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126-423: Caesarea ( / ˌ s ɛ z ə ˈ r iː ə , ˌ s ɛ s -, ˌ s iː z -/ SE(E)Z -ə- REE -ə, SESS - ; Koinē Greek : Καισάρεια , romanized:  Kaisáreia ; Hebrew : קֵיסָרְיָה , romanized :  Qēsāryā ; Arabic : قَيْصَرِيَّة , romanized :  Qayṣariyyah or Arabic : قيسارية or Arabic : قيساريا ), also Caesarea Maritima , Caesarea Palaestinae or Caesarea Stratonis ,

252-434: A caravanserai , a marketplace , a residence for the mudir , a harbor and custom offices. Qisarya attracted high-ranking Bosnian functionaries who established estates near Qisarya. The town was declared the seat of a mudirieh (a minor administrative division). A population list from about 1887 showed that Caesarea had 670 inhabitants, in addition to 265 Muslim inhabitants, who were noted as "Bosniaks". Petersen, visiting

378-623: A stress accent system , and the monophthongization of several diphthongs: The Koine-period Greek in the table is taken from a reconstruction by Benjamin Kantor of New Testament Judeo-Palestinian Koine Greek. The realizations of most phonemes reflect general changes around the Greek-speaking world, including vowel isochrony and monophthongization, but certain sound values differ from other Koine varieties such as Attic, Egyptian and Anatolian. More general Koine phonological developments include

504-411: A box with beams and frames on the inside and a watertight, double-planked wall on the outside. This double wall was built with a 23 cm (9 in) gap between the inner and outer layer. Although the box had no bottom, it was buoyant enough to float out to sea because of the watertight space between the inner and outer walls. Once it was floated into position, pozzolana was poured into the gap between

630-608: A bus by the Zionist militant group Lehi , and the remainder were expelled by the Palmach , who subsequently demolished its houses. The ruins of the ancient city beneath the depopulated village were excavated in the 1950s and 1960s for archaeological purposes. Whilst the name Caesarea was frequently used alone for the subject of this article, various markers were used to differentiate the location from these other locations; these include "Palestina" ("of Palestine "), "Maritima" ("by

756-409: A certain amount of his forces whom he sent to recover lost ground. Perceiving them as vast reinforcements, Alexander's army fled. Some of his retreating forces tried to push back, but quickly dispersed as Ptolemy's forces pursued Alexander's fleeing army. Thirty to fifty thousand Hasmonean soldiers died. Ptolemy's forces at Ptolemais succeeded in capturing the city. He then continued to conquer much of

882-675: A clear destruction layer identified with the conquest of 640, followed by some evidence of renewed settlement in the early Umayyad Caliphate . The area was farmed from the Rashidun Caliphate through to the First Crusade . By the 11th century, it appears that the town had once again been developed into a fortified city. Writing in 1047, Nasir Khusraw describes it as "a fine city, with running waters, and palm-gardens, and orange and citron trees. Its walls are strong, and it has an iron gate. There are fountains that gush out within

1008-511: A deep moat. In 1265 the city was reconquered by the Mamluk armies of Sultan Baibars , who ordered his troops to scale the walls in several places simultaneously, enabling them to penetrate the city. Baibars destroyed the fortified city completely to prevent its re-emergence as a Crusader stronghold, in line with the Mamluk practice in other former Crusader coastal cities. During the Mamluk period,

1134-488: A fleet towards Judea. When Cleopatra arrived at Ptolemais, the people refused her entry, so she besieged the city. Ptolemy, believing Syria was defenseless, withdrew to Cyprus after his miscalculation. While in pursuit of Ptolemy, Chelkias died in Coele-Syria . The war abruptly came to an end with Ptolemy fleeing to Cyprus. Alexander then approached Cleopatra. Bowing before her, he requested to retain his rule. Cleopatra

1260-568: A kingdom in Cyprus after being cast out by his mother. The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt by sea. An individual named Demaenetus convinced the inhabitants of their imprudence in requesting Ptolemy's assistance. They realised that by allying themselves with Ptolemy, they had unintentionally declared war on Cleopatra. When Ptolemy arrived at

1386-532: A local synagogue. In 70 CE, after the Jewish revolt was suppressed, games were held there to celebrate the victory of Titus . Many Jewish captives were brought to Caesarea; Kasher claims that 2,500 captives were "slaughtered in gladiatorial games". In the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt Caesarea was changed to Syria Palaestina in 135. Caesarea was one of four Roman colonies for veteran Roman soldiers in

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1512-450: A more open pronunciation than other Koine dialects, distinguished as open-mid /ɛ/ vs. close-mid /e/ , rather than as true-mid /e̞/ vs. close-mid /e̝/ as has been suggested for other varieties such as Egyptian. This is evidenced on the basis of Hebrew transcriptions of ε with pataḥ/qamets /a/ and not tsere/segol /e/ . Additionally, it is posited that α perhaps had a back vowel pronunciation as /ɑ/ , dragged backwards due to

1638-499: A population of 960 in 1945 statistics , with Qisarya's population composition 930 Muslims and 30 Christians in 1945. In 1944/45 a total of 18 dunums of Muslim village land was used for citrus and bananas, 1,020 dunums were used for cereals, while 108 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards, while 111 dunams were built-up (urban) land. The civil war in Mandatory Palestine began on 30 November 1947. In December 1947

1764-456: A portion of the male populace, enslave the women and children, and loot the city. William of Tyre describes the use of catapults and siege towers, and states that the city was taken in an assault after 15 days of siege and given over to looting and pillaging. Syriac Orthodox patriarch Michael the Syrian (born ca. 1126) records that the city was "devastated upon its capture". Baldwin spared

1890-562: A simplified form of Ionic . The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis , who showed that despite the "composition of the Four", the "stable nucleus" of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, but also from other dialects. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on

