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155-514: The Islamic prophet Muhammad came to the city of Medina following the migration of his followers in what is known as the Hijrah (migration to Medina) in 622. He had been invited to Medina by city leaders to adjudicate disputes between clans from which the city suffered. He left Medina to return to and conquer Mecca in December 629. A delegation from Yathrib, consisting of the representatives of

310-712: A Shia tradition , not only Muhammad, but also Ali preceded the creation of Adam. Accordingly, after the angels prostrated themselves before Adam, God ordered Adam to look at the Throne of God. Then he saw the radiant body of Muhammad and his family . When Adam was in heaven, he read the Shahada inscribed on the throne of God, which also mentioned Ali in Shia tradition. Islamic philosophy ( Falsafa ) attempts to offer scientific explanations for prophecies. Such philosophical theories may also have been used to legitimize Muhammad as

465-667: A Canaanite language known as Biblical Hebrew . The language's modern descendant is today the only surviving dialect of the Canaanite languages . Gary Rendsburg argues that some archaic biblical traditions and other circumstantial evidence point to the Israelites emerging from the Shasu and other seminomadic peoples from the desert regions south of the Levant , later settling in the highlands of Canaan. Several theories exist for

620-431: A Christian monk, Bahira , who prophesied about Muhammad's future as a prophet of God. Around the age of 25, Muhammad was employed as the caretaker of the mercantile activities of Khadijah , a Qurayshi lady. Between 580 CE and 590 CE, Mecca experienced a bloody feud between Quraysh and Bani Hawazin that lasted for four years, before a truce was reached. After the truce, an alliance named Hilf al-Fudul (The Pact of

775-434: A bitter enemy of Muhammad, Abu Lahab succeeded Abu Talib as clan chief, and soon withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. Around this time, Muhammad visited Ta'if , a city some sixty kilometers east of Mecca, to preach Islam, but met with severe hostility from its inhabitants who pelted him with stones causing bleeding. It is said that God sent angels of the mountain to Muhammad who asked Muhammad's permission to crush

930-454: A common ancestry of Samaritan and Jewish patrilineages. Most of the former may be traced back to a common ancestor in what is today identified as the paternally inherited Israelite high priesthood ( Cohanim ), with a common ancestor projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel ." A 2020 study (by Agranat-Tamr et al.) stated that there was genetic continuity between

1085-677: A connection with the biblical Land of Israel . Other groups claim continuity with the Israelites, including Pashtuns , British , Black Hebrew Israelites , Igbos Mormons , and evangelical Christians that subscribe to covenant theology . Some argue that some Palestinians descend from Israelites who were not exiled by the Romans. As of 2024, only one study has directly examined ancient Israelite genetic material. The analysis examined First Temple -era skeletal remains excavated in Abu Ghosh , and showed one male individual belonging to

1240-559: A considerable sum. Those captives who were not sufficiently influential or wealthy were usually freed without ransom. Muhammad's decision was that those prisoners who refused to end their persecution of Muslims and were wealthy but did not ransom themselves should be killed. Muhammad ordered the immediate execution of two Quraysh men without entertaining offers for their release. Both men, which included Uqba ibn Abu Mu'ayt , had personally attempted to kill Muhammad in Mecca. The raiders had won

1395-491: A genealogical basis. Other scholars argue that the distinction is based on religion. For example, Troy W. Martin argues that biblical Jewishness is based on adherence to 'covenantal circumcision', regardless of ancestry ( Genesis 17:9–14 ). In Judaism , "Israelite", broadly speaking, refers to a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious group, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites . In legal texts, such as

1550-512: A group of Muslims in Medina could be won over by diplomacy. Following the defeat, Muhammad's detractors in Medina said that if the victory at Badr was proof of the genuineness of his mission, then the defeat at Uhud was proof that his mission was not genuine. Muhammad subsequently delivered Qur'anic verses 133-135 and 160-162 from the Al-i-Imran sura indicating that the loss, however, was partly

1705-516: A land ruled by king Aṣḥama ibn Abjar , famous for his justice and intelligence. Accordingly, eleven men and four women made their flight, and were followed by more in later time. Back in Mecca , Muhammad was gaining new followers, including figures like Umar ibn Al-Khattāb. Muhammad's position was greatly strengthened by their acceptance of Islam , and the Quraysh became much perturbed. Upset by

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1860-485: A lawgiver and a statesman. Muhammad was identified by some Islamic scholars with the Platonic logos , due to the belief in his pre-existence. Integrating translations of Aristotelian philosophy into early Islamic philosophy , al-Farabi accepted the existence of various celestial intellects . Already in early Neo-Platonic commentaries on Aristotle, these intellects have been compared to light. Al-Fabari depicted

2015-509: A lot of treasure, and the battle helped to stabilize the Medinan community. Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their faith and a prime importance in the affairs of Medina. Those remaining pagans in Medina were very bitter about the advance of Islam. In particular Asma bint Marwan and Abu 'Afak had composed verses insulting some of the Muslims and thereby violated

2170-478: A military leader began with the writings of Ahmet Refik Altınay . The shortage of hagiographical accounts in the modern age led to a general acceptance of the depiction of Muhammad's history by non-Muslim scholars as well. Muhammad, the son of 'Abdullah ibn ' Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim and his wife Aminah , was born in approximately 570 CE in the city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula . He

2325-465: A miraculous event. According to the Sīra of Ibn Isḥāq , a light was transferred from Muhammad's father to his mother at the time of his conception. During pregnancy, a light radiated from the belly of Muhammad's mother. Ibn Hischām 's Sīra refers to a vision experienced by Muhammad's mother. An unknown being came to her announcing Muhammad: "You have conceived the master of this community; when he falls to

2480-471: A model for Muslims to shape their lives in that standard. The Quran tells the believers to offer prayer, fast, perform pilgrimage, and pay Zakat , but it was Muhammad who practically taught the believers how to perform all these. Muhammad's biography is stored in Al-Sīra al-Nabawiyya (prophetic biography). One of the earliest written prophetic biographies is attributed to ibn ʾIsḥāq , which has been lost; only

2635-422: A more recent version edited by ibn Hishām has survived. However, elements from ibn ʾIsḥāq's biography survive in other works, such as al-Ṭabarī's history of the prophets. Muhammad is often described in both supernatural and worldly terms. While early biographies present him as a pre-eternal human soul with miraculous powers and sinlessness, he remains humanly imitable in his love and devotion, which would become

2790-559: A neutral authority to adjudicate in disputed cases. The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and to protect him as one of own. Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all of his followers had left Mecca . Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate him. He instructed his cousin and future son-in-law Ali to sleep in his bed to trick

2945-458: A number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz . The attack at Badr committed Muhammad to total war with Meccans, who were now eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been lost at Badr. The Meccans sent out a small party for a raid on Medina to restore confidence and reconnoitre. The party retreated immediately after

