mention that term Minangkabau came from a popular legend that

4256-409: The husori players are offered areca nuts and betel leaves by each household while their blessings are solicited. Spanish mariner Álvaro de Mendaña reported observing Solomon Islanders chewing the nut and the leaf with caustic lime, and the manner in which the habit stained their mouths red. He noted the friendly and genial chief Malope, on Santa Isabel Island , would offer him the combination as

4368-416: The semangat by an evil spirit, and a shaman ( pawang ) may be consulted to conjure invisible forces and bring comfort to the family. Sacrificial offerings can be made to placate the spirits, and certain objects such as amulets are used as protection. Until the rise of the Padri movement late in the 18th century, Islamic practices such as prayers, fasting and attendance at mosques had been weakly observed in

4480-468: The 1990s, anthropologist Evelyn Blackwood studied a relatively conservative village in Sumatra Barat where only about 22 percent of the households were "matrihouses", consisting of a mother and a married daughter or daughters. Nonetheless, there is a shared ideal among Minangkabau in which sisters and unmarried lineage members try to live close to one another or even in the same house. Landholding

4592-697: The 19th century the Dutch remained content with their coastal trade of gold and produce, and made no attempt to visit the Minangkabau highlands. As a result of conflict in Europe, the British occupied Padang from 1781 to 1784 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War , and again from 1795 to 1819 during the Napoleonic Wars . Late in the 18th century the gold supply which provided the economic base for Minangkabau royalty began to be exhausted. Around

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4704-460: The Assamese, the areca nut also has a variety of uses during religious and marriage ceremonies, where it has the role of a fertility symbol. No religious ritual is complete without the offering of tamul-pan to the gods and spirits as well as to the assembled guests A tradition from Upper Assam is to invite guests to wedding receptions by offering a few areca nuts with betel leaves. During Bihu ,

4816-546: The Best Food in CNN's World's 50 Best Foods in 2011 and 2017 by a CNN poll. Other characteristic dishes include Asam Padeh , Soto Padang , Sate Padang , Dendeng Balado (beef with chili sauce). Food has a central role in the Minangkabau ceremonies which honour religious and life-cycle rites. Minangkabau food is popular among Indonesians and restaurants are present throughout Indonesia. Nasi Padang restaurants, named after

4928-634: The Federation. Undangs are still chosen from amongst certain noble families in the state, the succession being both matrilineal and elective following the Adat Purbakala . According to Ernest Woodford Birch , the Undang Yang Empat trace their history and rank back to the four Batins (Sakai Chiefs) of Johol, Sungei Ujong, Jelebu and Klang, with Rembau later taking the position left vacant by Klang. The ruling chiefs are selected among

5040-641: The King of the World ( Raja Alam ), the King of Adat ( Raja Adat ), and the King of Religion ( Raja Ibadat ), and collectively they were known as the Kings of the Three Seats ( Rajo Tigo Selo ). The Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs. Around the 16th century, the Minangkabau started to convert to Islam . The first contact between

5152-475: The Koto Piliang system by rajo who were representatives of the king. The Minangkabau have large corporate descent groups, but they traditionally reckon descent matrilineally. A young boy, for instance, has his primary responsibility to his mother's and sisters' clans . It is considered "customary" and ideal for married sisters to remain in their parental home, with their husbands having a sort of visiting status. Not everyone lives up to this ideal, however. In

5264-506: The Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of Jean Parmentier to Sumatra. The Dutch East India Company first acquired gold at Pariaman in 1651, but later moved south to Padang to avoid interference from the Acehnese occupiers. In 1663 the Dutch agreed to protect and liberate local villages from the Acehnese in return for a trading monopoly, and as a result setup trading posts at Painan and Padang . Until early in

5376-475: The Minangkabau developed a cosmopolitan bourgeoisie that readily adopted and promoted the ideas of an emerging nation-state. Due to their culture that stresses the importance of learning, Minang people are over-represented in the educated professions in Indonesia, with many ministers from Minang. Adat derives in part from the ancient animist and buddhist belief system of the Minangkabau, which existed before