2016-477: A thousand additional soldiers. The Gazans remained defiant in hopes that the Nabataean kingdom would come to their aid. The city eventually suffered defeat due to its own leadership. Gaza at the time was governed by two brothers, Lysimachus and Apollodotus. Lysimachus convinced the people to surrender, and Alexander peacefully entered the city. Though he at first seemed peaceful, Alexander suddenly turned against

2142-454: A titular see. Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea , the theological school of Caesarea gained a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus , Basil the Great , Jerome and others came to study there. The Caesarean text-type is recognized by scholars as one of

2268-472: A tourist area. Most of the few remaining houses are now restaurants, and the village mosque has been converted into a bar." Since 2000, the site of Caesarea is included in the "Tentative List of World Heritage Places" of the UNESCO . Large-scale archaeological excavations began in the 1950s and 1960s and continue to this day, conducted by volunteers working under the supervision of archaeologists. The majority of

2394-460: A very important source of information on the ancient Koine is the modern Greek language with all its dialects and its own Koine form, which have preserved some of the ancient language's oral linguistic details which the written tradition has lost. For example, Pontic and Cappadocian Greek preserved the ancient pronunciation of η as ε ( νύφε, συνέλικος, τίμεσον, πεγάδι for standard Modern Greek νύφη, συνήλικος, τίμησον, πηγάδι etc.), while

2520-535: A village notable, Tawfiq Kadkuda, approached local Jews in an effort to establish a non-belligerency agreement. The 31 January 1948 Lehi attack on a bus leaving Qisarya, which killed two and injured six people, precipitated an evacuation of most of the population, who fled to nearby al-Tantura . The Haganah then occupied the village because the land was owned by the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association and, fearing that

2646-544: A work that is now known as Meditations . Koine Greek continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church and in some Greek Catholic churches . The English-language name Koine is derived from the Koine Greek term ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος ( hē koinḕ diálektos ), meaning "the common dialect". The Greek word κοινή ( koinḗ ) itself means "common". The word

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2772-520: Is a term used for present tense verbs that are used in some narrative sections of the New Testament to describe events that are in the past with respect to the speaker. This is seen more in works attributed to Mark and John than Luke . It is used 151 times in the Gospel of Mark in passages where a reader might expect a past tense verb. Scholars have presented various explanations for this; in

2898-581: Is often mentioned as Common Attic . The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and Early Modern times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary Attic Greek of the Classical period and frowned upon any other variety of Ancient Greek . Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek which was not worthy of attention. The reconsideration on the historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in

3024-648: Is pronounced / k ɔɪ ˈ n eɪ / , / ˈ k ɔɪ n eɪ / , or / k iː ˈ n iː / in US English and / ˈ k ɔɪ n iː / in UK English. The pronunciation of the word koine itself gradually changed from [koinéː] (close to the Classical Attic pronunciation [koi̯.nɛ̌ː] ) to [cyˈni] (close to the Modern Greek [ciˈni] ). In Modern Greek,

3150-659: Is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a hypothetical conservative variety of mainland Greek Koiné in the early Roman period. The transcription shows raising of η to /eː/ , partial (pre-consonantal/word-final) raising of ῃ and ει to /iː/ , retention of pitch accent, and retention of word-initial /h/ (the rough breathing ). περὶ peri ὧν hoːn Θισ[β]εῖς tʰizbîːs λόγους lóɡuːs ἐποιήσαντο· epojéːsanto; Alexander Jannaeus Alexander Jannaeus ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀλέξανδρος Ἰανναῖος Aléxandros Iannaîos ; Hebrew : יַנַּאי ‎ Yannaʾy ; born Jonathan יהונתן )

3276-446: Is said to have unsuccessfully sought the throne. Alexander, as the oldest living brother, had the right not only to the throne, but also to Salome, the widow of his deceased brother, who had died childless . Although she was thirteen years older than him, he married her in accordance with the Jewish law of levirate marriage . By her he had two sons: the eldest, Hyrcanus II , became high priest in 62 BCE; and Aristobulus II , who

3402-834: Is sometimes used for the Greek written by the Greek Church Fathers , the Early Christian theologians in late antiquity. Christian writers in the earliest time tended to use a simple register of Koiné, relatively close to the spoken language of their time, following the model of the Bible. After the 4th century, when Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire , more learned registers of Koiné also came to be used. Koine period Greek differs from Classical Greek in many ways: grammar , word formation , vocabulary and phonology (sound system). During

3528-593: The 1931 census to 706; 19 Christians, 4 Druse and 683 Muslims, in 143 houses. A Jewish settlement, Kibbutz Sdot Yam , was established 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) south of the Muslim town in 1940. The Muslim village declined in economic importance and many of Qisarya's Muslim inhabitants left in the mid-1940s, when the British extended the Palestine Railways which bypassed the shallow-draft port. Qisarya had

3654-807: The Battle of Gadara , Jannaeus returned to Jerusalem, and was met with fierce Jewish opposition. During the Jewish holiday Sukkot , Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his displeasure against the Pharisees by refusing to perform the water libation ceremony properly: instead of pouring it on the altar, he poured it on his feet. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting him with etrogim ( citrons ). They made

3780-772: The Genuese thought to be made of emerald , and accepted as their share of the spoils. This refers to the hexagonal bowl known as the Sacro Catino in Italian, which was brought to Genoa by Guglielmo Embriaco and was later identified as the Holy Chalice . Caesarea was incorporated as a lordship (dominion) within the Kingdom of Jerusalem , and the Latin See of Caesarea was established, with ten archbishops listed for

3906-515: The Hasmonean palace near Jericho . For the last three years of his life, Alexander Jannaeus suffered from the combined effects of alcoholism and quartan ague (malaria). After a reign of 27 years, he died c. 76 BCE at the age of forty-nine, during the siege of Ragaba . In Josephus's "Antiquities," he presents an account that differs from his earlier "War" and Syncellus's accounts. According to Josephus, Jannaeus fell fatally ill on