3100-631: A period of nominal independence for the Jewish people under the Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE). Initially operating semi-autonomously within the Seleucid sphere, the Hasmoneans gradually asserted full independence through military conquest and diplomacy, establishing themselves as the final sovereign Jewish rulers before a prolonged hiatus in Jewish sovereignty in the region. Some scholars argue that Jews also engaged in active missionary efforts in

3255-456: A pilgrimage ( umrah ) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the Hajj. According to Lewis, Muhammad felt strong enough to attempt an attack on Mecca, but on the way it became clear that the attempt was premature and the expedition was converted into a peaceful pilgrimage. Andrae disagrees, writing that

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3410-529: A punishment for disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness. In the battle of Uhud , the Meccans had collected all the available men from the Quraysh and the neighboring tribes friendly to them but had not succeeded in destroying the Muslim community. In order to raise a more powerful army, Abu Sufyan attracted the support of the great nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of treasure, memories of

3565-568: A revelation, verse 4 in the An-Nur sura, confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses. Although Qur'anic verses had been received from God commanding the Hajj , the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make preparations for

3720-592: A series of inscriptions mention the " House of David ". They came from Israel's neighbors. Compared to the United Monarchy, the historicity of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah is widely accepted by historians and archaeologists. Their destruction by the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively is also confirmed by archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources. Christian Frevel argues that Yahwism

3875-547: A short period, most of the Muslims of Mecca migrated there. Because of assassination attempts from the Quraysh, and prospect of success in Yathrib, a city 320 km (200 mi) north of Mecca, Muhammad emigrated there in 622. According to Muslim tradition, after receiving divine direction to depart Mecca, Muhammad began taking preparation and informed Abu Bakr of his plan. On the night of his departure, Muhammad's house

4030-442: A significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria was gone. Following the battle of trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north which ended without any fighting. While returning from one of these two expeditions (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha , Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad announced that he had received

4185-519: A surprise and speedy attack but with minor damages; there was no combat. In the ensuing months, Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid on a Meccan caravan. Abu Sufyan ibn Harb subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on Medina. They were accompanied by some prominent women of Mecca, such as Hind bint Utbah , Abu Sufyan's wife, who had lost family members at Badr. These women provided encouragement in keeping with Bedouin custom, calling out

4340-415: A tactical defeat for the Muslim army, with 75 Muslims killed. However, the Meccans failed to achieve their goal of destroying the Muslims completely. The Meccans did not occupy the town and withdrew to Mecca, since they were unable to attack Muhammad's position again, owing to military losses, low morale and the possibility of Muslim resistance in the town. There was also hope that Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy leading

4495-494: A warner of God's judgement and not a miracle worker. According to one account of Muhammad, the Quran is the only miracle Muhammad has been bestowed with. Muhammad is regarded as the final messenger and prophet by all the main branches of Islam who was sent by God to guide humanity to the right way ( Quran 7:157 ). The Quran uses the designation Khatam an-Nabiyyin (Surah 33:40 ) (Arabic: خاتم النبين ‎ ) , which

4650-477: Is a similar ethnonym but it is usually applied whenever Israelites are economically disadvantaged or migrants. It might also refer to their descent from Eber , the grandson of Noah . During the period of the divided monarchy, "Israelites" referred to the inhabitants of the northern Kingdom of Israel , but eventually, included the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Judah in post-exilic usage. In literature of

4805-402: Is attributed to Al-Tirmidhi , that when Muhammad was asked, when his prophethood started, he answered: "When Adam was between the spirit and the body". A more popular but less authenticated version states "when Adam was between water and mud." As recorded by Ibn Sa'd , Qatada ibn Di'ama quoted Muhammad: "I was the first human in creation and I am the last one on resurrection". According to

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4960-578: Is believed to continue to exist in his primordial form and thus Muslims are expected to be able to form a personal bond with the prophet. Furthermore, Muhammad is venerated by several titles and names. As an act of respect and a form of greetings, Muslims follow the name of Muhammad by the Arabic benediction " sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam ", ("Peace be upon him"), sometimes abbreviated as "SAW" or "PBUH". Muslims often refer to Muhammad as "Prophet Muhammad", or just "The Prophet" or "The Messenger", and regard him as

5115-540: Is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman . The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted for two weeks. Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to go home. The Qur'an discusses this battle in verses 9-27 of sura 33, Al-Ahzab . During the Battle of the Trench, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza who were located at

5270-452: Is depicted with otherworldly features, such as being physically illuminated. As reported by Bukhari , whenever Muhammad entered darkness, light was shining around him like moonlight. Muhammad is further described as having a radiant face. As such, Muhammad is believed to reflect God's names of "mercy" and "guidance" , as opposed to Satan ( Iblīs ), who reflects "wrath" and "pride". Though according to tradition, Muhammad has said that he

5425-577: Is found in the Merneptah Stele in c.  1209 BCE . The inscription is very brief and says: "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not". The inscription refers to a people , not an individual or nation state , who are located in central Palestine or the highlands of Samaria . Some Egyptologists suggest that Israel appeared in earlier topographical reliefs, dating to the Nineteenth Dynasty (i.e. reign of Ramesses II ) or

5580-477: Is just an ordinary human, several miracles are said to have been performed by him. To the Quran statement, as a reminder of Muhammad's human nature "I am only a human being like you", Muslims responded: "True, but like a ruby among stones.", pointing at the outward resemblance of Muhammad to an ordinary human but inwardly carrying the Divine Light. In post-Quranic times, some Muslims view Muhammad merely as

5735-691: Is now enclosed under the Green Dome within Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina. Muhammad in Islam In Islam, Muḥammad ( Arabic : مُحَمَّد ) is venerated as the Seal of the Prophets and earthly manifestation of primordial divine light ( Nūr ), who transmitted the eternal word of God ( Qur'ān ) from the angel Gabriel ( Jabrāʾīl ) to humans and jinn . Muslims believe that

5890-512: Is powerful in His support; those who have been expelled from their homes without right, only because they say our Lord is God (Allah)."( 22:39-40 ) These ghazi raids escalated into a war in 624 between Muslims and Meccan pagans, known as the Battle of Badr . This is also considered to be the first time Muhammad used a weapon. The battle is described with supernatural images. In Islamic tradition,

6045-429: Is referred to as "Messenger", "Messenger of God", and "Prophet". Other terms are used, including "Warner", "bearer of glad tidings", and the "one who invites people to a Single God" (Q 12:108 , and 33:45-46 ). The Quran asserts that Muhammad was a man who possessed the highest moral excellence, and that God made him a good example or a "goodly model" for Muslims to follow (Q 68:4 , and 33:21 ). In several verses,