5488-470: The Minangkabau diet are rice, fish, coconut, green leafy vegetables and chili. Meat is mainly limited to special occasions, and beef and chicken are most commonly used. Pork is not halal and not consumed, while lamb, goat and game are rarely consumed for reasons of taste and availability. Spiciness is a characteristic of Minangkabau food: The most commonly used herbs and spices are chili, turmeric, ginger and galangal. Vegetables are consumed two or three times

5600-512: The Minangkabau highlands. The Padri were inspired by the Wahhabi movement in Mecca, and sought to eliminate societal problems such as tobacco and opium smoking, gambling and general anarchy by ensuring the tenets of the quran were strictly observed. All Minangkabau customs allegedly in conflict with the quran were abolished. Although the Padri were eventually defeated by the Dutch, during this period

5712-528: The Minangkabau people can be considered overseas Minangkabaus. They make up the majority of the population of Negeri Sembilan , Naning (in Malaysia ) as well as Pekanbaru (in Indonesia). They also form a significant minority in the populations of Jakarta , Bandung , Medan , Batam , Surabaya and Palembang in Indonesia as well as Kuala Lumpur , Malacca, Penang , Singapore and Brunei Darussalam in

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5824-508: The Minangkabau people, wandering is an ideal way to reach maturity and success; as a consequence, they exercised great influence in the politics of many kingdom and states in Maritime Southeast Asia. Overseas Minangkabau are also great influence developing Indonesian, Malaysian, and Singaporean culture, mainly language, culinary, music, and martial art. The Minangkabau are famous for their dedication to knowledge, as well as

5936-493: The Minangkabau tells of the development of the Minangkabau World ( alam Minangkabau ) and its adat . These stories are derived from an oral history which was transmitted between generations before the Minangkabau had a written language. The first Minangkabau are said to have arrived by ship and landed on Mount Marapi when it was no bigger than the size of an egg, which protruded from a surrounding body of water. After

6048-417: The Padri. The main centre of resistance was captured in 1837, Tuanku Imam Bonjol was captured and exiled soon after, and by the end of the next year the war was effectively over. With the Minangkabau territories now under the control of the Dutch, transportation systems were improved and economic exploitation was intensified. New forms of education were introduced, allowing some Minangkabau to take advantage of

6160-848: The Philippine Cordilleras, where betel nuts are high-demand products sourced from the province's different cities and municipalities. In Bahasa Indonesia , the betel nut is known as makan pinang , while in the Papua Province of Indonesia, it is known simply as pinang . In Papua New Guinea (PNG), betel nuts are referred to in Tok Pisin as buai , and grow abundantly on the northern coast, in Wewak and Madang . A controversial ban on selling and chewing betel nut in public places in Port Moresby , introduced in 2014 by

6272-403: The accompaniment of a saluang bamboo flute and talempong gong-chime music. Dances include the tari piring (plate dance), tari payung (umbrella dance), tari indang (also known as endang or badindin ), and tari pasambahan . Demonstrations of the silat martial art are performed. Pidato adat are ceremonial orations performed at formal occasions. Randai

6384-633: The acting and singing and are mostly based upon Minangkabau legends and folktales. Randai originated early in the 20th century out of fusion of local martial arts, storytelling and other performance traditions. Men originally played male and female characters in the story but, since the 1960s, women have participated. Particular Minangkabau villages specialise in cottage industries producing handicrafts such as woven sugarcane and reed purses, gold and silver jewellery using filigree and granulation techniques, woven songket textiles, wood carving, embroidery, pottery, and metallurgy. The staple ingredients of

6496-405: The adult buffalo across the field, the calf ran forward, hoping for milk. The big buffalo saw no threat in the baby buffalo and paid no attention to it, looking around for a worthy opponent. But when the baby thrust his head under the big bull's belly, looking for an udder, the sharpened horns punctured and killed the bull giving the villagers their victory ( menang , hence minang kabau : "victors of