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4032-541: The Jordan River . Estimated to have fifty to eighty thousand soldiers, Alexander's army consisted of both Jews and pagans . At the head of his armed forces were his elite pagan mercenaries. They were specialised in Greek-style phalanx . One of Ptolemy's commanders, Philostephanus, began the first attack by crossing the river that divided both forces. The Hasmoneans had the advantage. Philostephanus held back

4158-646: The Septuagint , the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible , and the Greek New Testament . The teaching of these texts was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason, they use the most popular language of the era. Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of Attic Greek or even some surviving Greco-Latin glossaries of

4284-541: The Tsakonian language preserved the long α instead of η ( ἁμέρα, ἀστραπά, λίμνα, χοά etc.) and the other local characteristics of Doric Greek . Dialects from the southern part of the Greek-speaking regions ( Dodecanese , Cyprus , etc.), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants ( ἄλ-λος, Ἑλ-λάδα, θάλασ-σα ), while others pronounce in many words υ as ου or preserve ancient double forms ( κρόμμυον – κρεμ-μυον, ράξ – ρώξ etc.). Linguistic phenomena like

4410-498: The 10th year of Commodus (c. 189), of Theoctistus (216–258), Domnus, and Theotecnus, and Agapius . Among the participants in the Synod of Ancyra in 314 was the bishop of Caesarea named Agricolaus, who may have been the immediate predecessor of Eusebius, who does not mention him, or who may have been bishop of a different Caesarea. The immediate successors of Eusebius were Acacius (340–366) and Gelasius (367–372, 380–395). The latter

4536-462: The 18th century it again declined. In 1806, the German explorer Ulrich Jasper Seetzen saw "Káisserérie" as a ruin occupied by some poor fishermen and their families. In 1870, French explorer Victor Guérin visited the site. The village of Qisarya ( Arabic : قيسارية ) was allocated in 1880 to Bushnak ( Bosniak ) immigrants from Bosnia . The Bosniaks had emigrated to the area after Ottoman Bosnia

4662-404: The British would force them to leave, decided to demolish the houses. This was done on 19–20 February, after the remaining residents were expelled and the houses were looted. According to Israeli historian Benny Morris , the expulsion of the population had more to do with illegal Jewish immigration than the ongoing civil war. In the same month the 'Arab al Sufsafi and Saidun Bedouin , who inhabited

4788-518: The Four). This view was supported in the early twentieth century by Paul Kretschmer in his book Die Entstehung der Koine (1901), while Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Antoine Meillet , based on the intense Ionic elements of the Koine – σσ instead of ττ and ρσ instead of ρρ ( θάλασσα – θάλαττα , 'sea'; ἀρσενικός – ἀρρενικός , 'potent, virile') – considered Koine to be

4914-590: The Great , who established a harbour and dedicated the town and its port to Caesar Augustus as Caesarea . During the early Roman period, Caesarea became the seat of the Roman procurators in the region. The city was populated throughout the 1st to 6th centuries CE and became an important early centre of Christianity during the Byzantine period . Its importance may have waned following the Muslim conquest of 640 when

5040-679: The Hasmonean kingdom, occupying the entirety of northern Judea, the coast, and territories east of the Jordan River. While doing so, he pillaged villages and ordered his soldiers to cannibalise women and children to create psychological fear towards his enemies. At the time, Salome Alexandra was notified of Cleopatra's approachment to Judea. Realising that her son had amassed a formidable force in Judea, Cleopatra appointed Jewish generals Ananias and Chelkias to command her forces. She went with

5166-455: The Jews and The Jewish War . The kingdom reached its greatest territorial extent under Alexander Jannaeus, incorporating most of Palestine 's Mediterranean coastline and regions surrounding the Jordan River . Alexander also had many of his subjects killed for their disapproval of his handling of state affairs. Due to his territorial expansion and adverse interactions with his subjects, he

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5292-691: The Judean Civil War. After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces with Demetrius III Eucaerus to fight against Jannaeus. Alexander had gathered six thousand two hundred mercenaries and twenty thousand Jews for battle. Demetrius had forty thousand soldiers and three thousand horses. There were attempts from both sides to persuade each other to abandon positions, but were unsuccessful. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus at Shechem , and all of Alexander's mercenaries were killed in battle. This defeat forced Alexander to take refuge in

5418-539: The Nabataean kingdom no longer had direct access to the Mediterranean Sea . Alexander soon captured Gadara, which together with the loss of Gaza caused the Nabataeans to lose their main trade routes leading to Rome and Damascus . After losing Gadara, the Nabataean king Obodas I launched an attack against Alexander in a steep valley at Gadara, where Alexander barely managed to escape. After his defeat in

5544-496: The New Testament , W.F. Howard argues that the heavy use of the historical present in Herodotus and Thucydides , compared with the relatively infrequent usage by Polybius and Xenophon was evidence that heavy use of this verb tense is a feature of vernacular Koine, but other scholars have argued that the historical present can be a literary form to "denote semantic shifts to more prominent material." The term patristic Greek

5670-508: The Roman and Byzantine city south of the Crusader wall and close to the sea, along the decumanus , was in use as the Roman praetorium of the equestrian fiscal procurator , and then became the seat of the Byzantine governor . It contained a basilica with an apse, where magistrates would have sat, for the structure was used as a hall of justice, as fragments of inscriptions detailing

5796-415: The Roman emperor, Caesar Augustus . Caesarea was known as the administrative, economic, and cultural capital of the Judean province from this time. In 22 BCE, Herod began construction of a deep-sea harbour named Sebastos and built storerooms, markets, wide roads, baths, a temple to the goddess Roma and Emperor Augustus , and imposing public buildings. Herod built his palace on a promontory jutting out into