6200-494: Is seen as a reference to Muhammad and a companion (whom Sunni scholars identify with Abu Bakr) hiding from their Meccan persecutors in a cave. Surah 61:6 is believed to remind the audience of the foretelling of Muhammad by Jesus. This verse was also used by early Arab Muslims to claim legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions. Muhammad is often referenced with these titles of praise or epithet: He also has these names: In Muslim tradition, Muhammad

6355-423: Is translated as Seal of the Prophets . The title is generally regarded by Muslims as meaning that Muhammad is the last in the series of prophets beginning with Adam . Believing Muhammad is the last prophet is a fundamental belief, shared by both Sunni and Shi'i theology. Although Muhammad is considered to be the last prophet sent, he is supposed to be the first prophet to be created. In Sunni Islam, it

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6510-568: The Banu Qaynuqa , one of the three main Jewish tribes. Jewish opposition "may well have been for political as well as religious reasons". On religious grounds, the Jews were skeptical of the possibility of a non-Jewish prophet, and also had concerns about possible incompatibilities between the Qur'an and their own scriptures. The Qur'an's response regarding the possibility of a non-Jew being a prophet

6665-665: The Banu Thaqif and other Bedouins submitted to Muhammad in order to be safe from attack and to benefit from the bounty of the wars. Following the Conquest of Mecca and these events, Muhammad would perform the Farewell Pilgrimage and return to Medina , where he would fall ill for several days with a headache and weakness. He died on Monday, June 8, 632, in the city, being buried where the home of his wife Aisha had been. It has since been modified several times and

6820-647: The Bible , the Israelites are the descendants of Jacob , a patriarch who was later renamed as Israel. Following a severe drought in Canaan , Jacob and his twelve sons fled to Egypt, where they eventually formed the Twelve Tribes of Israel . The Israelites were later led out of slavery in Egypt by Moses and conquered Canaan under Joshua 's leadership, who was Moses's successor. Most modern scholars agree that

6975-826: The Christian doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ , Islam always depicts Muhammad as a created being and never as part or a person within God. Muslims believe that Muhammad was the possessor of moral virtues at the highest level, and was a man of moral excellence. He represented the 'prototype of human perfection' and was the best among God's creations. Consequently, to the Muslims, his life and character are an excellent example to be emulated both at social and spiritual levels. The virtues that characterize him are modesty and humility , forgiveness and generosity, honesty , justice , patience , and self-denial . Muslim biographers of Muhammad in their books have shed much light on

7130-463: The Constitution of Medina to which they belonged. These two were assassinated and Muhammad did not disapprove of it. No one dared to take vengeance on them, and some of the members of the clan of Asma bint Marwan who had previously converted to Islam in secret, now professed openly. This marked an end to the overt opposition to Muhammad among the pagans in Medina. Muhammad expelled from Medina

7285-650: The Eighteenth Dynasty , but this reading remains controversial. In the Hebrew Bible, Israel first appears in Genesis 32:29 , where an angel gives the name to Jacob after the latter fought with him . The folk etymology given in the text derives Israel from yisra , "to prevail over" or "to struggle with", and El , a Canaanite- Mesopotamian creator god that is tenuously identified with Yahweh. However, modern scholarship interprets El as

7440-694: The First Temple , marking the kingdom's demise. Subsequently, a segment of the Judahite populace was exiled to Babylon in several waves. Judeans were progenitors of the Jews, who practiced Second Temple Judaism during the Second Temple period . With the fall of Babylon to the rising Achaemenid Persian Empire , king Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the Edict of Cyrus , encouraging

7595-603: The Greco-Roman world , which led to conversions. Several scholars, such as Scot McKnight and Martin Goodman , reject this view while holding that conversions occasionally occurred. A similar diaspora existed for Samaritans but their existence is poorly documented. In 63 BCE, the Roman Republic conquered the kingdom. In 37 BCE, the Romans appointed Herod the Great as king of a vassal Judea . In 6 CE, Judea

7750-575: The Hijrah , until Muhammad returned to fight the idolaters of Mecca, culminating in the semi-legendary Battle of Badr , conceived in Islamic tradition not only to be a battle between the Muslims and pre-Islamic polytheists, but also between the angels on Muhammad's side against the jinn and false deities siding with the Meccans. After victory, Muhammad is believed to have cleansed Arabia from polytheism and advised his followers to renounce idolatry for

7905-515: The Iron Age . The name of Israel first appears in the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt , dated to about 1200 BCE. Modern scholarship considers that the Israelites emerged from groups of indigenous Canaanites and other peoples. They spoke an archaic form of the Hebrew language , which was a regional variety of the Canaanite languages , known today as Biblical Hebrew . In the Iron Age ,

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8060-834: The J2 Y-DNA haplogroup, a set of closely-related DNA sequences thought to have originated in the Caucasus or Eastern Anatolia, as well as the T1a and H87 mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, the former of which has also been detected among Canaanites, and the latter in Basques, Tunisian Arabs, and Iraqis, suggesting a Mediterranean, Near Eastern, or perhaps Arabian origin. A 2004 study (by Shen et al.) comparing Samaritans to several Jewish populations (including Ashkenazi Jews , Iraqi Jews , Libyan Jews , Moroccan Jews , and Yemenite Jews ) found that "the principal components analysis suggested

8215-605: The Mishnah and Gemara , ישראלי ( Yisraeli ), or Israelite, is used to describe Jews instead of יהודי ( Yehudi ), or Jew. In Samaritanism , Samaritans are not Jews יהודים ( Yehudim ). Instead, they are Israelites, which includes their Jewish brethren, or Israelite Samaritans. The history of the Israelite people can be divided into these categories, according to the Hebrew Bible : Efforts to confirm

8370-539: The Philistines , who were of Mycenaean Greek origin. As a result, intermarriage with other Semites was common. But what distinguished Israelite circumcision from non-Israelite circumcision was its emphasis on 'correct' timing. Israelite circumcision also served as a mnemonic sign for the circumcised, where their 'unnatural' erect circumcised penis would remind them to behave differently in sexual matters. Yom-Tov Lipmann-Muhlhausen suggests that Israelite identity

8525-487: The Quran , the central religious text of Islam , was revealed to Muhammad by God , and that Muhammad was sent to guide people to Islam, which is believed not to be a separate religion, but the unaltered original faith of mankind ( fiṭrah ), and believed to have been shared by previous prophets including Adam , Abraham , Moses , and Jesus . The religious, social, and political tenets that Muhammad established with

8680-641: The Sea Peoples , particularly the Dan(an)u . Nonetheless, they intermingled with the former nomads, due to socioeconomic and military factors. Their interest in Yahwism and its concern for the underprivileged was another factor. Possible allusions to this historical reality in the Hebrew Bible include the aforementioned tribes, except for Issachar and Zebulun, descending from Bilhah and Zilpah , who were viewed as "secondary additions" to Israel. El worship

