Muslims of Madinah
135-421: [REDACTED] Quraysh 600–700 (Watt’s estimate) The Muslim–Quraysh War was a six-year military and religious war in the Arabian Peninsula between the early Muslims led by Muhammad on one side and the Arab pagan Quraysh tribe on the other. The war started in March 624 with the Battle of Badr , and concluded with the Conquest of Mecca . Muhammad, born in Mecca , began spreading Islam in
270-575: A Lakhmid caravan to the Hejaz. The attack took place during the holy season when fighting was typically forbidden. The Kinani tribesman's patron was Harb ibn Umayya , a Qurayshi chief. This patron and other chiefs were ambushed by the Hawazin at Nakhla, but were able to escape. In the battles that occurred in the following two years, the Qays were victorious, but in the fourth year, the tide turned in favor of
405-599: A belligerent party in Mecca supported one of its client tribes against the Banu Khuza'ah , who were allies of Muhammad, in violation of the treaty. When Muhammad brought his army to Mecca , Abu Sufyan and a few others approached Muhammad to ask for amnesty for those who abandoned armed resistance. Muhammad then managed to enter Mecca unopposed, and most of the population converted to Islam. Muhammad died just two years after that. The war holds high importance and significance in
540-523: A caravan at Nakhla , Muhammad learned of a larger Quraysh caravan returning from Gaza . He attempted to intercept it, but the caravan rerouted. Instead, Muhammad encountered Quraysh troops led by Amr ibn Hisham , and despite being outnumbered, won the Battle of Badr , gaining prestige and followers. The Quraysh defeat at Badr was significant, causing them to lose many of their influential or experienced men and their prestige. Seeking to restore their honor,
675-609: A class of men with well-developed managerial and organizational skills. It was a development unheralded, and almost unique, in central Arabia. The Banu Makhzum and Banu Umayya , in particular, acquired vast wealth from trade and held the most influence among the Quraysh in Meccan politics. The Banu Umayya and the Banu Nawfal , another clan descending from Abd Manaf that had become wealthy from their commercial enterprise, split from
810-684: A few Meccans were killed. The remaining Meccans surrendered to Muhammad. Some of the Meccans, even those who had been notable for their opposition to Islam, were spared. All idols of the pre-Islamic Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba were destroyed. However, according to one Shia tradition, he ordered an iconography of the virgin Mary and baby Jesus which was in the Kaaba not to be destroyed. Quraysh The Quraysh or Qureshi ( Arabic : قُرَيْشٍ )
945-586: A key component in the Muslim elite. Many leading Qurayshi tribesmen were installed in key government positions and in Muhammad's policy-making circle. According to Donner, the inclusion of Quraysh "in the ruling elite of the Islamic state was very probably responsible for what appears to be the more carefully organized and systematic approach to statesmanship practiced by Muhammad in the closing years of his life, as
1080-714: A new delegation reached Mecca, among them were two members of the community of Banu Aws . The Khazraj and Aws were rivals at this time, fighting for control of Medina. Muhammad mediated a ceasefire between the two parties and sent them back to Medina, accompanied by a reciter of the Quran . Islam slowly grew in Medina before in March 622, a new delegation, this time numbering 72 people, consulted with Muhammad. They pledged their readiness to wage war against Muhammad's enemies. The Meccans, who heard rumours of this meeting and realized that this
1215-690: A peaceful resolution, Muhammad decided to confront the Quraysh through armed conflict, beginning with raids on Meccan caravans. This led to several major battles, including those at Badr , Uhud , and the Trench . After these conflicts and following changes in Medina's political landscape, including the expulsion of three major Jewish tribes, Muhammad reportedly shifted his focus from Quraysh caravans to northern tribes such as Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq . As Muhammad's position in Medina became more established, attitudes towards him in his hometown became more approving. The Treaty of al-Hudaybiya , establishing
1350-532: A precedent for Muslims later on towards Jews and Christians, namely jizya . He did not slaughter those who surrendered but let them stay and tend their fields, with half the produce going to him and his followers. The Jewish colony of Wadi al-Qura also came into his possession with this expedition, making the Muslim community rich. In early 627, Muhammad undertook the Umrah known as the 'fulfilled pilgrimage' in Mecca, during which time he reconciled with his family,
1485-561: A register if desiring to go on a raid. The first year of these raids was a "near total failure". All Meccan caravans managed to evade Muhammad's forces or were accompanied by forces with superior numbers, suggesting that the Quraish relied on a spy among the core of the Muslim community. Aware of this problem, Muhammad introduced the usage of sealed letters of instructions and appointed 'Abdullah ibn Jahsh to lead an expedition of eight or twelve men. After marching for two days, Ibn Jahsh opened
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#17327655908161620-782: A small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina , located in the Hejaz in the west of the peninsula. Archaeology has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre-Islamic Arabia (such as the Thamud ), especially in South Arabia . South Arabian civilizations include the Himyarite Kingdom , the Kingdom of Awsan , the Kingdom of Ma'īn , and the Sabaean Kingdom (usually considered to be
1755-501: A successful raid by his troops on a caravan at Nakhla , Muhammad got word of a huge Quraysh caravan carrying abundant merchandise on its way back from Gaza . He thus sent his troops to intercept it at Badr . Getting wind of his plan, Abu Sufyan, who led the caravan, sent messengers to Mecca for help. The reinforcements then encamped near Badr out of sight of the Muslims, and the caravan was directed to another, more difficult route. After
1890-510: A ten-year truce with the Meccans, allowed Muhammad to perform Umrah in Mecca the following year. During this pilgrimage, Muhammad reconciled with his family, the Hashim clan, which was symbolized by his marriage to Maymuna bint al-Harith . Several prominent Meccans, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As , recognized Muhammad's increasing influence in Arabia and converted to Islam. At
2025-590: A trench to be dug around Medina. This led to the Battle of the Trench . The trench hampered the Quraysh advance, and Muhammad conducted secret negotiations with the Ghatafan to induce distrust among his enemies. Unfavorable weather eventually caused the besiegers to lose morale and retire. Afterwards, Muhammad turned his attention to the Banu Qurayza , who were accused of betraying the Muslims by conspiring with