5922-449: The Roman period, e.g.: Καλήμερον, ἦλθες; Bono die, venisti? Good day, you came? Ἐὰν θέλεις, ἐλθὲ μεθ' ἡμῶν. Si vis, veni mecum . If you want, come with us. Ποῦ; Ubi? Where? Πρὸς φίλον ἡμέτερον Λύκιον. Ad amicum nostrum Lucium. To our friend Lucius. Τί γὰρ ἔχει; Quid enim habet? Indeed, what does he have? What is it with him? Ἀρρωστεῖ. Aegrotat. He's sick. Finally,

6048-751: The Syria-Phoenicia region. Caesarea is mentioned in the 3rd-century Mosaic of Rehob , with respect to its non-Jewish population. According to the Acts of the Apostles , Caesarea was first introduced to Christianity by Philip the Deacon , who later had a house there in which he gave hospitality to Paul the Apostle . It was there that Peter the Apostle baptized Cornelius the Centurion and his household,

6174-544: The Tiberieum, where archaeologists found a reused limestone block with a dedicatory inscription mentioning Pilate the only archaeological find bearing his name and title; a double aqueduct that brought water from springs at the foot of Mount Carmel ; a boundary wall; and a 200 ft (60 m) wide moat protecting the harbour to the south and west. In 1986, the Israel Exploration Society published

6300-560: The above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless variations in the Greek-speaking world. Biblical Koine refers to the varieties of Koine Greek used in Bible translations into Greek and related texts. Its main sources are: There has been some debate to what degree Biblical Greek represents the mainstream of contemporary spoken Koine and to what extent it contains specifically Semitic substratum features. These could have been induced either through

6426-547: The archaeological excavations are done by the United States and Israel. Remains from many periods have been uncovered, in particular from the large city of the Roman and Byzantine periods and from the fortified town of the Crusaders. Major Classical-era findings are the Roman theatre ; a temple dedicated to the goddess Roma and Emperor Augustus ; a hippodrome rebuilt in the 2nd century as a more conventional theatre;

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6552-670: The archaeological findings of L.I. Levine and E. Netzer, during three seasons of excavations (1975, 1976 and 1979) at Caesarea. In 2010, archaeological surveys-excavations of the site were conducted by Dani Vaynberger and Carmit Gur on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), and others by Peter Gendelman and Jacob Sharvit on behalf of the IAA, Yosef Porath, Beverly Goodman, and Michal Artzy on behalf of University of Haifa. The site continued to be excavated as late as 2013. A new phase of exploration began in 2018 under

6678-542: The area became dominated by the Romans in 63 BCE, when they declared it an autonomous city. Caesarea was built in Roman Judea under the Jewish client King Herod the Great during c. 22-10/9 BCE near the ruins of the small naval station of Straton's Tower. The site, along with all of Judea, was awarded by Rome to Herod in 30 BCE. The pagan city underwent vast changes under Herod, who renamed it Caesarea in honour of

6804-460: The barge to sink it and fill it up to the surface. However, there were underlying problems that led to its demise. Studies of the concrete cores of the moles have shown that the concrete was much weaker than similar pozzolana hydraulic concrete used in ancient Italian ports. For unknown reasons, the pozzolana mortar did not adhere as well to the kurkar rubble as it did to other rubble types used in Italian harbours. Small but numerous holes in some of

6930-480: The battlefield at Ragaba , with his wife Salome Alexandra present. Jannaeus instructed her to hide his death until she captured Ragaba and to subsequently share power with the Pharisees. He also requested that she allow the Pharisees to abuse his corpse, believing they would then give him an honorable burial, despite this request violating Deuteronomy 21 :22-23. This request is interpreted as Jannaeus seeking atonement for previously violating this commandment by abusing

7056-457: The city wasn't so easily achieved. Gaza's general Apollodotus strategically employed a night attack against the Hasmonean army. With a force of two thousand less-skilled soldiers and ten thousand slaves, Gaza's military was able to deceive the Hasmonean army into believing they were being attacked by Ptolemy. The Gazans killed many and the Hasmonean army fled the battle. When morning exposed the delusive tactic, Alexander continued his assault but lost

7182-551: The city". This is in agreement with William of Tyre 's description of the Crusaders' siege in 1101, mentioning catapults and siege engines used against the city fortifications. Nasir Khusraw notes a "beautiful Friday mosque " in Caesarea, "so situated that in its court you may sit and enjoy the view of all that is passing on the sea." This was converted into the church of St. Peter in Crusader times. A wall which may belong to this building has been identified in modern times. Caesarea

7308-467: The city, the inhabitants denied him access. Alexander too didn't want to be involved in a war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy, so he abandoned his campaign against Ptolemais and returned to Jerusalem . After offering Ptolemy four hundred talents and a peace treaty in return for Zoilus's death, Alexander met him with treachery by negotiating an alliance with Cleopatra. Once he had formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Alexander continued his conquests by capturing

7434-645: The city, then known in Arabic as Qisarya ( قيسارية ), lost its status as provincial capital. After being re-fortified by Muslim rulers in the 11th century, it was conquered by the Crusaders , who strengthened and made it into an important port, which was finally slighted by the Mamluks in 1265. Qisarya was a small fishing village in the early modern period. In February 1948, during the 1948 Palestine war and Nakba , some of its population fled following an attack on

7560-561: The city. According to 9th-century Muslim historian al-Baladhuri , the fall of the city was the result of the betrayal of a certain Yusef, who conducted a party of troops of Muawiyah into the city. The city appears to have been partially destroyed upon its conquest. The 7th-century Coptic bishop John of Nikiû , claims there were "horrors committed in the city of Caesarea in Palestine", while al-Baladhuri merely states that Kaisariyyah/Cæsarea

7686-410: The coast. Seismic action gradually took its toll on the breakwaters, causing them to tilt down and settle into the seabed. Studies of seabed deposits at Caesarea have shown that a tsunami struck the area sometime during the 1st or 2nd century. Although it is unknown if this tsunami simply damaged or completely destroyed the harbour, it is known that by the 6th century the harbour was unusable and today