8835-427: The Second Temple period , "Israel" included the members of the united monarchy, the northern kingdom, and eschatological Israel. " Jew " (or " Judean ") was another popular ethnonym but it might refer to a geographically restricted sub-group or to the inhabitants of the southern kingdom of Judah. In addition, works such as Ezra-Nehemiah pioneered the idea of an "impermeable" distinction between Israel and gentiles, on

8990-489: The Second Temple period . This event marked a cataclysmic moment in Jewish history, prompting a reconfiguration of Jewish identity and practice to ensure continuity. The cessation of Temple worship and disappearance of Temple-based sects facilitated the rise of Rabbinic Judaism , which stemmed from the Pharisaic school of Second Temple Judaism, emphasizing communal synagogue worship and Torah study , eventually becoming

9145-494: The Torah does not provide an authentic account of the Israelites' origins, and instead view it as constituting their national myth . However, it is supposed that there may be a "historical core" to the narrative. The Bible also portrays the kingdoms of Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier United Kingdom of Israel , though the historicity of the latter is disputed. Jews and Samaritans both trace their ancestry to

9300-631: The Tribe of Levi . Josephus quoting Manetho identifies them with the Hyksos . Other scholars believe that the Exodus narrative was a " collective memory " of several events from the Bronze Age. In addition, it is unlikely that the Israelites overtook the southern Levant by force, according to archaeological evidence. Instead, they branched out of indigenous Canaanite peoples that long inhabited

9455-403: The death penalty was legislated for these 'secret crimes', they functioned as a warning, where offenders would confess out of fear and make appropriate reparations. The historicity of the United Monarchy is heavily debated among archaeologists and biblical scholars: biblical maximalists and centrists ( Kenneth Kitchen , William G. Dever , Amihai Mazar , Baruch Halpern and others) argue that

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9610-658: The pagan population of Medina, apart from some exceptions. This was, according to Ibn Ishaq , influenced by the conversion to Islam of Sa'd ibn Mua'dh , one of the prominent leaders in Medina. In the course of Muhammad proselytizing in Mecca, he viewed Christians and Jews (both of whom he referred to as "People of the Book") as natural allies, part of the Abrahamic religions , sharing the core principles of his teachings, and anticipated their acceptance and support. Muslims , like Jews, were at that time praying towards Jerusalem. In

9765-570: The sunnah for his followers. Since the 19th century, Muhammad's biographies have become increasingly intertwined with non-Muslim accounts of Muhammad , thus blurring the distinction between the prophetic Muhammad from Islamic tradition and the humanized Muhammad in non-Muslim depiction. Accordingly, pre-modern Islamic accounts revolve around Muhammad's function as a prophet and his miraculous ascent to heaven, while many modern Islamic biographers reconstruct his life as an ideal statesman or social reformer. A particular importance of Muhammad's role as

9920-460: The "complexities of the Jewish soul". Names were significant in Israelite culture and indicated one's destiny and inherent character. Thus, a name change indicated a 'divine transformation' in one's 'destines, characters and natures'. These beliefs aligned with the Near Eastern cultural milieu, where names were 'intimately bound up with the very essence of being and inextricably intertwined with personality'. In terms of appearance, rabbis described

10075-407: The "general Southland" (i.e. modern Sinai and the southern parts of Israel and Jordan ), who abandoned their pastoral-nomadic ways. Canaanites who lived outside the central hill country were tenuously identified as Danites, Asherites, Zebulunites, Issacharites, Naphtalites and Gadites. These inhabitants do not have a significant history of migration besides the Danites, who allegedly originate from

10230-450: The Battle of Badr. The intervention of the angels at the battle and the victory of the Muslims despite being outnumbered against the pagan Meccans is often considered a miraculous event in Muslim tradition. After the battle, Muhammad receives the Sword Zulfiqar from the archangel Gabriel. Israelites The Israelites were a Hebrew -speaking ethnoreligious group consisting of tribes that inhabited much of Canaan during

10385-431: The Biblical Jews as being "midway between black and white" and having the "color of the boxwood tree". Assuming Yurco 's debated claim that the Israelites are depicted in reliefs from Merneptah 's temple at Karnak is correct, the early Israelites may have wore the same attire and hairstyles as non-Israelite Canaanites. Dissenting from this, Anson Rainey argued that the Israelites in the reliefs looked more similar to

10540-559: The Bronze Age and Iron Age southern Levantines, which included the Israelites and Judahites. They could be "modeled as a mixture of local earlier Neolithic populations and populations from the northeastern part of the Near East (e.g. Zagros Mountains , Caucasians / Armenians and possibly, Hurrians )". Reasons for the continuity include resilience from the Bronze Age collapse , which was mostly true for inland cities such as Tel Megiddo and Tel Abel Beth Maacah . Elsewhere, European -related and East African -related components were added to

10695-417: The Constitution of Medina, umma , had a religious outlook but was also shaped by the practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes . The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by

10850-499: The Constitution of Medina, Muhammad demanded the Jews' political loyalty in return for religious and cultural autonomy in many treaties. The Jewish clans however did not obey these treaties because of a feud with the Muslims though in the course of time there were a few converts from them. After his migration to Medina, Muhammad's attitude towards Christians and Jews changed "because of experience of treachery". Norman Stillman states: During this fateful time, fraught with tension after

11005-466: The Exodus narrative. Israel's demographics were similar to the demographics of Ammon , Edom , Moab and Phoenicia . Besides their focus on Yahweh worship, Israelite cultural markers were defined by body, food, and time, including male circumcision , avoidance of pork consumption and marking time based on the Exodus, the reigns of Israelite kings , and Sabbath observance . The first two markers were observed by neighboring west Semites besides

11160-550: The Hijra [migration to Medina], when Muhammad encountered contradiction, ridicule and rejection from the Jewish scholars in Medina, he came to adopt a radically more negative view of the people of the Book who had received earlier scriptures. This attitude was already evolving in the third Meccan period as the Prophet became more aware of the antipathy between Jews and Christians and the disagreements and strife amongst members of

11315-441: The Jews he encountered outside Medina." According to Welch, Muhammad's treatment of the three major Jewish tribes brought Muhammad closer to his goal of organizing a community strictly on a religious basis. He adds that some Jews from other families were, however, allowed to remain in Medina. In the siege of Medina, the Meccans had exerted their utmost strength towards the destruction of the Muslim community. Their failure resulted in

11470-461: The Medina Jews, who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Quran's tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old." F.E. Peters , a western scholar of Islam, states that Muhammad's treatment of Jews of Medina was essentially political being prompted by what Muhammad read as treasonous and not some transgression of the law of God . Peters adds that Muhammad

11625-485: The Muslim state of ihram (which restricted their freedom of action) and the paucity of arms carried indicated that the pilgrimage was always intended to be pacific. Most Islamic scholars agree with Andrae's view. Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh sent out a force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside Mecca. According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make