6608-720: The aforementioned state is closely related to it due to the fact many of the population are descendants of Minangkabau immigrants. The language has a number of dialects and sub-dialects, but native Minangkabau speakers generally have no difficulty understanding the variety of dialects. The differences between dialects are mainly at the phonological level, though some lexical differences also exist. Minangkabau dialects are regional, consisting of one or more villages ( nagari ), and usually correspond to differences in customs and traditions. Each sub-village ( jorong ) has its own sub-dialect consisting of subtle differences which can be detected by native speakers. The Padang dialect has become

6720-514: The agrarian base of the Minangkabau economy in decline, the suku—as a landholding unit—has also been declining somewhat in importance, especially in urban areas. Indeed, the position of penghulu is not always filled after the death of the incumbent, particularly if lineage members are not willing to bear the expense of the ceremony required to install a new penghulu. The Minangkabau (in short Minang) are also known for their devotion to Islam. A dominant majority of both males and females pray five times

6832-783: The area were ultimately unsuccessful and in 1949 the Minangkabau territories became part of Indonesia as the province of Central Sumatra. In February 1958, dissatisfaction with the centralist and communist-leaning policies of the Sukarno administration triggered a revolt which was centred in the Minangkabau region of Sumatra, with rebels proclaiming the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) in Bukittinggi . The Indonesian military invaded West Sumatra in April 1958 and had recaptured major towns within

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6944-522: The areca nut and the betel leaf were first combined into one psychoactive drug is not known. Archaeological evidence from Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines suggests they have been used in tandem for at least 4,000 years. The oldest unequivocal evidence of betel chewing is from the Philippines, specifically that of several individuals found in a burial pit in the Duyong Cave site of Palawan island dated to around 2680±250 BCE . The dentition of

7056-457: The arrival of Guru Rinpoche in the eighth century, he stopped the people from eating flesh and drinking blood and created a substitute which is betel leaf, lime and areca nut. Today, chewing doma has become a custom. Doma is served after meals, during rituals and ceremonies. It is offered to friends and is chewed at work places by all sections of society and has become an essential part of Bhutanese life and culture." The addition of tobacco leaf to

7168-537: The arrival of Islam to Sumatra. When precisely the religion spread across the island and was adopted by the Minangkabau is unclear, though it probably arrived in West Sumatra around the 16th century. It is adat that guides matrilineal inheritance, and though it seems that such a tradition might conflict with the precepts of Islam, the Minangnese insist that it does not. To accommodate both, the Minangkabau make

7280-644: The arrival of Islam. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the saying "traditions [ adat ] are founded upon the [Islamic] law, and the law founded upon the Qur'an " ( adat nan kawi', syara' nan lazim ). With the Minangkabau highlands being the heartland of their culture, and with Islam likely entering the region from coast it is said that "custom descended, religion ascended" ( adat manurun, syarak mandaki ). This table contains Minangkabau population breakdown in Indonesia Over half of

7392-468: The baby. Betel quid chewing can cause stillbirth , premature birth , low birth weight . The harm caused by consumption of areca nuts worldwide was classified in 2017 as a "neglected global public health emergency". Using tobacco or areca nuts during pregnancy significantly increases adverse outcomes for the baby. The habit is associated with higher incidences of preterm birth and low birth weight and height. Biologically, these effects may be

7504-405: The buffalo" which eventually became Minangkabau ). That legend, however, is known to be a mere tale and that the word "minang" is too far from the word "menang" which means 'win'. The legend however has its rebuttals as the word 'minang' refers to the consumption of areca nut ( pinang ), yet there has not been any popular explanation on the word 'minang' that relates the aforementioned action to

7616-404: The capital of West Sumatra, are known for placing a variety of Minangkabau dishes on a customer's table with rice and billing only for what is taken. Nasi Kapau is another restaurant variant which specialises in dishes using offal and tamarind to add a sourness to the spicy flavour. Rumah gadang ( Minangkabau : 'big house') or rumah bagonjong ( Minangkabau : 'spired roof house') are

7728-616: The chewing mixture is a relatively recent innovation, as tobacco was not introduced from the Americas until the colonial era. Reasons for starting to consume areca nuts appears to involve complex psychosocial factors. Places such as Guwahati in India, Penang in Malaysia , Ko Mak (เกาะหมาก) in Thailand , Fua Mulaku in Maldives and Binlang Islet in Taiwan have been named after