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7812-531: The coastal cities and ports in the Mediterranean, and the coins may have been used to pay the salaries of the Fatimid military garrison. In January 2021, researchers re-examined the coins discovered in 2015, and they retrieved hundreds more. The coins with Arabic text on both sides were 24 carat gold and 95 percent purity. A large compound, located in the archaeologists' Area CC, in the first insula of

7938-632: The coastal cities of Dora and Straton's Tower . As soon as Ptolemy learned of Alexander's scheme, he was determined to kill him. Ptolemy put Ptolemais under siege, but left his generals to attack the city, while he continued to pursue Alexander. Ptolemy's pursuit caused much destruction in the Galilee region . Here he captured Asochis on the Sabbath , taking ten thousand people as prisoners. Ptolemy also initiated an unsuccessful attack on Sepphoris . Ptolemy and Alexander engaged in battle at Asophon near

8064-411: The cores also indicate that the lime was of poor quality and stripped out of the mixture by strong waves before it could set. Also, large lumps of lime were found in all five of the cores studied at Caesarea, which shows that the mixture was not mixed thoroughly. However, stability would not have been seriously affected if the harbour had not been constructed over a geological fault line that runs along

8190-657: The creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman eras of history until the start of the Middle Ages. The linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period , most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, " ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα " (the composition of

8316-473: The difficulties so well that the solidity of the construction could not be overcome by the sea, and its beauty seemed finished off without impediment." When it was built in the 1st century BCE, the harbour of Sebastos ranked as the largest artificial harbour built in the open sea, enclosing around 100,000 m. The breakwaters were made of lime and pozzolana , a type of volcanic ash, set into an underwater concrete. Herod imported over 24,000 m of pozzolana from

8442-415: The direction of Joseph L. Rife, Phillip Lieberman, and Peter Gendelman on behalf of Vanderbilt University and the IAA. In February 2015, marine archaeologists and diving club members from the Israel Antiquities Authority announced that about 2,000 gold coins dating back more than 1,000 years had been discovered. According to the researchers, the coins may have been part of a large merchant ship trading with

8568-504: The double planked method filled with rubble, the architects sank barges filled with layers of pozzolana concrete and lime sand mortar. The barges were similar to boxes without lids, and were constructed using mortise and tenon joints, the same technique used in ancient boats, to ensure they remained watertight. The barges were ballasted with 0.5 meters of pozzolana concrete and floated out to their position. With alternating layers, pozzolana-based and lime-based concretes were hand-placed inside

8694-501: The dunes between Qisarya and Pardes left the area. In 1952, the Jewish town of Caesarea was established 1–2 kilometres (0.62–1.24 mi) to the north of the ruins of the old city, which in 2011 were incorporated into the newly created Caesarea National Park . In 1992, Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi described the village remains: "Most of the houses have been demolished. The site has been excavated in recent years, largely by Italian, American, and Israeli teams, and turned into

8820-440: The earliest New Testament types. The collections of the library suffered during the persecutions under Emperor Diocletian but were repaired subsequently by bishops of Caesarea. The library is mentioned as late as 6th-century manuscripts, but it may not have survived the capture of Caesarea by the Muslim armies in 640. During the Byzantine period, Caesarea became the capital of the province of Palaestina Prima in 390. Caesarea

8946-469: The early 19th century, where renowned scholars conducted a series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire Hellenistic period and Roman Empire . The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones are the inscriptions of the post-Classical periods and the papyri , for being two kinds of texts which have authentic content and can be studied directly. Other significant sources are

9072-537: The early 20th century some scholars argued that the use of the historical present tense in Mark was due to the influence of Aramaic , but this theory fell out of favor in the 1960s. Another group of scholars believed the historical present tense was used to heighten the dramatic effect, and this interpretation was favored in the New American Bible translation. In Volume II of the 1929 edition of A Grammar of

9198-426: The east. The Nabataean king Aretas III managed to defeat Alexander in battle. However, Alexander continued expanding the Hasmonean kingdom into Transjordan . In Gaulanitis , he captured the cities of Golan , Seleucia , and Gamala . In Galaaditis , the cities of Pella , Dium , and Gerasa . Alexander had Pella destroyed because its inhabitants refused to Judaize . He is believed to have expanded and fortified

9324-535: The emir and qadi for a hefty ransom. Baldwin appointed a cleric veteran of the First Crusade, also named Baldwin, as the Latin archbishop of Caesarea. The city was under Crusader control between 1101 and 1187 and again between 1191 and 1265. William of Tyre mentions the discovery of a "vessel of the most green colour, in the shape of a serving dish" ( vas coloris viridissimi, in modum parapsidis formatum ) which

9450-497: The fees that court clerks might claim attest. Koin%C4%93 Greek language Koine Greek included styles ranging from conservative literary forms to the spoken vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek , which then turned into Modern Greek . Literary Koine was the medium of much post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as

9576-566: The first Bishop of Caesarea was Zacchaeus the Publican, followed by Cornelius (possibly Cornelius the Centurion) and Theophilus (possibly the recipient of the Gospel of Luke ). The first bishops considered historically attested are those mentioned by the early church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, who was the bishop of the see in the 4th century. He speaks of Theophilus who was bishop in

9702-625: The first time Christian baptism was conferred on Gentiles . When newly converted Paul was in danger in Jerusalem, the Christians there accompanied him to Caesarea and sent him off to his native Tarsus . He visited Caesarea between his second and third missionary journeys. Paul was a prisoner in Caesarea for two years before being sent to Rome. In the 3rd century , Origen wrote his Hexapla and other exegetical and theological works while living in Caesarea. The Nicene Creed may have originated in Caesarea. The Apostolic Constitutions says that