11780-461: The Muslims and the pagan Quraysh of Mecca. Muhammad delivered Qur'anic verses permitting the Muslims, " those who have been expelled from their homes ", to fight the Meccans in opposition to persecution (see Qur'an Sura 22 ( Al-Hajj ) Ayat 39-40). These attacks provoked and pressured Mecca by interfering with trade, and allowed the Muslims to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working toward their ultimate goal of inducing Mecca's submission to

11935-537: The Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. They had also succeeded in killing many of the Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl . Muhammad himself did not fight, directing the battle from a nearby hut alongside Abu Bakr . In the weeks following the battle, Meccans visited Medina in order to ransom captives from Badr. Many of these had belonged to wealthy families, and were likely ransomed for

12090-417: The Prophet ' ), but an-Nabi was soon dropped, so its name is "Medina", meaning 'the city'. In Medina, Muhammad's first focus was on the construction of a mosque, which, when completed, was of an austere nature. Apart from being the center of prayer service, the mosque also served as a headquarters of administrative activities. Adjacent to the mosque was built the quarters for Muhammad's family. As there

12245-583: The Quran became the foundation of Islam and the Muslim world . According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad received his first revelation at age 40 in a cave called Hira in Mecca , whereupon he started to preach the oneness of God in order to stamp out idolatry of pre-Islamic Arabia . This led to opposition by the Meccans, with Abu Lahab and Abu Jahl as the most famous enemies of Muhammad in Islamic tradition. This led to persecution of Muhammad and his Muslim followers who fled to Medina , an event known as

12400-495: The Quran explains Muhammad's relation to humanity. According to the Quran, God sent Muhammad with truth (God's message to humanity), and as a blessing to the whole world (Q 39:33 , and 21:107 ). According to Islamic tradition, Surah 96:1 refers to the command of the angel to Muhammad to recite the Quran. Surah 17:1 is believed to be a reference to Muhammad's journey, which tradition elaborates extensively upon, meeting angels and previous prophets in heaven. Surah 9:40

12555-674: The Samaritans identify as "Israel", "B'nai Israel" or "Shamerim/Shomerim" (i.e. "Guardians/Keepers/Watchers"). Towards the end of the same century, the Neo-Babylonian Empire emerged victorious over the Assyrians, leading to Judah's subjugation as a vassal state . In the early 6th century BC, a series of revolts in Judah prompted the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II to lay siege to and destroy Jerusalem along with

12710-657: The Shasu. Based on biblical literature, it is implied that the Israelites distinguished themselves from peoples like the Babylonians and Egyptians by not having long beards and chin tufts. However, these fashion practices were upper class customs. In the 12th century BCE, many Israelite settlements appeared in the central hill country of Canaan, which was formerly an open terrain. These settlements lacked evidence of pork consumption, compared to Philistine settlements, had four-room houses and lived by an egalitarian ethos , which

12865-481: The Virtuous) was formed to check further violence and injustice; and to stand on the side of the oppressed, an oath was taken by the descendants of Hashim and the kindred families, where Muhammad was also a member. Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with settling a dispute peacefully, regarding setting the sacred Black Stone on the wall of Kaaba , where the clan leaders could not decide on which clan should have

13020-514: The ancient Israelites. Jews trace their ancestry to tribes that inhabited the Kingdom of Judah, including Judah , Benjamin and partially Levi , while the Samaritans claim their lineage from the remaining members of Ephraim , Manasseh , and Levi who were not deported in the Assyrian captivity after the fall of Israel. Other groups have also claimed affiliation with the Israelites . Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) The first reference to Israel in non-biblical sources

13175-615: The archangel Gabriel ( Jabrāʾīl ) brought from God to Muhammad in the Cave of Hira in Mount Hira . While he was contemplating in the Cave of Hira, Gabriel appeared before him and commanded him to "read", upon which Muhammad replied, as he is considered illiterate in Islamic tradition: 'I am unable to read'. Thereupon the angel caught hold of him and pressed him heavily. This is said to have been repeated three times until Muhammad recited

13330-627: The assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf , a member of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir who had gone to Mecca and written poems that had helped rouse the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the battle of Badr (see the main article for other reasons for killing of Ka'b given in the historiographical sources). Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Jewish Banu Nadir from Medina. Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of confederation against him were not successful, although he

13485-405: The assassins that he had stayed (and to fight them off in his stead) and secretly slipped away from the town. By 622, Muhammad had emigrated to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis . Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca. Among the things Muhammad did in order to settle the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina

13640-509: The battle is not only between the human Muslims and the human pagans, but also between the angels on the behalf of the Muslims and the pagan deities ( jinn ) siding with their worshippers. The Muslims receiving heavenly support is also alluded in the Quran ( 8:9 ). Before the battle, Iblis (Satan) appeared to the pagan Meccans in form of a man called Suraqa and incites them, including Abu Lahab and Abu Jahl , to wage war against Muhammad, promising them to support them. In Shia sources,

13795-547: The beginning of gradual development of Islam in Medina , and took a formal pledge of allegiance at Muhammad's hand, promising to accept him as a prophet, to worship none but one God , and to renounce certain sins like theft, adultery, murder and the like. This is known as the "First Pledge of al-Aqaba". At their request, Muhammad sent with them Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair , who is said to successfully convince his audience to embrace Islam according to Muslim biographies. The next year, at

13950-400: The besiegers, rendering the besiegers unable to see him. After eight days' journey, Muhammad entered the outskirts of Medina on 28 June 622, but did not enter the city directly. He stopped at a place called Quba some miles from the main city, and established a mosque there. On 2 July 622, he entered the city. Yathrib was soon renamed Madinat an-Nabi ( Arabic : مَدينةالنّبي ' City of

14105-404: The biblical account is more or less accurate, while biblical minimalists ( Israel Finkelstein , Ze'ev Herzog , Thomas L. Thompson and others) argue that Israel and Judah never split from a singular state. The debate has not been resolved, but recent archaeological discoveries by Eilat Mazar and Yosef Garfinkel show some support for the existence of the United Monarchy. From 850 BCE onwards,

14260-422: The biblical ethnogenesis of Israel through archaeology have largely been abandoned as unproductive. Many scholars see the traditional narratives as national myths with little historical value, but some posit that a small group of exiled Egyptians contributed to the Exodus narrative. William G. Dever cautiously identifies this group with the Tribe of Joseph , while Richard Elliott Friedman identifies it with

14415-640: The city from the Quraysh following a violation of the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah by the Banu Bakr , who were allies of the Quraysh, after they attacked the Banū Khuzaʽah , allies of the Muslims. The Treaty had called for a 10-year truce and ceasefire between the Muslims, the Quraysh and their respective allies. Muhammad arrived at Mecca a week from his departure, dividing the army into four regiments, each entering Mecca from one point of entry. The conquest

14570-477: The communities to reach a formal agreement which would provide a harmony among the communities and security to the city of Medina, and finally drew up the Constitution of Medina , also known as the Medina Charter, which formed "a kind of alliance or federation" among the prevailing communities. It specified the mutual rights and obligations of the Muslims and Jews of Medina, and prohibited any alliance with