2160-538: A violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, Muhammad then set out with his army to Mecca. With those willing to fight from the Mecca side becoming fewer and fewer, Abu Sufyan set out with several others, including Muhammad's friend, Budayl ibn Warqa al-Khuza’i, to ask for amnesty for all the Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Muhammad thus managed to enter Mecca unopposed, and almost all the inhabitants adopted Islam. In 630, Muhammad entered Mecca victoriously , prompting
2295-639: Is Qurashī , though in the early centuries of the Islamic Ummah , most Qurayshi tribesmen were denoted by their specific clan instead of the tribe. Later, particularly after the 13th century, claimants of Qurayshi descent used the Qurashī surname. The Quraysh's progenitor was Fihr ibn Malik , whose full genealogy, according to traditional Arab sources, was the following: Fihr ibn Malik ibn al-Nadr ibn Kinana ibn Khuzayma ibn Mudrika ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan. Thus, Fihr belonged to
2430-793: Is Saudi Arabia. In the classical era, the Sinai Peninsula was also considered a part of Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and southwest, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the northeast, the Levant and Mesopotamia to the north and the Arabian Sea and
2565-552: Is a large volcanic field that extends from northwestern Arabia into Jordan and southern Syria . The Peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise from north to south) Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south, and Saudi Arabia at the center. The island country of Bahrain lies just off the east coast of the Peninsula. Due to Yemen's jurisdiction over
2700-784: Is an Arab tribe that inhabited and used to control Mecca and the Kaaba . Comprising ten main clans, it includes the Hashim clan into which the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born. By 600 CE , the Quraysh had become wealthy merchants, dominating trade between the Indian Ocean , East Africa , and the Mediterranean . They ran caravans to Gaza and Damascus in summer, and Yemen in winter. They also mined and pursued other enterprises on these routes, placing business interests first. When Muhammad began spreading Islam in Mecca,
2835-614: Is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location. According to NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data (2003–2013) analysed in a University of California, Irvine (UCI) -led study published in Water Resources Research on 16 June 2015, the most over-stressed aquifer system in the world is the Arabian Aquifer System , upon which more than 60 million people depend for water. Twenty-one of
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#17327655908162970-766: Is located in the continent of Asia and is bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the Gulf of Aden , and the Guardafui Channel on the south, and the Bab-el-Mandeb strait on the southwest and the Red Sea, which is located on the southwest and west. The northern portion of the peninsula merges with
3105-463: Is that there were two types of raids: those led by Muhammad and those led by lieutenants. They featured somewhere between seven and 200 warriors, typically on foot, but occasionally horse riders. These fighters were, at least initially, provided almost exclusively by the Muhajirun , the Muslim migrants from Mecca. Consisting primarily of unemployed young men, they had the chance to place their name in
3240-564: Is the location of the Kaaba , Islam's holiest site, and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad 's grave; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world . Despite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of
3375-422: Is uncertain." The Quraysh, the dominant tribe of Mecca , initially showed little concern when Muhammad began preaching his new faith in the city. However, as Muhammad's message increasingly challenged traditional Meccan religious and social practices, tensions gradually arose. As relations with the Quraysh deteriorated, Muhammad coordinated the gradual emigration of his followers to Medina , eventually making
3510-407: Is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee and tropical fruits . Goat, sheep, and camel husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid tropical monsoon climate , in particular
3645-618: The al-Muṭayyabūn faction in 605 and engaged in business with the al-Aḥlāf . Their financial fortunes had enabled them to become a force of their own. During a commercial incident where a Yemenite merchant was robbed of his trade by al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi, the al-Muṭayyabūn reformed in the Hilf al-Fudul , which consisted of the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib , which, like the Banu Umayya, were descendants of Abd Manaf, and
3780-420: The ihram and led a contingent of Muslims and camels for sacrifice toward Mecca intending to perform the 'umrah . According to the early chronicler Ibn Ishaq , Muhammad took 700 men. According to Watt, Muhammad took 1,400 to 1,600 men. The Meccans did not accept the Muslim professions of peaceful intent and sent out an armed party against them. The Muslims evaded them by taking an unconventional route through
3915-739: The Al Saud , began in Najd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud , founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab , founder of the Wahhabi movement , a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803. The Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of
4050-788: The Arabs ' ), or Arabia , is a peninsula in West Asia , situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate . At 3,237,500 km (1,250,000 sq mi), comparable in size to India , the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the Arabian Peninsula includes Bahrain , Kuwait , Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen , as well as southern Iraq and Jordan . The largest of these
4185-482: The Banu Hashim , which was sealed by marrying Maymuna bint al-Harith . Some important people of Mecca, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As , recognized Muhammad as a man of the future in Arabia and converted to Islam. In December 629, after the belligerent party in Mecca, against the advice of Abu Sufyan, decided to support one of their client clans against the Khuzaa, who were allied with Muhammad, resulting in
Muslim–Quraysh War - Misplaced Pages Continue
4320-520: The Banu Makhzum prepared to resist. "And say: Truth hath come and falsehood hath vanished away. Lo! falsehood is ever bound to vanish." Recited by Muhammad during the Conquest of Mecca In December 629 or January 630, Muhammad organized his troops into different divisions which he ordered to enter Mecca from different directions. Only Khalid ibn al-Walid 's division met resistance, and