9828-607: The harbour as being as large as the one at Piraeus , the major harbour of Athens . Remains of the principal buildings erected by Herod the Great as well as the medieval town are still visible today, including the Crusader city, the city walls, the ruined citadel surrounded by the sea, and remains of the cathedral and a second church. Herod's Caesarea grew rapidly, in time becoming the largest city in Judaea with an estimated population of 125,000 over an urban area of 3.7 square kilometres (1.4 sq mi). According to Josephus, Caesarea

9954-484: The harbour, is described as a simple stone building with a red-tiled roof and a cylindrical minaret. In the 1922 census of Palestine , conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Caesarea had a population of 346; 288 Muslims, 32 Christians and 26 Jews, where the Christians were 6 Orthodox, 3 Syrian Orthodox, 3 Roman Catholics, 4 Melkites , 2 Syrian Catholics and 14 Maronite . The population had increased in

10080-496: The inhabitants. Some men killed their wives and children out of desperation, to ensure they wouldn't be captured and enslaved. Others burned down their homes to prevent the soldiers from plundering. The town council and five hundred civilians took refuge at the Temple of Apollo , where Alexander had them massacred. The Judean Civil War initially began after the conquest of Gaza around 99 BCE. Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza,

10206-404: The initial stage in the fortition of the second element in the αυ/ευ diphthongs) and the loss of vowel-timing distinctions are carried through. On the other hand, Kantor argues for certain vowel qualities differing from the rest of the Koine in the Judean dialect. Although it is impossible to know the exact realizations of vowels, it is tentatively argued that the mid-vowels ε / αι and η had

10332-562: The ire of the Pharisees, who insisted that these two offices should not be combined. According to the Talmud , Alexander was a questionable desecrated priest, rumour had it that his mother was captured in Modi'in and violated, and, in the opinion of the Pharisees, was not allowed to serve in the temple . This infuriated the king and he sided with the Sadducees who defended him. This incident led

10458-454: The jetties lie more than 5 meters underwater. When Judea became a Roman province in 6 CE, Caesarea replaced Jerusalem as its civilian and military capital and became the official residence of its governors, such as procurator Antonius Felix and prefect Pontius Pilatus . The city was chiefly a commercial centre relying on trade. Caeserea is described in detail by the 1st-century Roman Jewish historian Flavius Josephus . Josephus describes

10584-518: The king to turn against the Pharisees, and he persecuted them until his death. Alexander's first expedition was against the city of Ptolemais . While Alexander went ahead to besiege the city, Zoilus of Dora took the opportunity to see if he could relieve Ptolemais in hopes of establishing his rule over coastal territories. Alexander's Hasmonean army quickly defeated Zoilus's forces. Ptolemais then requested aid from Ptolemy IX Lathyros , who had been banished by his mother Cleopatra III . Ptolemy founded

10710-529: The language is referred to as Ελληνιστική Κοινή , "Hellenistic Koiné", in the sense of "Hellenistic supraregional language "). Ancient scholars used the term koine in several different senses. Scholars such as Apollonius Dyscolus (second century AD) and Aelius Herodianus (second century AD) maintained the term koine to refer to the Proto-Greek language , while others used it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which differed somewhat from

10836-403: The literary language. When Koine Greek became a language of literature by the first century BC, some people distinguished two forms: written as the literary post-classical form (which should not be confused with Atticism ), and vernacular as the day-to-day vernacular . Others chose to refer to Koine as "the dialect of Alexandria " or "Alexandrian dialect" ( ἡ Ἀλεξανδρέων διάλεκτος ), or even

10962-761: The main of the Greek language. S. J. Thackeray, in A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint (1909), wrote that only the five books of the Pentateuch , parts of the Book of Joshua and the Book of Isaiah may be considered "good Koine". One issue debated by scholars is whether and how much the translation of the Pentateuch influenced the rest of the Septuagint, including

11088-533: The mountains. In sympathy towards Jannaeus, six thousand Judean rebels ultimately returned to him. In fear of this news, Demetrius withdrew. War between Jannaeus and the rebels who returned to him continued. They fought until Alexander achieved victory. Most of the rebels died in battle, while the remaining rebels fled to the city of Bethoma until they were defeated. Jannaeus had brought the surviving rebels back to Jerusalem where he had eight hundred Jews, primarily Pharisees, crucified. Before their deaths, Alexander had

11214-459: The name-giving town of Puteoli, today Pozzuoli in Italy, to construct the two breakwaters: the southern one 500 meter, and the northern one 275 meter long. A shipment of this size would have required at least 44 shiploads of 400 tons each. Herod also had 12,000 m of local kurkar stone quarried to make rubble and 12,000 m of slaked lime mixed with the pozzolana. Architects had to devise a way to lay

11340-426: The notion of meeting and gathering of men, without any particular character. Therefore, etymologizing this word could be needless, or even misleading, when it could guide to false meanings, for example that ἐκκλησία is a name used for the people of God, Israel. The authors of the New Testament follow the Septuagint translations for over half their quotations from the Old Testament. The " historical present " tense

11466-457: The opening of ε . Influence of the Aramaic substrate could have also caused confusion between α and ο , providing further evidence for the back vowel realization. The following texts show differences from Attic Greek in all aspects – grammar, morphology, vocabulary and can be inferred to show differences in phonology. The following comments illustrate the phonological development within

11592-626: The period 1101–1266 (treated as titular see from 1432–1967). Archbishop Heraclius attended the Third Lateran Council in 1179. Saladin recaptured the city in 1187, but it was once again captured by the Crusaders during the Third Crusade in 1191. In 1251 during the Seventh Crusade , Louis IX of France fortified the city, ordering the construction of high walls (parts of which are still standing) and

11718-399: The period generally designated as Koine Greek, a great deal of phonological change occurred. At the start of the period, the pronunciation was virtually identical to Ancient Greek phonology , whereas in the end, it had much more in common with Modern Greek phonology . The three most significant changes were the loss of vowel length distinction, the replacement of the pitch accent system by

