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36-621: It was the most fertile part of Spain, and its name may derive from the Greek karpos meaning fruit due to abundant cultivation of fruits in the region. It was inhabited by the Carpetani , a pre- Roman tribe. To the south dwelt the Oretani , on the northeast were Celtiberians whose tribes are not further specified. On the northwest to the Vaccei and Vettones . This area was easily conquered by

72-595: A group of Celts and Celticized peoples inhabiting an area in the central-northeastern Iberian Peninsula during the final centuries BC. They were explicitly mentioned as being Celts by several classic authors (e.g. Strabo ). These tribes spoke the Celtiberian language and wrote it by adapting the Iberian alphabet , in the form of the Celtiberian script . The numerous inscriptions that have been discovered, some of them extensive, have enabled scholars to classify

108-761: A period of continuous warfare, though Barry Cunliffe says "this has the ring of guesswork about it." Strabo just saw the Celtiberians as a branch of the Celti . Pliny the Elder thought that the original home of the Celts in Iberia was the territory of the Celtici in the south-west, on the grounds of an identity of sacred rites, language, and the names of cities. Strabo cites Ephorus 's belief that there were Celts in

144-1180: A territory that stretched from the Guadarrama river at the north to the upper Anas ( Guadiana ) in the modern provinces of Guadalajara , Toledo , Madrid and Ciudad Real , an area designated as Carpetania in the ancient sources. Main city-states ( Civitates ) in the region were Toletum (near modern Toledo ; Roman or Celtiberian-type mint: Tole ), Iplacea / Complutum ( Alcalá de Henares – Madrid ); Celtiberian-type mint: Ikezancom Konbouto ?), Titulcia (El Cerrón, near modern Titulcia – Madrid ), Consabura ( Consuegra – Toledo), Barnacis ( Orgaz – Ciudad Real; Celtiberian-type mint: Bornaiscom ), Laminium ( Argamasilla de Alba or Alhambra – Ciudad Real) and Alce ( Campo de Criptana – Ciudad Real). Towns of lesser importance were Aebura ( Cuerva – Toledo), Metercosa ( Madridejos – Toledo), Ispinum ( Yepes – Toledo), Miaccum ( Casa de Campo – Madrid), Mantua ( Montiel – Ciudad Real), Thermida ( Trillo – Guadalajara), Ilarcuris ( Horche – Guadalajara) and Ilurbida ( Lorvigo , near Talavera de la Reina – Toledo). The exact location of

180-604: A thrown spear, was a Hispanic word, according to Varro . Celtiberian culture was increasingly influenced by Rome in the two final centuries BC. From the 3rd century, the clan was superseded as the basic Celtiberian political unit by the oppidum , a fortified organized city with a defined territory that included the castros as subsidiary settlements. These civitates as the Roman historians called them, could make and break alliances, as surviving inscribed hospitality pacts attest, and minted coinage. The old clan structures lasted in

216-540: A wide-ranging degree of local assimilation with the autochthonous cultures in a mixed Celtic and Iberian stock. The cultural stronghold of Celtiberians was the northern area of the central meseta in the upper valleys of the Tagus and Douro east to the Iberus ( Ebro ) river, in the modern provinces of Soria , Guadalajara , Zaragoza and Teruel . There, when Greek and Roman geographers and historians encountered them,

252-571: Is now believed that they stemmed from both the transitional Late Bronze Age /early Iron Age 'Campiñas de Madrid' farmers' and the ' Cogotas I ' cultural groups. Only a few Carpetanian towns appear to have issued their own currency, modelled after Roman patterns copied directly or adapted via Celtiberian coinage. In the 2nd century BC, Iplacea/Complutum and Barnacis struck coins with their names marked in Celtiberian script , whilst later Toletum struck theirs bearing its name in Latin script . By

288-677: The Celtiberian language as a Celtic language, one of the Hispano-Celtic (also known as Iberian Celtic) languages that were spoken in pre-Roman and early Roman Iberia. Archaeologically, many elements link Celtiberians with Celts in Central Europe, but also show large differences with both the Hallstatt culture and La Tène culture . There is no complete agreement on the exact definition of Celtiberians among classical authors, nor modern scholars. The Ebro river clearly divides