4455-593: The Banu Mustaliq were defeated in battle, with many captives later freed. Over time, tensions between Muhammad and the people of Mecca eased, leading to the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya , a ten-year armistice. Muhammad and his followers were then allowed to perform Umrah next year in Mecca. A short time later, Muhammad attacked the Jewish-inhabited Khaybar, where he instituted a practice that set
4590-565: The Banu Nadir , driving them to Khaybar and other settlements, and seizing their property. The Quraysh, with their caravans still under attack and urged by the Jews in Khaybar, recognized the importance of occupying Medina. They negotiated with various Bedouin tribes and managed to raise 10,000 troops. To defend against the Quraysh troops, Muhammad, advised by one of his followers, ordered
4725-701: The Banu Taym , Banu Asad , Banu Zuhra and Banu al-Harith ibn Fihr , were known as al-Muṭayyabūn ('the Perfumed'). Toward the end of the 6th century, the Fijar War broke out between the Quraysh and the Kinana on one side and various Qaysi tribes on the other, including the Hawazin , Banu Thaqif , Banu Amir and Banu Sulaym . The war broke out when a Kinani tribesman killed an Amiri tribesman escorting
4860-455: The Dhofar and Al Mahrah areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical monsoon rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid desert climate or arid steppe climate . The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally tropical sea with a very rich tropical sea life and some of
4995-597: The First Islamic State - a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian Peninsula. Under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates , rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula formed a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent , across Central Asia , the Middle East , North Africa , southern Italy , and
5130-585: The Hejaz ( Tihamah for the western coast), as described by Ibn al-Faqih . In antiquity, the term "Arabia" encompassed a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula" and included the Arabian desert and large parts of the Syrian-Arabian desert . During the Hellenistic period , the area was known as Arabia ( Ancient Greek : Ἀραβία ). The Romans named three regions "Arabia": One of
5265-476: The Hejaz (western Arabia). In the words of Fred Donner : [By the end of the 6th century,] Meccan commerce was flourishing as never before, and the leaders in this trade [the Quraysh] had developed from mere merchants into true financiers. They were no longer interested in "buying cheap and selling dear," but also with organizing money and men to realize their commercial objectives. There was emerging, in short,
5400-668: The Iberian Peninsula , to the Pyrenees . With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab , a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr , who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph . This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib , his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task
5535-521: The Indian Ocean to the southeast. The peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Arab world and globally due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas . Before the modern era, the region was divided into primarily four distinct regions: the Central Plateau ( Najd and Al-Yamama ), South Arabia ( Yemen , Hadhramaut and Oman ), Al-Bahrain (Eastern Arabia or Al-Hassa ), and
Muslim–Quraysh War - Misplaced Pages Continue
5670-430: The Islamic world , in which the most important medieval Islamic states were based at various times in such far away cities as Damascus , Baghdad , and Cairo . However, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz . Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of Mecca and Medina but in
5805-404: The Kinana tribe and his descent is traced to Adnan the Ishmaelite , the semi-legendary father of the " northern Arabs ". According to the traditional sources, Fihr led the warriors of Kinana and Khuzayma in defense of the Kaaba, at the time a major pagan sanctuary in Mecca, against tribes from Yemen ; however, the sanctuary and the privileges associated with it continued to be in the hands of
5940-461: The Nefud Desert dates to approximately 90,000 years ago and is the oldest human fossil discovered outside of Africa and the Levant. This indicates human migrations from Africa to Arabia occurred around this time. The Arabian Peninsula may have been the homeland of a ' Basal Eurasian ' population, which diverged from other Eurasians soon after the Out-of-Africa migration, and subsequently became isolated, until it started to mix with other populations in
6075-412: The Rashidun or "rightly guided" Caliphate . Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors , the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire , conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of
6210-427: The Socotra Archipelago , the Peninsula's geopolitical outline faces the Guardafui Channel and the Somali Sea to the south. The six countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the Peninsula. The majority of the population of the Peninsula lives in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The Peninsula contains
6345-404: The Syrian Desert with no clear borderline, although the northern boundary of the peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, also southern regions of Iraq and Jordan. The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert , but in the southwest, there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the peninsula. Harrat ash Shaam
6480-409: The Tuwayr , Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height. Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. Jebel Hafeet in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between 1,100 and 1,300 m (3,600 and 4,300 ft), is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an outlier of that range. Most of the Arabian Peninsula
6615-410: The United States –led 2003 invasion of Iraq . Despite its historically sparse population, political Arabia stands out for its rapid population growth, driven by both significant inflows of migrant labor and persistently high birth rates. The population is characterized by its relative youth and a heavily skewed gender ratio favoring males. In several states, the number of South Asians surpasses that of
6750-483: The history of Islam and forms a major part of Muhammad's biography ( Seerah or Seerat un-Nabi ). The war also paved the way for the Early Islamic expansion throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. Muhammad proclaimed prophethood ( nubuwwah ) at the age of 40 to his tribe, the Quraysh, in Mecca. After his followers were persecuted by the Quraysh, Muhammad ordered them to move to Abyssinia to seek refuge in 615, where they were welcomed with open arms. After