11844-534: The period of Koine. The phonetic transcriptions are tentative and are intended to illustrate two different stages in the reconstructed development, an early conservative variety still relatively close to Classical Attic, and a somewhat later, more progressive variety approaching Modern Greek in some respects. The following excerpt, from a decree of the Roman Senate to the town of Thisbae in Boeotia in 170 BC,

11970-401: The place in 1992, noted that the 19th-century houses were built in blocks, generally one story high, with the exception of the house of the governor. Some houses on the western side of the village, near the sea, had survived. There were several mosques in the village in the 19th century, but only one ("The Bosnian mosque") has survived. This mosque, located at the southern end of the city, next to

12096-438: The post-Classical period of Greek is defined as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when cultures under Greek sway in turn began to influence the language. The passage into the next period, known as Medieval Greek , is sometimes dated from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 330 AD, but often only from the end of late antiquity . The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to

12222-505: The practice of translating closely from Biblical Hebrew or Aramaic originals, or through the influence of the regional non-standard Greek spoken by originally Aramaic-speaking Hellenized Jews . Some of the features discussed in this context are the Septuagint's normative absence of the particles μέν and δέ , and the use of ἐγένετο to denote "it came to pass". Some features of Biblical Greek which are thought to have originally been non-standard elements eventually found their way into

12348-528: The rebels' wives and children executed before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines. Alexander later returned the land he had seized in Moab and Galaaditis from the Nabataeans in order to have them end their support for the Jewish rebels. The remaining rebels who numbered eight thousand, fled by night in fear of Alexander. Afterward, all rebel hostility ceased and Alexander's reign continued undisturbed. From 83 to 80 BCE, Alexander continued campaigning in

12474-527: The region of the Hellenistic world. In that respect, the varieties of Koine spoken in the Ionian colonies of Anatolia (e.g. Pontus , cf. Pontic Greek ) would have more intense Ionic characteristics than others and those of Laconia and Cyprus would preserve some Doric and Arcadocypriot characteristics, respectively. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it

12600-596: The ruins of ancient Caesarea and of the Crusader fortified town lay uninhabited. Al-Dimashqi , writing around 1300, notes that Kaisariyyah belonged to the Kingdom of Ghazza (Gaza). Caesarea became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516, along with the rest of the Levant, and remained under Ottoman rule for four centuries. In 1664, a settlement is mentioned consisting of 100 Moroccan families and 7 to 8 Jewish ones. In

12726-429: The sea"; Greek : Παράλιος Parálios ), "Sebaste" and "Stratonis". "Palestina" is the most common term used in ancient sources, but, since the creation of Israel in 1948, historians have tended to use the term less frequently. The Latin name Caesarea also referred to several other cities in the region, notably Caesarea near Mount Hermon and Caesarea the capital of Cappadocia . Stratonos pyrgos (Straton's Tower)

12852-483: The sea, with a decorative pool surrounded by stoas . Every five years, the city hosted major sports competitions, gladiator games, and theatrical productions in its theatre overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. Herod built the two jetties of the harbour between 22 and 15 BCE, and in 10/9 BCE he dedicated the city and harbour to Emperor Augustus ( sebastos is Greek for augustus ). The pace of construction

12978-462: The situation worse by insulting him. They called him a descendant of a captive woman and unsuitable to hold office and to sacrifice. Outraged, he killed six thousand people. Alexander also had wooden barriers built around the altar and the temple preventing people from going near him. Only the priests were permitted to enter. This incident during the Feast of Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to

13104-429: The spirantization of Γ , with palatal allophone before front-vowels and a plosive allophone after nasals, and β . φ, θ and χ still preserve their ancient aspirated plosive values, while the unaspirated stops π, τ, κ have perhaps begun to develop voiced allophones after nasals. Initial aspiration has also likely become an optional sound for many speakers of the popular variety. Monophthongization (including

13230-791: The strong fortress of Amathus in the Transjordan region, but was defeated. He was more successful in his expedition against the coastal cities, capturing Raphia and Anthedon . In 96 BCE, Jannaeus defeated the inhabitants of Gaza . This victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet of the main Nabataean trade route. Alexander initially returned his focus back to the Transjordan region where, avenging his previous defeat, he destroyed Amathus. Determined to proceed with future campaigns despite his initial defeat at Amathus, Alexander set his focus on Gaza . A victory against

13356-480: The translation of Isaiah. Another point that scholars have debated is the use of ἐκκλησία ekklēsía as a translation for the Hebrew קָהָל qāhāl . Old Testament scholar James Barr has been critical of etymological arguments that ekklēsía refers to "the community called by God to constitute his People". Kyriakoula Papademetriou explains: He maintains that ἐκκλησία is merely used for designating

13482-431: The troops of Medina before battle, with room for thousands of people, before they were distributed as war booty to slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate . The former Palaestina Prima was became Jund Filastin , with the capital first at Ludd and then at Ramla . The city likely remained inhabited for some time under Arab rule, during the 7th and 8th centuries, albeit with much reduced population. Archaeological evidence shows

13608-707: The universal dialect of its time. Modern classicists have often used the former sense. Koine Greek arose as a common dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great . Under the leadership of Macedon , their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia . It replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. Though elements of Koine Greek took shape in Classical Greece ,

13734-419: The walls and the box would sink into place on the seafloor and be staked down in the corners. The flooded inside area was then filled by divers bit by bit with pozzolana-lime mortar and kurkar rubble until it rose above sea level . On the southern breakwater, barge construction was used. The southern side of Sebastos was much more exposed than the northern side, requiring sturdier breakwaters. Instead of using

13860-431: The wooden forms for the placement of concrete underwater. One technique was to drive stakes into the ground to make a box and then fill it with pozzolana concrete bit by bit. However, this method required many divers to hammer the planks to the stakes underwater and large quantities of pozzolana were necessary. Another technique was a double planking method used in the northern breakwater. On land, carpenters would construct