14725-430: The disappearance of Israelite tribes from Galilee and Transjordan, it's plausible that many Israelites from Samaria survived and remained in the region. These survivors, contrary to Jewish tradition, are believed to have become the ancestors of the Samaritans, who followed Samaritanism . Research indicates that only a portion of this population intermarried with Mesopotamians settlers. In their native Samaritan Hebrew ,

14880-422: The early converts were Abu Bakr , Uthman ibn Affan , Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib , Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas , Abdullah ibn Masud , Arqam , Abu Dharr al-Ghifari , Ammar ibn Yasir and Bilal ibn Rabah . Muhammad's early teachings invited vehement opposition from the wealthy and leading clans of Mecca who feared the loss not only of their ancestral paganism but also of the lucrative pilgrimage business. At first,

15035-805: The earth, say "I commend him to the protection of the One from the evil of every envier" then name him Muhammad." The tradition that Muhammad's soul pre-dates his birth has been justified by the Quranic statement that "God created the spirits before the bodies". Others, such as Sahl al-Tustari , believed that the Quranic Verse of Light alludes to Muhammad's pre-existence, comparing it to the Light of Muhammad. Some later reformative theologians, such as al-Ghazali ( Asharite ) and Ibn Taymiyyah ( proto-Salafi ) rejected that Muhammad existed before birth and that only

15190-680: The exiles to return to their homeland after the Persians raised it as an autonomous Jewish-governed province named Yehud . Under the Persians ( c.  539–332 BCE ), the returned Jewish population restored the city and rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem. The Cyrus Cylinder is controversially cited as evidence for Cyrus allowing the Judeans to return. The returnees showed a "heightened sense" of their ethnic identity and shunned exogamy , which

15345-501: The fear of losing the leading position, the merchants and clan-leaders tried to come to an agreement with Muhammad. They offered Muhammad the prospect of higher social status and advantageous marriage proposal in exchange for forsaking his preaching. Muhammad rejected both offers, asserting his nomination as a messenger by God . The death of his uncle Abu Talib left Muhammad unprotected, and exposed him to some mischief of Quraysh , which he endured with great steadfastness. An uncle and

15500-404: The greatest of all Prophets. Muhammad is mentioned by name four times in the Quran. The Quran reveals little about Muhammad's early life or other biographic details, but it talks about his prophetic mission, his moral excellence, and theological issues regarding Muhammad. According to the Quran, Muhammad is the last in a chain of prophets sent by God ( 33:40 ). Throughout the Quran, Muhammad

15655-402: The heart, and removed a blood-clot from it. It was then washed with Zamzam water. In Islamic tradition, this incident means that God purified his prophet and protected him from sin. Around the age of twelve, Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib in a mercantile journey to Syria , and gained experience in commercial enterprise. On this journey Muhammad is said to have been recognized by

15810-411: The honor of doing that. The Black Stone was removed to facilitate the rebuilding of Kaaba because of its dilapidated condition. The disagreement grew tense, and bloodshed became likely. The clan leaders agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate of Kaaba and ask him to choose. The 35-year-old Muhammad entered through that gate first, asked for a mantle which he spread on the ground, and placed

15965-441: The idea of Muhammad has existed prior to his physical conception. Muhammad was orphaned when young. Some months before the birth of Muhammad, his father died near Medina on a mercantile expedition to Syria . When Muhammad was six, he accompanied his mother Amina on her visit to Medina, probably to visit her late husband's tomb. While returning to Mecca, Amina died at a desolate place called Abwa , about half-way to Mecca, and

16120-499: The individual. He explained Muhammad's prophetic abilities through this epistemilogical model , which was adopted and elaborated on by later Muslim scholars, such as Avicenna , al-Ghazali , and ibn Arabi . The Sufi tradition of ibn Arabi expanded upon the idea of Muhammad's pre-existence, combined with rationalistic theory. Qunawi identifies Muhammad with the pen ( Qalam ), which was ordered by God to write down everything what will exist and happen. Despite some resemblance of

16275-403: The inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal; a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals. After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar . The explanation given by western scholars of Islam for this attack ranges from

16430-611: The kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged. The Kingdom of Israel , with its capital at Samaria , fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE; while the Kingdom of Judah , with its capital at Jerusalem , was destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. Some of the Judean population was exiled to Babylon , but returned to Israel after Cyrus the Great conquered the region. According to

16585-600: The minutest acts of daily life as he behaved. In Muslim legal and religious thought , Muhammad, inspired by God to act wisely and in accordance with his will, provides an example that complements God's revelation as expressed in the Quran; and his actions and sayings – known as Sunnah  – are a model for Muslim conduct. The Sunnah can be defined as "the actions, decisions, and practices that Muhammad approved, allowed, or condoned". It also includes Muhammad's confirmation to someone's particular action or manner (during Muhammad's lifetime) which, when communicated to Muhammad,

16740-477: The moral character of Muhammad. In addition, there is a genre of biography that approaches his life by focusing on his moral qualities rather than discussing the external affairs of his life. These scholars note he maintained honesty and justice in his deeds. For more than thirteen hundred years, Muslims have modeled their lives after their prophet Muhammad. They awaken every morning as he awakened; they eat as he ate; they wash as he washed; and they behave even in

16895-460: The names of the dead at Badr. A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many of the senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in

17050-489: The new faith. In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the Meccans at Badr. Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan. The force did not return home upon hearing that the caravan was safe. The battle of Badr began in March 624. Though outnumbered more than three to one,

17205-469: The norm. In addition, royal inscriptions were scarce, along with imported and decorated pottery. The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE . The records of Sargon II of Assyria indicate that he deported part of the population to Assyria. This deportation became the basis for the Jewish idea of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel . Some Israelites migrated to

17360-427: The opposition was confined to ridicule and sarcasm which proved insufficient to arrest Muhammad's faith from flourishing, and soon they resorted to active persecution. These included verbal attack, ostracism, unsuccessful boycott, and physical persecution. Alarmed by mounting persecution on the newly converts, Muhammad in 615 CE directed some of his followers to migrate to neighboring Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia ),

17515-436: The origins of historical Israelites. Some believe they descended from raiding groups, itinerant nomads such as Habiru and Shasu or impoverished Canaanites, who were forced to leave wealthy urban areas and live in the highlands. The prevailing academic opinion is that the Israelites were a mixture of peoples predominately indigenous to Canaan, with additional input from an Egyptian matrix of peoples, which most likely inspired

17670-433: The outside enemies. It also declared that any dispute would be referred to Muhammad for settlement. In the year 622, Muhammad and around 100 followers fled from Mecca to Medina, due to violent persecution. It is here, when Muslims are for the first time permitted by the Quran to fight against their pagan Meccan adversaries: "Permission [to fight] is given to those who are attacked, because they are oppressed and verily God