6885-464: The nomes of Ptolemaic Egypt was named Arabia . Arabians used a north–south division of Arabia: ash-Sham vs. al-Yaman , or Arabia Deserta vs. Arabia Felix . Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and
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#17327655908167020-430: The 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the Hejaz . Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz , they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the Abbasids of Baghdad , and the Fatimids , Ayyubids , and Mamluks of Egypt . The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu)
7155-403: The 6th century. The issue of succession between Qusayy's natural successor, Abd al-Dar, and his chosen successor, Abd Manaf, led to the division of Quraysh into two factions; those who backed the Abd al-Dar clan , including the clans of Banu Sahm , Banu Adi , Banu Makhzum and Banu Jumah , became known as al-Aḥlāf ('the Confederates'), while those who backed the Abd Manaf clan , including
7290-446: The Ansar were concerned about their political stake. The Quraysh apparently held real power during this period marked by the Muslim conquests . During the First Fitna , the Ansar, who backed Caliph Ali of the Banu Hashim against two factions representing rival Qurayshi clans, were defeated. They were subsequently left out of the political elite, while the Thaqif maintained a measure of influence by dint of their long relationship with
7425-407: The Banu Asad and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah of the Banu Taym. Later, during the Second Fitna , these same factions again fought for control of the caliphate , with the Umayyads victorious at the war's conclusion in 692/693. In 750, the issue of which Qurayshi clan would hold the reins of power was again raised but this time, the Abbasids , a branch of the Banu Hashim, were victorious and slew much of
7560-410: The Banu Umayya. Afterward, Islamic leadership was contested between different branches of the Banu Hashim. Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula ( / ə ˈ r eɪ b i ə n p ə n ɪ n sj u l ə / ; Arabic : شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَة الْعَرَبِيَّة , shibhu l-jazīra l-ʿarabiyya , "Arabian Peninsula" or جَزِيرَةُ الْعَرَب , jazīratu l-ʿarab , lit. ' Island of
7695-466: The Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula. The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the west of the Arabian Peninsula region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' – Bilad al-'Arab ( Arabia ), and its major divisions were the bilad al-Sham ( Levant ), bilad al-Yaman ( Yemen ), and Bilad al-'Iraq ( Iraq ). The Ottomans used
7830-445: The Gulf Cooperation Council's mediation. He eventually handed power to Vice President Hadi, who was sworn in as President of Yemen on 25 February 2012. Hadi launched a national dialogue to address new constitutional, political and social issues. The Houthi movement , dissatisfied with the outcomes of the national dialogue, launched an offensive and stormed the Yemeni capital Sanaa on 21 September 2014. In response, Saudi Arabia launched
7965-426: The Kaaba were known Quraysh al-Biṭāḥ ('Quraysh of the Hollow'), and included all of the descendants of Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy and others. The clans settled in the outskirts of the sanctuary were known as Quraysh al-Ẓawāhir ('Quraysh of the Outskirts'). According to historian Ibn Ishaq , Qusayy's younger son, Abd Manaf , had grown prominent during his father's lifetime and was chosen by Qusayy to be his successor as
8100-400: The Meccans in the first pitched battle, the Battle of Badr . The Muslims took up a defensive position. The battle started off with a duel between three Muslim and three Meccan champions, which the Muslims decided in their favour. Afterwards the two armies exchanged arrow fire, before finally clashing. The Meccan army eventually collapsed soon after the horse of Amr was brought down, resulting in
8235-416: The Middle East since around 25,000 years ago. These different Middle Eastern populations would later spread Basal Eurasian ancestry via the Neolithic Revolution to all of Western Eurasia. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years ago. The harsh climate historically prevented much settlement in the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, apart from
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#17327655908168370-413: The Muslim community traditionally passed to a member of the Quraysh, as was the case with the Rashidun , Umayyad , and Abbasid Caliphates , and purportedly the Fatimids . Sources differ as to the etymology of Quraysh, with one theory holding that it was the diminutive form of qirsh (shark). The Arab genealogist Hisham ibn al-Kalbi asserted that there was no eponymous founder of Quraysh; rather,
8505-459: The Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories. Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world . The Qur'an requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam , to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj , to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime. The Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca
8640-403: The Muslims prevailed over the Meccans, and seeing this, many of the archers descended from their position on the Mount of the Archers. Khalid ibn al-Walid , one of the most experienced warriors of the Quraysh, took advantage of this weakness in the Muslim ranks, maneuvering his units around the Mount of the Archers and outflanking the Muslims from the rear. Several Muslims were killed, and Muhammad
8775-474: The Quraysh and Kinana. After a few more clashes, peace was reestablished. According to Watt, the actual aim in the Fijar War was control of the trade routes of Najd . Despite particularly tough resistance by the Quraysh's main trade rivals, the Thaqif of Ta'if , and the Banu Nasr clan of Hawazin, the Quraysh ultimately held sway over western Arabian trade. The Quraysh gained control over Ta'if's trade, and many Qurayshi individuals purchased estates in Ta'if, where
8910-417: The Quraysh in Mecca and swore allegiance to Safwan ibn Umayya . Following this meeting, the Banu Nadir rallied the Arab tribes of Najd against Muhammad, whose forces combined with the army of the Quraysh numbered 10,000 men. This alliance, known as the Confederates ( Arabic : الأَحْزَاب , romanized : al-Aḥzāb ), marched on Medina in December 626. Warned by the Banu Khuza'ah one week prior to
9045-438: The Quraysh initially showed little concern. However, opposition grew as he challenged the existence of gods other than Allah (an Arabic name for God or the god of Abraham). As relations deteriorated, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (the Hijrah ) after negotiating with Banu Aws and Khazraj to mediate their conflict. The Quraysh had prevented Muslims from performing the pilgrimage to Mecca . Unable to reach