13986-589: The works of Plutarch and Polybius . Koine is also the language of the Septuagint (the 3rd century BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible ), the Christian New Testament , and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers . In this context, Koine Greek is also known as "Biblical", "New Testament", "ecclesiastical", or "patristic" Greek. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his private thoughts in Koine Greek in

14112-486: Was occupied by Austria-Hungary in 1878. According to historian Roy Marom , Fifty families of Bosnian refugees, mostly from Mostar , the main urban center of Bosnia and Herzegovina , settled among the ruins of Caesarea, renaming it with the Arabic name of Qisarya. Using the ancient masonry found on site, the settlers constructed a modern town with spacious accommodations and broad intersecting streets, according to traditional Bosnian town-plans. The town had two mosques,

14238-642: Was "reduced", mentioning it as one of ten towns in Jund Filastin (military district of Palestine) conquered by the Muslim Rashidun army under 'Amr ibn al-'As 's leadership during the 630s. After the fall of Caesarea, 4,000 "heads" (captives), men, women and children, were sent to Caliph Umar in Medina, where they were gathered and inspected on the Jurd Plain, a plain commonly used to assemble

14364-563: Was also the metropolitan see, with ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Jerusalem, when rebuilt after its destruction in 70. In 451, however, the Council of Chalcedon established Jerusalem as a patriarchate , with Caesarea as the first of its three subordinate metropolitan sees. Caesarea remained the provincial capital throughout the 5th and 6th centuries. It fell to Sassanid Persia in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , in 614 , and

14490-596: Was an ancient and medieval port city on the coast of the eastern Mediterranean , and later a small fishing village. It was the capital of Roman Judaea , Syria Palaestina and Palaestina Prima , successively, for a period of c. 650 years and a major intellectual hub of the Mediterranean. Today, the site is part of the Caesarea National Park, on the western edge of the Sharon plain in Israel . The site

14616-453: Was continuously embroiled with foreign wars and domestic turmoil. Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of John Hyrcanus by his second wife. When Aristobulus I, Hyrcanus' son by his first wife, became king, he deemed it necessary for his own security to imprison his half-brother. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year. Upon his death, his widow, Salome Alexandra had Alexander and his brothers released from prison. One of these brothers

14742-535: Was first settled in the 4th century BCE as a Phoenician colony and trading village known as Straton's Tower after the ruler of Sidon . It was enlarged in the 1st century BCE under Hasmonean rule , becoming a Jewish village; and in 63 BCE, when the Roman Republic annexed the region, it was declared an autonomous city. It was then significantly enlarged in the Roman period by the Judaean client King Herod

14868-402: Was founded in the 4th century BCE by Abdashtart I , or Straton I king of Sidon . It was first established as a Phoenician colony and trading village. In 90 BCE, Jewish ruler Alexander Jannaeus captured Straton's Tower as part of his policy of developing the shipbuilding industry and enlarging the Hasmonean kingdom . Straton's Tower remained a Jewish settlement for two more generations, until

14994-575: Was high priest from 66 – 62 BCE and started a bloody civil war with his brother, ending in his capture by Pompey the Great . Like his brother, Alexander was an avid supporter of the aristocratic priestly faction known as the Sadducees . His wife Salome came from a Pharisaic family. Her brother was Simeon ben Shetach , a famous Pharisee leader. Salome was more sympathetic to their cause, and protected them throughout his turbulent reign. Like his father, Alexander served as high priest. This raised

15120-402: Was impressive considering the project's size and complexity. At its height, Sebastos was one of the most impressive harbours of its time. It had been constructed on a coast that had no natural harbours and served as an important commercial harbour in antiquity, rivaling Cleopatra's harbour at Alexandria . Josephus writes: "Although the location was generally unfavorable, [Herod] contended with

15246-456: Was ousted by the semi- Arian Euzoius between 373 and 379. French historian Michel Le Quien gives much information about all of these and about later bishops of Caesarea. The Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem has a metropolitan see in Caesarea. The Latin archbishopric of Caesarea in Palestina was made a Roman Catholic titular see in 1432. The Melkite Catholic Church considers Caesarea

15372-599: Was re-conquered by Byzantium in 625. Caesarea was lost for good by the Byzantines to the Muslim conquest in 640. Archaeological excavations discovered a destruction layer connected to the Muslim conquest of the city. Some newer research posits that there was no destruction caused by the Persians in 614 and Muslim Arabs in 640, but rather a gradual economic decline accompanied by the Christian aristocracy fleeing from

15498-511: Was taken by Baldwin I in the wake of the First Crusade , in 1101. Baldwin sent a message to emir of Caesarea, demanding him to surrender the city or face a siege, but the Muslims refused. On May 2, 1101, Baldwin began sieging the city with trebuchets . After 15 days of resistance, the Crusader army broke through the defenses. Like in Jerusalem in 1099 , the Crusaders proceeded to slaughter

15624-550: Was the scene in 26 CE of a major act of civil disobedience to protest against Pilate's order to plant eagle standards on the Temple Mount of Jerusalem . Emperor Vespasian raised its status to that of a Colonia , with the name Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarea . According to Josephus, the outbreak of the Jewish revolt of 66 CE was provoked by Greeks of a certain merchant house in Caesarea sacrificing birds in front of

15750-500: Was the second king of the Hasmonean dynasty , who ruled over an expanding kingdom of Judaea from 103 to 76 BCE. A son of John Hyrcanus , he inherited the throne from his brother Aristobulus I , and married his brother's widow , Queen Salome Alexandra . From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been described as cruel and oppressive with never-ending conflict. The major historical sources of Alexander's life are Josephus 's Antiquities of

15876-481: Was urged by her subordinates to annex Judea. Ananias demanded she consider the residential Egyptian Jews who were the main support of her throne. This induced Cleopatra to modify her longings for Judea. Alexander met her demands and suspended his campaigns. These negotiations took place at Scythopolis . Cleopatra died five years later. Confident, after her death, Alexander found himself free to continue with new campaigns. Alexander captured Gadara and fought to capture

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