7840-479: The chewing of the nut and the leaf. The areca nut represented the male principle, and the betel leaf the female principle. Considered an auspicious ingredient in Hinduism and some schools of Buddhism , the areca nut is still used along with betel leaf in religious ceremonies, and also while honoring individuals in much of southern Asia. In Assam , as well as most of its neighbouring Northeastern states, Areca Nut

7952-549: The combination of areca nut and the betel leaf is ideal to the point they are practically inseparable, like an idealized married couple. Formerly, in both India and Sri Lanka, it was a custom of the royalty to chew areca nut with betel leaf. Kings had special attendants whose duty it was to carry a box with all the necessary ingredients for a good chewing session. There was also a custom for lovers to chew areca nut and betel leaf together, because of its breath-freshening and relaxant properties. A sexual symbolism thus became attached to

8064-527: The dried variety of the nut by itself, without the betel leaves. Some people also consume the areca nut in its raw, fresh form with or without the betel leaves. Betel nuts are sold mostly by old women merchants, but the dried version can be found in shops that sell tea, alcohol, and cigarettes. In the United States, areca nut is not a controlled or specially taxed substance and may be found in some Asian grocery stores. However, importation of areca nut in

8176-404: The dry nut, which is sometimes roasted. Kili , a mixture of areca nut, betel, cloves, cardamom and sugar is sold in small home-made paper pouches. Old people who have lost their teeth keep "chewing" by pounding the mixture of areca nut and betel with a small mortar and pestle. In Thailand, the consumption of areca nut has declined gradually in the last decades. The younger generation rarely chews

8288-400: The family or nagari (hometown) when they sit as members of the 'council of maternal uncles and maternal granduncles' (ninik-mamak). This tradition has created Minang communities in many Indonesian cities and towns, which nevertheless are still tied closely to their homeland; a state in Malaysia named Negeri Sembilan especially is heavily influenced by Minang culture because Negeri Sembilan

8400-463: The fruit inside hardens to a wood-like consistency. At that stage, the areca nut can only be sliced using a special scissors -like cutter. Usually for chewing, a few slices of the nut are wrapped in a betel leaf along with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and may include clove , cardamom , catechu resin ( kattha ), or other spices for extra flavouring. Betel leaf has a fresh, peppery taste, but it can also be bitter to varying degrees depending on

8512-514: The governor, was lifted in 2017. Because the popular nut continued to be smuggled in, prices rose dramatically. Police enforced the ban rigorously, and in 2015 two betel nut sellers died in Hanuabada after police reservists fired on a crowd. The governor of Port Moresby introduced another ban on the nut, restricted to an area in the business district of the city in July 2023. However many people make

8624-853: The headscarf. As early as the age of 7, boys traditionally leave their homes and live in a surau (traditionally: the house of men of a village where the boys learn from older men reading, reciting qur'an, simple math, and other survival skills) to learn religious and cultural ( adat ) teachings. At the surau during night time (after the Isyak prayers), these youngsters are taught the traditional Minangkabau art of self-defence, called as Silek, or Silat in Malay. When they are teenagers, they are encouraged to leave their hometown to learn in schools or through experiences outside of their hometown so that, as adults, they can return home wise and 'useful' to society and are able to contribute their thinking and experience to run

8736-425: The human body, including the brain, heart, lungs, gastrointestinal tract and reproductive organs. It can cause myocardial infarction , cardiac arrhythmias , liver damage , asthma , type II diabetes , hyperlipidemia , metabolic syndrome , hypothyroidism , prostate hyperplasia and infertility . Habitual chewing of areca nuts increases the risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma . Chewing areca nuts

8848-466: The husk on, is fermented such that the husk rots and is easy to extract. The fermented doma has a putrid odour, which can be smelled from miles. Traditionally, this fragrant nut is cut in half and placed on top of a cone made of local betel leaf, which has a dash of lime put into it. "Myth has it that the inhabitants of Bhutan traditionally known as Monyul, the land of Monpas where Buddhism did not reach lived on raw flesh, drank blood, and chewed bones. After