9180-407: The Quraysh numbering around 1,000. Muhammad was unaware of the Meccan army until one day before contact, when his men captured two Meccan waterbearers. Muhammad was not prepared for combat with an army of this size and held a council of war with his companions to decide on what to do next. After receiving the approval of both the Muhajirun and the Ansar , Muhammad marched toward Badr to meet
9315-412: The Quraysh that a Muslim attack was imminent, a Meccan relief force of more than 1,000 men was sent. 'Amr ibn Hisham , who led the relief army, pressed northwards to Badr . As the army camped at Al Juhfah (present-day Rabigh ), another messenger from Abu Sufyan informed them that their merchandise was safe and that Abu Sufyan had changed his route. Upon hearing this, 300 of the Banu Zuhrah left, leaving
9450-444: The Quraysh then launched an attack, which Muhammad confronted at Uhud . Victorious, the Quraysh chose not to finish Muhammad off and let him escape, as they felt that it was enough to deter him. Sometime later, however, Muhammad's raids on Quraysh caravans resumed, and at the prompting of a Jewish tribe, Banu Nadir , whom Muhammad had previously expelled from their residence in Medina, the Quraysh then decided to gather an army to occupy
9585-548: The Quraysh, led by Abu Sufyan , mobilized 3,000 troops to confront Muhammad, resulting in the Battle of Uhud . Initially, Muhammad's forced had the upper hand, but a setback occurred when his archers abandoned their positions and pursued the fleeing Meccan soldiers. The Meccan military strategist Khalid ibn al-Walid exploited this and Muhammad's forces retreated. The Quraysh did not pursue further, considering their objective achieved. In Medina, some Jewish tribes expressed satisfaction at Muhammad's defeat, prompting him to target
9720-602: The Quraysh. A hadith holding that the caliph must be from Quraysh became almost universally accepted by the Muslims, with the exception of the Kharijites . Indeed, control of the Islamic state essentially devolved into a struggle between various factions of the Quraysh. In the first civil war, these factions included the Banu Umayya represented by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan , the Banu Hashim represented by Ali, and other Qurayshi leaders such as al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam of
9855-474: The Quraysh. Abu Sufyan ibn Harb traveled to Medina to negotiate a renewal of the treaty, but his attempts proved unworthy. In the next Islamic month of Ramadan , Muhammad secretly led a Muslim force of 10,000 men and headed for Mecca. They camped outside Mecca and the usual round of emissaries and negotiations began. Abu Sufyan negotiated, then or earlier, a promise that he and those under his protection would not be attacked if they surrendered peacefully. A few of
9990-469: The Quraysh. Following a siege, their men were judged to be executed, while the women and children were taken captive. This event marked a significant turning point, with Muhammad consolidating his control in Medina. Muhammad's focus then shifted to other tribes, such as the Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq . The Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina after being accused of plotting against Muhammad, and
10125-527: The Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support. The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The Egyptian President , Gamal Abdel Nasser , supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences,
10260-453: The Taym, Asad, Zuhra and al-Harith ibn Fihr clans. The Banu Hashim held the hereditary rights surrounding the pilgrimage to the Kaaba, though the Banu Umayya were ultimately the strongest Qurayshi clan. According to Watt, "In all the stories of the pre-Islamic period there is admittedly a legendary element, but the main outline of events appears to be roughly correct, even if most of the dating
10395-587: The Yemeni Khuza'a tribe. The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab , a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba. Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives. All medieval Muslim sources agree that Qusayy unified Fihr's descendants, and established the Quraysh as the dominant power in Mecca. After conquering Mecca, Qusayy assigned quarters to different Qurayshi clans. Those settled around
10530-521: The army of the Quraysh. The two armies met on 13 March. The battle began with duels between the champions of both sides before the Makkan army charged upon the Muslim ranks. Muhammad then gave the order to counter their charge and the Muslims quickly swept through the Makkan ranks. Several leaders of the Quraysh were among the 70 Meccans killed in this battle, including ' Amr ibn Hishām and Umayyah ibn Khalaf . On 13 March 624 (17 Ramadan 2 AH), Muhammad faced
10665-639: The arrival of the Confederates, the Muslims dug a deep trench to avoid direct confrontation with them along the northern side of the Medina at the suggestion of Salman the Persian . The Muslims also harvested their crops early in anticipation of the arrival of the Quraysh-led confederacy. The ensuing siege of the city began in January 627. The Confederates tried to strike a deal with the Banu Qurayza ,
10800-455: The attitude of Muhammad's tribesmen toward him grew more favourable. A ten-year armistice, known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah , was then concluded, which allowed Muhammad to return to perform Umrah in Mecca. There, Muhammad successfully reconciliated with his family, the Banu Hashim , and a number of notables admitted him as a man of the future in Arabia and converted to Islam. Sometime later,
10935-483: The battle, but with mortal injuries. A Muslim warrior found him, decapitated him and presented his head to Muhammad. Many more noblemen of the Quraysh had died in the fighting, which posed a significant blow to the Quraysh. Following the deaths of ' Amr ibn Hishām and other leaders of the Quraysh at Badr, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb , now the leader of Quraysh , wanted to avenge the losses of the Quraysh at Badr. In March 625, Abu Sufyan led an army of 3,000 men–almost three times
11070-573: The biblical land of Sheba ). From 106 AD to 630 AD northwestern Arabia was under the control of the Roman Empire , which renamed it Arabia Petraea . Central Arabia was the location of the Kingdom of Kinda in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries. Eastern Arabia was home to the Dilmun civilization . The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas. The Arabian Peninsula has long been accepted as
11205-409: The biggest ongoing threat believed to be coastal construction activity altering the marine environment. The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet (3,000 m). In the higher elevations, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and khat cultivation. The Arabian peninsula