17825-409: The passive intellect of the individual human as receiving universal concepts from the celestial active intellect. Only when the individual intellect is in conjunction with the active intellect, it is able to receive the thoughts of the active intellect in its own mental capacities. A distinction is made between prophecy and revelation, the latter being passed down directly to the imaginative faculties of

17980-475: The people of Ta'if in between the mountains, but Muhammad said 'No'. At the pilgrimage season of 620, Muhammad met six men of Khazraj tribe from Yathrib (later named Medina ), propounded to them the doctrines of Islam, and recited portions of Quran . Impressed by this, the six embraced Islam , and at the Pilgrimage of 621, five of them brought seven others with them. These twelve informed Muhammad of

18135-482: The pilgrimage of June 622, a delegation of around 75 converted Muslims of Aws and Khazraj tribes from Yathrib came. They invited him to come to Medina as an arbitrator to reconcile the hostile tribes. This is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqabah" , and was a 'politico-religious' success that paved the way for his and his followers' emigration to Medina . Following the pledges, Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Yathrib in small groups, and within

18290-425: The pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was at the same time demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion. Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman ibn Affan , had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad responded by calling upon

18445-468: The pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Good Pleasure" ( Arabic : بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān ) or the " Pledge of the Tree ." News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for negotiations to continue, and the treaty of Hudaybiyyah , scheduled to last ten years

18600-595: The predominant expression of Judaism. Concurrently, Christianity began to diverge from Judaism, evolving into a predominantly Gentile religion. Decades later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE) further diminished the Jewish presence in Judea , leading to a geographical shift of Jewish life to Galilee and Babylonia , with smaller communities scattered across the Mediterranean . Jews and Samaritans share

18755-575: The presence of the Banu Nadir in Khaybar, who were inciting hostilities along with neighboring Arab tribes against Muhammad, to deflecting from what appeared to some Muslims as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya, increasing Muhammad's prestige among his followers and capturing booty. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date are given variously in

18910-528: The prestige of Meccans. Both tribes were subsequently defeated in the Battle of Hunayn . Muhammad subsequently launched an expedition against the Byzantine Empire and their Ghassanid allies in the north in the Expedition of Tabuk . Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some of the local chiefs of the region. Following this expedition,

19065-401: The prestige of Quraysh and straight bribes. Muhammad's policy in the next two years after the battle of Uhud was to prevent as best he could the formation of alliances against him. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he sent out an expedition to break it up. When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, he reacted with severity. One example is

19220-469: The region, which included Syria , ancient Israel , and the Transjordan region . Their culture was monolatristic , with a primary focus on Yahweh (or El) worship, but after the Babylonian exile, it became monotheistic , with partial influence from Zoroastrianism . The latter decisively separated the Israelites from other Canaanites. The Israelites used the Canaanite script and communicated in

19375-614: The revealed part of the Quran. This happened two more times after which the angel commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses: Read, ˹O Prophet,˺ in the Name of your Lord Who created— created humans from a clinging clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous, Who taught by the pen— taught humanity what they knew not. These revelations are believed to have entered Muhammad's heart ( Qalb ) in form of visions and sounds, which he then transcripted into words, known as

19530-524: The sake of the unity of God. As manifestation of God's guidance and example of renouncing idolatry, Muhammad is understood as an exemplary role-model in regards of virtue, spirituality, and moral excellence. His spirituality is considered to be expressed by his journey through the seven heavens ( Mi'raj ). His behaviour and advice became known as the Sunnah , which forms the practical application of Muhammad's teachings. Even after his (earthly) death, Muhammad

19685-455: The same religion. The Qur'an at this time states that it will "relate [correctly] to the Children of Israel most of that about which they differ" 27:76 . Economically uprooted by their Meccan persecutors, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans to respond to their persecution and to provide sustenance for their Muslim families, thus initiating armed conflict between

19840-727: The sources). Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia , the chief of Yemen and to some others. Most critical scholars doubt this tradition, however. In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces against the Arabs of Mu'tah on Byzantine soil in Transjordania since according to the tradition, they had murdered Muhammad's envoy. Muslims were defeated in this battle. In Ramadan 8 AH (around October 629), Muhammad left for Mecca with approximately 10,000 of his sahaba aiming to capture

19995-476: The south of Medina were charged with treachery. After the retreat of the coalition, Muslims besieged Banu Qurayza, the remaining major Jewish tribe in Medina. The Banu Qurayza surrendered and all the men, apart from a few who converted to Islam, were beheaded, while all the women and children were enslaved. In dealing with Muhammad's treatment of the Jews of Medina, aside from political explanations, Arab historians and biographers have explained it as "the punishment of

20150-537: The southern kingdom of Judah, while those Israelites that remained in Samaria, concentrated mainly around Mount Gerizim , came to be known as Samaritans . Foreign groups were also settled by the Assyrians in the territories of the conquered kingdom. The exiled Israelites from non-Judean regions faced assimilation into the Assyrian population, unlike their counterparts from Judea. While historical records indicate

20305-418: The stone at its center. Muhammad had the clans' leaders lift a corner of it until the mantle reached the appropriate height, and then himself placed the stone on the proper place. Thus, an ensuing bloodshed was averted by the wisdom of Muhammad. When Muhammad was 40 years old, he began to receive his first revelations in 610 CE. The first revealed verses were the first five verses of Surah al-Alaq that

20460-408: The strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle. Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the Meccans had camped) and fought the Battle of Uhud on March 23. Although the Muslim army had the best of the early encounters, indiscipline on the part of tactically placed archers led to

20615-407: The subject, "El rules/struggles", from sarar ( שָׂרַר ) 'to rule' (cognate with sar ( שַׂר ) 'ruler', Akkadian šarru 'ruler, king' ), which is likely cognate with the similar root sara ( שׂרה ) "fought, strove, contended". Afterwards, Israel referred to the direct descendants of Jacob and gentiles (i.e. resident aliens ) who assimilated in the Israelite community. Hebrew

20770-506: The tale of Muhammad as a spiritual parallel to the life of Moses, considering many aspects of their lives to be shared. According to Arab custom, after his birth, infant Muhammad was sent to Banu Sa'ad clan, a neighboring Bedouin tribe, so that he could acquire the pure speech and free manners of the desert. There, Muhammad spent the first five years of his life with his foster-mother Halima . Islamic tradition holds that during this period, God sent two angels who opened his chest, took out

20925-481: The twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the community. There had been conflict in Yathrib between its Arab and Jewish tribes for around a hundred years prior. The recurring disagreements, fighting and killing over competing claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans were involved, rendered the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and eye for an eye justice unworkable without

21080-403: The verbatim of God. These were later written down and collected and came to be known as Quran , the central religious text of Islam. During the first three years of his ministry, Muhammad preached Islam privately, mainly among his near relatives and close acquaintances. The first to believe him was his wife Khadijah , who was followed by Ali , his cousin, and Zayd ibn Harithah . Among