8960-548: The influence of the Protestant Dutch – they also had a sense of cultural pride just as like every other Sumatran especially with their traditional belief of egalitarianism of "Standing as tall, sitting as low" (that no body stand or sit on an increased stage). They also speak a language closely related to the Malay variant spoken in newly formed Indonesia , which was considerably freer of hierarchical connotations than Javanese . The tradition of merantau also meant that

9072-544: The language dates from the 19th century, and a standardised official orthography of the language was published in 1976. Despite widespread use of Malay in both Malaysia and Indonesia, they do have their own mother tongue; the Minangkabau language shares many similar words with Malay, yet it has a distinctive pronunciation and some grammatical differences rendering it unintelligible to Malay speakers. Prior to conversion to Islam, Buddhism , especially Tantric Buddhism

9184-471: The lingua franca for people of different language regions. The Minangkabau society has a diglossia situation, whereby they use their native language for everyday conversations, while the Malay language is used for most formal occasions, in education, and in writing, even to relatives and friends. The Minangkabau language was originally written using the Jawi script , an adapted Arabic alphabet. Romanization of

9296-429: The middle and end in points, in imitation of the upward-curving horns of the water buffalo that supposedly eked the people their name (i.e. " victors of the buffalo "). Shuttered windows are built into walls incised with profuse painted floral carvings. The term rumah gadang usually refers to the larger communal homes, however, smaller single residences share many of its architectural elements. Minangkabau culture has

9408-467: The murder of her father by a powerful and evil ruler from a neighbouring village. After her father's death, her cowardly elder brother refuses to confront the murderer and so Sabai decided to take matters into her own hands. She seeks out the murderer and shoots him in revenge. The Minangkabau are the largest matrilineal society in the world, with property, family name and land passing down from mother to daughter, while religious and political affairs are

9520-549: The next month. A period of guerrilla warfare ensued, but most rebels had surrendered by August 1961. In the years following, West Sumatra was like an occupied territory with Javanese officials occupying most senior civilian, military and police positions. The policies of centralisation continued under the Suharto regime. The national government legislated to apply the Javanese desa village system throughout Indonesia, and in 1983

9632-464: The nobility in each luak (district), following matrilineal inheritance, part of the state's adat perpatih customs. The senior wife of an Undang has the honorific title of "To' Puan" or "Toh Puan". The Undangs carry out duties such as co-head of state, co-head of Islam as state religion, upholding and safeguarding the special position of Bumiputera in Negeri Sembilan, attending

9744-410: The penetration of Islam into Minangkabau society in the 16th century, animistic beliefs were not extinguished. In this belief system, people were said to have two souls, a real soul and a soul which can disappear called the semangat . Semangat represents the vitality of life and it is said to be possessed by all living creatures including animals and plants. An illness may be explained as the capture of

9856-473: The phrase "matters of betel and areca" ( chuyện trầu cau ) is synonymous with marriage. The tradition of chewing areca nuts starts the talk between the groom's parents and the bride's parents about the young couple's marriage. Therefore, the leaves and juices are used ceremonially in Vietnamese weddings. The folk tale explaining the origin of this Vietnamese tradition is a good illustration of the belief that

9968-439: The preparation of Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicines . Powdered areca nut is used as a constituent in some dentifrices . Other traditional uses include the removal of tapeworms and other intestinal parasites by swallowing a few teaspoons of powdered areca nut, drunk as a decoction , or by taking tablets containing the extracted alkaloids. According to traditional Ayurvedic medicine, chewing areca nut and betel leaf

10080-417: The relationship between adat and religion was reformulated. Previously adat (customs) were said to be based upon appropriateness and propriety, but this was changed so that adat was more strongly based upon Islamic precepts. The Minangkabau strongly profess Islam while at the same time also following their ethnic traditions, or adat . The Minangkabau adat was derived from hereditary wisdom before