11340-411: The caravan escaped, some of the Quraysh chose to withdraw, but those who remained were later forced into conflict with Muhammad after he captured their water carrier and covered up the water wells with sand, which left one only for him and his troops. The Quraysh were defeated in this battle. Wanting to restore their honour for the loss at Badr and tired of Muhammad's continuous raids on their caravans,
11475-553: The city at the age of 40. Initially, he met no opposition from the Meccans, who were indifferent to his activities until he attacked their beliefs. As tensions arose, Muhammad brought his followers to migrate to Medina after successful negotiations with the Banu Aws and Khazraj to mediate their tribal conflicts. During his stay in Medina , Muhammad began conducting frequent raids on Quraysh trade caravans and plundering their goods. A short while after he had earned rich loot after
11610-473: The city. That was thwarted, however, by a trench built by the Muslims at the suggestion of Salman the Persian . Soon, Muhammad managed to eliminate the last major Jewish tribe in Medina, the Banu Qurayza , which cemented his position in the city. After a period of not making attacks on Quraysh caravans and instead focusing his raids to the north, such as to the Banu Lihyan and Mustaliq , among others,
11745-592: The climate was cooler. The sanctuary village of Mecca developed into a major Arabian trade hub. According to Watt, by 600 CE, the leaders of Quraysh "were prosperous merchants who had obtained something like a monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other". Furthermore, the Quraysh commissioned trade caravans to Yemen in the winter and caravans to Gaza , Bosra , Damascus and al-Arish in
11880-511: The death of his uncle Abu Talib in 619, Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was lacking someone who provided him security in an increasingly hostile environment in Mecca. After several failed attempts to reach for tribes outside of Mecca, he contacted the Khazraj of Medina (then Yathrib). Six of them converted to Islam. In Medina, they spread the word of Muhammad and Islam and in February 621,
12015-573: The east) constituting only a quarter of people aged between 20 and 40. The eleven most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are: The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian-Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best-preserved ophiolite on Earth, the Semail Ophiolite , lies exposed in
12150-477: The eastern Al-Qassim Province , which would indicate that many prehistoric sites, located along a network of rivers, had once existed in the area. Acheulean tools found in Saffaqah, Riyadh Region reveal that hominins lived in the Arabian Peninsula around 188,000 years ago. Human habitation in Arabia may have occurred as early as 130,000 years ago. A fossilized Homo sapiens finger bone found at Al Wusta in
12285-603: The eastern, southern and northwestern borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows: From the Hejaz southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb or Jabal Hadhur of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is 3,666 metres (12,028 ft) high. By comparison,
12420-643: The end of 629 CE, a belligerent party within the Quraysh, against the advice of their chief Abu Sufyan , supported one of their client clans in a conflict against the Khuza'a , allies of Muhammad. This act was seen as a violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya. As Muhammad advanced with his army to besiege Mecca, Abu Sufyan, along with others, including Muhammad's ally Khuza'i Budayl ibn Warqa, met with Muhammad to request amnesty for all Quraysh who did not resist. Thus Muhammad entered Mecca unopposed, and almost all of its inhabitants converted to Islam. Afterwards, leadership of
12555-526: The first major Muslim victory. This victory must not so much be ascribed to divine intervention as is done in the Islamic sources, but had several conventional reasons, like the Meccan inability to use their cavalry, the questioned leadership of Abu Jahl, the Meccan lack of access to water and the higher morale of the Muslims. The battle took the lives of 14 Muslims, while the Meccan casualties numbered around 70. A similar number of them were captured and were either executed or kept for ransom. Amr ibn Hisham survived
12690-546: The guardian of the Kaaba. He also gave other responsibilities related to the Kaaba to his other sons Abd al-Uzza and Abd, while ensuring that all decisions by the Quraysh had to be made in the presence of his eldest son Abd al-Dar ; the latter was also designated ceremonial privileges such as keeper of the Qurayshi war banner and supervisor of water and provisions to the pilgrims visiting the Kaaba. According to historian F. E. Peters , Ibn Ishaq's account reveals that Mecca in
12825-401: The hills around Mecca, and then camped at Hudaybiyyah outside Mecca. Ibn Ishaq describes a tense period of embassies and counter-embassies, including a bold foray by the future caliph, ' Uthman ibn Affan , into the city of Mecca, where he was temporarily held as a hostage. The Meccans told the Muslims that 'Uthman had been killed and open warfare seemed imminent. After it was revealed that 'Uthman
12960-627: The journey himself, after negotiations with various factions in Medina had established a base of support there. This event, known as the Hijra , followed complex negotiations with different groups in Medina, where Muhammad was seen as a potential mediator for ongoing tribal conflicts, though his role was likely more multifaceted than just mediation. In Medina, Muhammad received a divine revelation allowing Muslims to defend themselves, which included targeting Quraysh trade caravans in response to their ongoing hostility and persecution. After obtaining spoils from
13095-583: The last remaining Jewish tribe in Medina, but these attempts proved unworthy. Growing mutual distrust, loss of morale, lack of resources, and a failure to strike a deal with the Banu Qurayza led to a breakdown of the Confederates. The siege lasted 20 nights. According to traditional Arab customs, the four months of Rajab , Dhu al-Qa'dah , Dhu al-Hijjah , and Muharram were considered sacred months in which tribal hostilities stopped and all were free to visit Mecca. In early 628, in Dhu al-Qa'dah 6 AH, Muhammad put on
13230-470: The letter to learn that, according to most sources, he was instructed to gain intelligence information about the movement of Meccan caravans deep in Quraish territory, in Nakhlah , near modern-day Rabigh . Soon the expedition met a Meccan caravan, weakly protected by only four guards. The Muslims encountered the caravan in a holy month where fighting was forbidden, and it also seems that Muhammad did not order
13365-589: The modern era, the term bilad al-Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs. The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by the Turks , with German advice and support. A public subscription