21235-650: The visitor is explicitly called Shaiṭān (the Devil). However, Iblis ultimately abandons the pagan Meccans before the fight begins when he recognizes that God and the angels are fighting on Muhammad's side, alluded in the Quran by stating that the devil proclaims that he "fears God" ('akhafu 'llah), which can mean both, that he is reverencing or frightened about God (the latter one the preferred translation). Islamic tradition holds that, as reported in Suyuti's al-Ḥabā’ik fī akhbār almalā’ik , angels were never killed except during

21390-565: Was a member of the family of Banu Hashim , a respected branch of the prestigious and influential Quraysh tribe. It is generally said that 'Abd al-Muttalib named the child " Muhammad " ( Arabic : مُحَمَّد ‎ ). According to Sufis, Muhammad is not only considered as the historical figure Muhammad, but also the earthly manifestation of the cosmic Muhammad, predating the creation of the Earth or Adam . The motifs of Barakah and Nūr are frequently invoked to describe Muhammad's birth as

21545-475: Was able to augment his own forces and keep many tribes from joining the confederation. Abu Sufyan, the military leader of the Quraysh, with the help of Banu Nadir, had mustered a force numbering 10,000 men. Muhammad was able to prepare a force of about 3,000 men. He had however adopted a new form of defense, unknown in Arabia at that time: Muslims had dug trenches wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea

21700-531: Was an independent socio-political entity for most of the 9th century BCE. Avraham Faust argues that there was continued adherence to the 'ethos of egalitarianism and simplicity' in the Iron Age II (10th-6th century BCE). For example, there is minimal evidence of temples and complex tomb burials, despite Israel and Judah being more densely populated than the Late Bronze Age. Four-room houses remained

21855-837: Was based on faith and adherence to sex-appropriate commandments. For men, it was circumcision. For women, it was ritual sacrifice after childbirth ( Leviticus 12:6 ). Genealogy was another ethnic marker. It was a matter of cultural self-identity rather than biological descent. For example, foreign clans could adopt the identity of other clans, which subsequently changed their status from "outsider" to "insider". This applied to Israelites from different tribes and gentiles. Saul Oylan argued that foreigners automatically became Israelite if they lived in their territory, according to Ezekiel 47:21–23 . That said, Israelites used genealogy to engage in narcissism of small differences but also, self-criticism since their ancestors included morally questionable characters such as Jacob. Both these traits represented

22010-405: Was besieged by men of the Quraysh who planned to kill him in the morning. At the time, Muhammad possessed various properties of the Quraysh given to him in trust; so he handed them over to ' Ali and directed him to return them to their owners. It is said that when Muhammad emerged from his house, he recited the ninth verse of surah Ya-Sin of the Quran and threw a handful of dust at the direction of

22165-417: Was buried there. Muhammad was now taken in by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib , who himself died when Muhammad was eight, leaving him in the care of his uncle Abu Talib . In Islamic tradition, Muhammad's being orphaned at an early age has been seen as a part of divine plan to enable him to "develop early the qualities of self-reliance, reflection, and steadfastness". Muslim scholar Muhammad Ali sees

22320-605: Was central to early Israelite culture but currently, the number of El worshippers in Israel is unknown. It is more likely that different Israelite locales held different views about El and had 'small-scale' sacred spaces . Himbaza et al. (2012) states that Israelite households were typically ill-equipped to handle conflicts between family members, which may explain the harsh sexual taboos enforced against acts like incest , homosexuality , polygamy etc. in Leviticus 18–20 . Whilst

22475-436: Was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), establishing a kind of brotherhood among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca , which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities specifically the Jews and other " Peoples of the Book "). The community defined in

22630-466: Was eventually signed between the Muslims and the Quraysh. The main points of treaty were the following: Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Qur'anic sura Al-Fath (The Victory) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one. It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty. These benefits, according to Welch, included

22785-461: Was exemplified by the absence of elaborate tombs, governor's mansions, certain houses being bigger than others etc. They followed a mixed economy , which prioritized self-sufficiency , cultivation of crops , animal husbandry and small-scale craft production . New technologies such as terraced farming , silos for grain storage and cisterns for rainwater collection were simultaneously introduced. These settlements were built by inhabitants of

22940-673: Was fully incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Judaea . During this period, the main areas of Jewish settlement in the Land of Israel were Judea, Galilee and Perea , while the Samaritans had their demographic center in Samaria . Growing dissatisfaction with Roman rule and civil disturbances eventually led to the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple, which ended

23095-485: Was generally approved by him. The Sunnah, as recorded in the Hadith literature, encompasses everyday activities related to men's domestic, social, economic, and political life. It addresses a broad array of activities and Islamic beliefs ranging from the simple practices, like the proper way of entering a mosque and private cleanliness, to questions involving the love between God and humans. The Sunnah of Muhammad serves as

23250-460: Was largely bloodless and the Quraysh eventually surrendered without putting up a fight. Following the Conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was informed of a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were readying an army twice as strong as Muhammad and the sahaba . They were joined by the Thaqif inhabiting in the city of Ta’if who had adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of

23405-405: Was no definite arrangement for calling people to prayer, Bilal ibn Ribah was appointed to call people in a loud voice at each prayer time, a system later replaced by Adhan believed to be informed to Abdullah ibn Zayd in his dream, and liked and introduced by Muhammad. In order to establish peaceful coexistence among this heterogeneous population, Muhammad invited the leading personalities of all

23560-400: Was possibly emboldened by his military successes and also wanted to push his advantage. Economical motivations according to Peters also existed since the poorness of the Meccan migrants was a source of concern for Muhammad. Peters argues that Muhammad's treatment of the Jews of Medina was "quite extraordinary", "matched by nothing in the Qur'an", and is "quite at odds with Muhammad's treatment of

23715-464: Was rooted in the culture of the Kingdom of Israel, who introduced it to the Kingdom of Judah via Ahab 's expansions and sociopolitical cooperation, which was prompted by Hazael 's conquests. Frevel has also argued that Judah was a 'vassal-like' state to Israel, under the Omrides . This theory has been rejected by other scholars, who argue that the archaeological evidence seems to indicate that Judah

23870-406: Was that Abraham was not a Jew. The Qur'an also stated that it was "restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians". According to Francis Edward Peters , "The Jews also began secretly to connive with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca to overthrow him." Following the battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with

24025-759: Was treated as a "permissive reality" in Babylon. Circumcision was no longer a significant ethnic marker, with increased emphasis on genealogical descent or faith in Yahweh. In 332 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great , and the region was later incorporated into the Ptolemaic Kingdom ( c.  301–200 BCE ) and the Seleucid Empire ( c.  200–167 BCE ). The Maccabean Revolt against Seleucid rule ushered in

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