10192-582: The responsibility of men, although some women also play important roles in these areas. This custom is called Lareh Bodi-Caniago and is known as adat perpatih in Malaysia. Today 4.2 million Minangs live in the homeland of West Sumatra. As one of the world's most populous (as well as politically and economically influential) matrilineal ethnicities, Minangkabau gender dynamics have been extensively studied by anthropologists. The adat (Minangkabau: Adaik ) traditions have allowed Minangkabau women to hold

10304-526: The rest of the Indian subcontinent , the preparation of nut with or without betel leaf is commonly referred to as paan . It is available practically everywhere and is sold in ready-to-chew pouches called pan masala or supari , which is the dried form of the areca nut, as a mixture of many flavours whose primary base is dried areca nut crushed into small pieces. Poor people, who may eat only every other day, use it to stave off hunger pains . Pan masala with

10416-509: The rest of the Malay world . Minangkabaus have also emigrated as skilled professionals and merchants to the Netherlands , United States , Saudi Arabia and Australia . In the overseas ( rantau ), they have a reputation for being shrewd merchants. The matrilineal culture and economic conditions in West Sumatra have made the Minangkabau people one of the most mobile ethnic group in Maritime Southeast Asia . For most of

10528-404: The result of conflict between two half-brothers Datuak Katumangguangan and Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang, who were the leaders who formulated the foundations of Minangkabau adat . The former accepted Adityawarman , a prince from Majapahit, as a king while the latter considered him a minister, and a civil war ensued. The Bodi Caniago/ Adat perpatih system formulated by Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang

10640-461: The same time other parts of the Minangkabau economy had a period of unparalleled expansion as new opportunities for the export of agricultural commodities arose, particularly with coffee which was in very high demand. A civil war started in 1803 with the Padri fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional syncretic groups, elite families and Pagaruyung royals. As a result of a treaty with

10752-437: The side of the road and wait for the girls to bring their betel and areca nut to their vehicles. The habit of chewing betel nut is often associated with blue-collar labor industries such as long-haul transportation, construction, or fishing. Workers in these labor-intensive industries use betel nut for its stimulating effect, but it also becomes a tool for socializing with coworkers. For example, studies have shown chewing betel nut

10864-591: The skeletons is stained, typical of betel chewers. The grave also includes Anadara shells used as containers of lime, one of which still contained lime. Burial sites in Bohol dated to the first millennium CE also show the distinctive reddish stains characteristic of betel chewing. Based on linguistic evidence of how the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian term *buaq originally meaning "fruit" came to refer to "areca nut" in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian , it

10976-458: The social and personal consequences of either ignoring or observing the ethical teachings and the norms embedded in the adat . The storyteller ( tukang kaba ) recites the story in poetic or lyrical prose while accompanying himself on a rebab . A theme in Minangkabau folktales is the central role mothers and motherhood has in Minangkabau society, with the folktales Rancak di Labuah and Malin Kundang being two examples. Rancak di Labuah

11088-600: The state opening of the legislative assembly and electing the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan , who is also the co-head of state of Negeri Sembilan. The Undangs themselves cannot stand for election and their choice of ruler is limited among the princes of Seri Menanti royal family who are: Minangkabau people Minangkabau people ( Minangkabau : Urang Minang or Urang Awak ; Indonesian or Malay : Orang Minangkabau ; Jawi : منڠكبو ‎), also known as Minang , are an Austronesian ethnic group native to

11200-629: The substance, especially in the cities. Most of the present-day consumption is confined to older generations, mostly people above 50. Even so, small trays of betel leaves and sliced tender areca nut are sold in markets and used as offerings in Buddhist shrines. In the northern Philippines, particularly the Cordillera Administrative Region , betel nut chewing remains prominent to the point that restrictions and fines have been established in urban areas such as Baguio City in

11312-527: The sultan of the old Johor Empire as a sovereign in their own territory. By the early part of the 18th century, the leaders of these four territories started using the title " Undang " to distinguish themselves from other penghulu luak . Malaysia's modern day constitution confirms the status of the Undang under Article 71, 160, 181 and the Eight Schedule of Federal Constitution as Malay Ruler within