13500-491: The modern state of Saudi Arabia. The Saudis absorbed the Emirate of Asir , with their expansion only ending in 1934 after a war with Yemen . Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud, however, established the third Saudi state. The second major development has been the discovery of vast reserves of oil in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of
13635-521: The mountains of the UAE and northern Oman. The peninsula consists of: Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis , which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g. Al-Hasa and Qatif , two of the world's largest oases ) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees , which allowed
13770-408: The name stemmed from taqarrush , an Arabic word meaning "a coming together" or "association". The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab , a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba . Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives. The nisba or surname of the Quraysh
13905-436: The native population. The four smallest states (by area), with coastlines entirely bordering the Persian Gulf, showcase the world's most extreme population growth, nearly tripling every two decades. In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates). The Arabian Peninsula is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world, with females in some regions (especially
14040-512: The next day. Shortly before the Muslims reached the battlefield, 300 men from their army led by Abd Allah ibn Ubayy returned to Medina, discontent with the decision to fight the Meccans in the open. Muhammad assigned 50 archers to a hill near Mount Uhud, now called the Mount of the Archers, ordering them to not leave their strategic position which protected the left flank of the Muslims. Initially
14175-585: The organizational skills of the Quraysh were put to use in the service of Islam". With Muhammad's death in 632, rivalry emerged between the Quraysh and the two other components of the Muslim elite, the Ansar and the Thaqif, over influence in state matters. The Ansar wanted one of their own to succeed the prophet as caliph , but were persuaded by Umar to agree to Abu Bakr. During the reigns of Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ) and Umar ( r. 634–644 ), some of
14310-458: The original Urheimat of the Semitic languages by most scholars. The seventh century saw the rise of Islam as the peninsula's dominant religion. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created
14445-399: The peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and arid , although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert-adapted wildlife is present throughout
14580-739: The pilgrimage with their swords sheathed and were watched by the Quraysh from the peak of the Qaiqan mountain. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was bilateral, and allowed any tribe that wanted to join either side to do so. The Banu Bakr had become allies of the Quraysh , while the Banu Khuzaʽah became allies of the Muslims. In late 629, in Sha'ban 8 AH, the Banu Bakr attacked the Banu Khuza'ah, assisted by
14715-436: The preparations before finally setting out on 9 December 623, with a force of around 313-317 men, 70 camels and two horses. Muhammad and his warriors marched offside the common roads to avoid Meccan scouts, passing through little-known canyons and wadis . Abu Sufyan, realized that Muslim scouts were nearby and ordered the caravan to take a different route, sending a messenger to Mecca. After the messenger arrived in Mecca and told
14850-425: The raids were justified and that God gave them permission to defend against the Meccans' persecution of Muslims . Another reason for the raids appears to have been economic stress, as the food output of Medina was barely capable of feeding the Muslim newcomers. Hence, the raiding of food was mandatory to supplement their diet. The order of the caravan raids is somewhat confused in the Islamic sources. What seems clear
14985-636: The region, with the exception of Yemen. The North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal , which dethroned the newly crowned Muhammad al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to
15120-419: The region. A plateau more than 2,500 feet (760 m) high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterized by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis . A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east. There are mountains at
15255-613: The regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz , asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised Cilicia – İskenderun and Mersin , Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate , Jordan, and Palestine . In
15390-400: The rest of Quraysh to embrace Islam. Muhammad sought to consolidate the unity of his expanding Muslim community by "winning over this powerful group [the Quraysh]", according to Donner; to that end he guaranteed Qurayshi participation and influence in the nascent Islamic state. Thus, despite their long enmity with Muhammad, the Quraysh were brought in as political and economic partners and became
15525-786: The ruling Ottoman Empire and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916. These events were followed by the foundation of Saudi Arabia under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud . In 1902, Ibn Saud had captured Riyadh . Continuing his conquests, Abdulaziz subdued Al-Hasa, Jabal Shammar , Hejaz between 1913 and 1926 founded
15660-493: The size of the Meccan army at Badr–to Medina. When the Muslims were informed of the presence of the Meccans, Muhammad called for a council of war . The senior members of the Muslim community, including Muhammad, wanted to take advantage of the Medinan fortifications, while the younger Muslims wanted to fight the Quraysh in the open. Muhammad eventually agreed with the latter. The Muslims, numbering around 1,000, left for Mount Uhud
15795-403: The strongman of Quraysh, he was not officially a king of the tribe, but one of many leading shaykhs (tribal chieftains). According to historian Gerald R. Hawting , if the traditional sources are to be believed, Qusayy's children, "must have lived in the second half of the fifth century". However, historian W. Montgomery Watt asserts that Qusayy himself likely died in the second half of
15930-504: The summer. The Quraysh established networks with merchants in these Syrian cities. They also formed political or economic alliances with many of the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts to ensure the safety of their trade caravans. The Quraysh invested their revenues in building their trading ventures, and shared profits with tribal allies to translate financial fortune into significant political power in