11424-468: The traditional Minangkabau nagari village units were split into smaller jorong units, thereby destroying the traditional village social and cultural institutions. In the years following the downfall of the Suharto regime decentralisation policies were implemented, giving more autonomy to provinces, thereby allowing West Sumatra to reinstitute the nagari system. The traditional historiography of

11536-570: The traditional homes of the Minangkabau. The architecture, construction, internal and external decoration, and the functions of the house reflect the culture and values of the Minangkabau. A rumah gadang serves as a residence, a hall for family meetings, and for ceremonial activities. The rumah gadang is owned by the women of the family who live there – ownership is passed from mother to daughter. The houses have dramatic curved roof structures with multi-tiered, upswept gables. They are also well distinguished by their rooflines which curve upward from

11648-697: The variety. Areca nuts are chewed for their effects as a mild stimulant, causing a warming sensation in the body and slightly heightened alertness, although the effects vary from person to person. The first nut cultivation in the world was done in Kyasanuru Seeme area of Shimoga district in Karnataka state of India. Even today the cultivators plant the same variety here. Kyasanuru variety gives high yield. Grows wildly in all regions. In parts of India, Sri Lanka , and southern China, areca nuts are not only chewed along with betel leaf, but are also used in

11760-399: The walls, allowing those who pass by a complete view of the interior. The interior is often painted brightly. Within such a shop, a sexily dressed young woman, a " betel nut beauty ", can be seen preparing betel and areca nuts. Shops are often identified by colorful (commonly green) LED lamps or neon lights that frame the windows or that are arranged radially above a store. Customers stop on

11872-452: The waters receded the Minangkabau proliferated and dispersed to the slopes and valleys surrounding the volcano, a region called the darek . The darek is composed of three luhak – Tanah Datar , Agam and Limapuluh Koto . The tambo claims the ship was sailed by a descendant of Alexander the Great ( Iskandar Zulkarnain ). A division in Minangkabau adat into two systems is said to be

11984-609: The widespread diaspora of their men throughout southeast Asia, the result being that Minangs have been disproportionately represented in positions of economic and political power throughout the region. The co-founder of the Republic of Indonesia, Mohammad Hatta , was a Minang, as were the first President of Singapore, Yusof bin Ishak , and the first Supreme Head of State or Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia , Tuanku Abdul Rahman . Areca nut The areca nut ( / ˈ ær ɪ k ə / or / ə ˈ r iː k ə / ) or betel nut

12096-559: The woman will rely on the protection provided by the husband more than that of her council of uncles. Because in Minang culture marriage is merely a 'commitment of two people' and not at all a 'union', there is no stigma attached to divorce. The Minangkabau were prominent among the intellectual figures in the Indonesian independence movement. Not only were they strongly embedded themselves surrounding Islamic traditions – which counteracted

12208-408: The word for "water buffalo". The first mention of the name Minangkabau as Minanga Tamwan , is in the late 7th century Kedukan Bukit inscription , describing Sri Jayanasa 's sacred journey from Minanga Tamwan accompanied with 20,000 soldiers heading to Matajap and conquering several areas in the southern of Sumatra. The Minangkabau language is a member of the Austronesian language family, and

12320-422: Was derived from a territorial dispute between a people and a prince from a neighbouring region. To avoid the battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two water buffaloes ( kabau ) to settle the dispute. The prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The villagers on other hand produced a hungry baby calf with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives. Seeing

12432-404: Was originally Minangkabau's colony. By acquiring property and education through merantau experience, a young man can attempt to influence his own destiny in positive ways. Increasingly, married couples go off on merantau; in such situations, the woman's role tends to change. When married couples reside in urban areas or outside the Minangkabau region and a Minang woman marries a non-Minang man,

12544-497: Was popular in the region. Buddhism in central Sumatra is attested by the Padang Roco Inscription , which states that an Avalokiteśvara was brought from Java to Dharmasraya, and this act brought great happiness to the people. Influential Buddhist kingdoms thrived in the area, including the Pagaruyung Kingdom and Melayu Kingdom . Animism had also been an important component of Minangkabau culture. Even after

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