16065-629: The term Arabistan in a broad sense for the region starting from Cilicia , where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine , and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas. The provinces of Arabia were: Al Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hejaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrain, Dahna, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia. The Arabian Peninsula
16200-549: The thirty seven largest aquifers "have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted" and thirteen of them are "considered significantly distressed". Stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic age along with fossils of other animals discovered at Ti's al Ghadah, in northwestern Saudi Arabia, might imply that hominins migrated through a "Green Arabia" between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago. 200,000-year-old stone tools were discovered at Shuaib Al-Adgham in
16335-531: The time of Qusayy and his immediate offspring was not yet a commercial center; rather, the city's economy was based on pilgrimage to the Kaaba, and "what pass[ed] for municipal offices [designated by Qusayy] have to do only with military operations and with control of the shrine". During that time, the tribesmen of Quraysh were not traders; instead, they were entrusted with religious services, from which they significantly profited. They also profited from taxes collected from incoming pilgrims. Though Qusayy appeared to be
16470-471: The usage of violence. Despite this, the Muslim warriors collectively decided to attack and approached the caravan disguised as pilgrims. When close enough they leaped upon the guards: one of whom escaped, two were seized and one was killed. The victim, named Amr ibn al-Hadrami, was the first person killed for the cause of Islam. Ibn Jahsh and his men returned to Medina with the seized caravan, which carried wine, leather goods and raisins. In March 624, Muhammad
16605-573: The war in Yemen as analogous to the United States ' role in the Vietnam War . In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 Gulf War . Egypt, Qatar, Syria, and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After
16740-484: The war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six-Day War of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen. By 1970, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to Egypt's role in
16875-588: The war, a so-called "Damascus Declaration" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states. The Arab Spring reached Yemen in January 2011. People of Yemen took to the street demonstrating against three decades of rule by President Ali Abdullah Saleh . The demonstration led to cracks in the ruling General People's Congress (GPC) and Saleh's Sanhani clan. Saleh used tactics of concession and violence to save his presidency. After numerous attempts, Saleh accepted
17010-595: The wealth lost by his Meccan companions . Muhammad fled, together with his companion Abu Bakr , to Medina, in what is known as the Hijrah . Muhammad and his companions soon engaged in a series of caravan raids. These raids were generally offensive and carried out to gather intelligence or seize the trade goods of caravans financed by the Quraysh (such retaliation was explained as being legitimate by saying many Muslims' possessions and wealth, left behind when they migrated from Mecca , were stolen). The Muslims declared that
17145-517: The world's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, the only peninsular country in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home to the Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera and its English-language subsidiary Al Jazeera English . Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting
17280-578: The world's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the organisms living in symbiosis with the Red Sea coral, the protozoa and zooxanthellae , have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the indopacific coral sea. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. The Persian gulf has suffered significant loss and degradation of coral reefs with
17415-475: Was a call to war, failed an attempt to assassinate Muhammad in May 622. After being threatened with murder by the Quraysh, Muhammad received pledges of protection from the Ansar of Yathrib . He then allowed his followers to emigrate to the city, before leaving for Yathrib in 624 himself. Following his migration, Muhammad took to intercepting the caravans of the Quraysh as a means of retaliation and compensation for
17550-476: Was alive, the Meccans expressed their willingness to negotiate a truce. Some elements wanted a confrontation, but Muhammad held out for a peaceful resolution. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah committed both sides and their allies to a ten-year truce. The Muslims were to be allowed to return the next year, to perform the pilgrimage. The next year, in Dhu al-Qa'dah 7 AH, Muhammad returned to perform the 'umrah with 2,000 men, and some women and children. The Muslims performed
17685-401: Was given news of a caravan of the Quraysh travelling from the Levant back to Makkah , led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb . It was of monumental size, comprising 1000 camels transporting tens of thousands of dinars , and was escorted by 70 horsemen. Attacking this caravan would have forced Mecca into action, as virtually every family of the Quraysh had invested in it. Despite this risk, Muhammad began
17820-581: Was headquartered in Syria , which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon ( Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate ). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula. The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the Najd region. The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as
17955-467: Was injured in the ensuing onslaught. The Muslims withdrew from the battlefield to the slopes of Mount Uhud, and Abu Sufyan decided to return to Mecca. In October 625, Muhammad prepared a 300 men to meet a 1,000 strong Quraysh army at Badr for a second time. No fighting occurred between the two sides. In early 626, leaders of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir which was expelled from Medina in May 625 met with
18090-620: Was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a waqf , an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust. The major developments of the early 20th century were the Arab Revolt during World War I and the subsequent collapse and partitioning of the Ottoman Empire . The Arab Revolt (1916–1918) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing independence from
18225-455: Was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire ) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars , or "Wars of Apostasy". On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib . The period of these first four caliphs is known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn :
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