324-838: The Ebro with the exception of Saguntum . They also provided mercenary troops to the Carthaginian armies, for Frontinus mentions the desertion of 3,000 Carpetani warriors from Hannibal's army when he entered in Italy after crossing the Alps. During the Sertorian Wars , the Carpetani remained loyal to Rome, whilst their perpetual rivals and enemies the Vettones and Celtiberians sided with Quintus Sertorius . From 197 BC and over

360-697: The Iberian Peninsula prior to the Roman conquest . Their core domain was constituted by the lands between the Tagus and the Anas , in the southern Meseta . Agriculture is thought to have had a greater importance in the Carpetanian economy than other neighboring peoples'. Since the 5th century BC the Carpetani inhabited the Toledo and Alcaraz highland ranges along the middle Tagus basin , occupying

396-728: The Roman province of Hispania Citerior . The subjugated Celtiberians waged a protracted struggle against the Roman conquerors, staging uprisings in 195–193 BC, 181–179 BC , 153–151 BC , and 143–133 BC . In 105 BC, Celtiberian warriors drove the Germanic Cimbri from Spain in the Cimbrian War (113–101 BC) and also played an important role in the Sertorian War (80–72 BC). The term Celtiberi appears in accounts by Diodorus Siculus , Appian and Martial who recognized intermarriage between Celts and Iberians after

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432-559: The Romans and quickly integrated culturally and politically. Thus, it is practically unmentioned in the literature of the conquest. It retained a distinct cultural identity through the Visogothic period. Its main urban nuclei (Toletum, corresponding to present Toledo; Complutum, the present Alcalá de Henares , Consabura, the present Consuegra , Segóbriga (Saelices, River basin) and Laminio ) acquired municipal legal statutes soon after

468-625: The Second Punic War the Celtiberians served most often as allies or mercenaries of Carthage in its conflict with Rome, and crossed the Alps in the mixed forces under Hannibal 's command. Under Scipio Africanus , the Romans were able to secure alliances and change the allegiances of many Celtiberian tribes, using these allied warriors against the Carthaginian forces and allies in Spain. After

504-742: The 4th century BC; the rest of the population was clearly Indo-European and very mixed, including people of native Ibero- Tartessian and Indo-Aryan affiliation. Recent analysis of local epigraphic sources revealed that the Carpetani comprised some twenty-seven tribes, namely the Aelariques , Aeturiques , Arquioci , Acualiques , Bocouriques , Canbarici , Contucianci , Dagencii , Doviliques , Duitiques , Duniques , Elguismiques , Langioci , Longeidoci , Maganiques , Malugeniques , Manuciques , Maureici , Mesici , Metturici , Moenicci , Obisodiques , Pilonicori , Solici , Tirtaliques , Uloques , and Venatioques . In archeological terms, it

540-584: The Celtiberian areas from non-Indo-European speaking peoples. In other directions, the demarcation is less clear. Most scholars include the Arevaci , Pellendones , Belli , Titti and Lusones as Celtiberian tribes, and occasionally the Berones , Vaccaei , Carpetani , Olcades or Lobetani . In 195 BC, part of Celtiberia was conquered by the Romans , and by 72 BC the entire region had become part of

576-439: The Celtiberian strongholds Kontebakom-Bel Botorrita , Sekaisa Segeda , Termantia complement the grave goods found in Celtiberian cemeteries, where aristocratic tombs of the 6th to 5th centuries BC give way to warrior tombs with a tendency from the 3rd century BC for weapons to disappear from grave goods, either indicating an increased urgency for their distribution among living fighters or, as Almagro-Gorbea and Lorrio think,

612-510: The Iberian peninsula as far as Cádiz . Celtic presence in Iberia likely dates to as early as the 6th century BC, when the castros evinced a new permanence with stone walls and protective ditches. Archaeologists Martín Almagro Gorbea and Alberto José Lorrio Alvarado recognize the distinguishing iron tools and extended family social structure of developed Celtiberian culture as evolving from

648-855: The Roman conquest. It has also been used in Geography to designate the Central System , the mountain range that separates the North Plateau of the South Plateau, although that use (Carpetovetónica Mountain range, by similarity with the Cantabrian Mountains range or the Iberian System ) has nearly vanished. Carpetani The Carpetani ( Greek : Karpetanoi ) were one of the Celtic peoples inhabiting

684-407: The archaic castro culture which they consider "proto-Celtic". Archaeological finds identify the culture as continuous with the culture reported by Classical writers from the late 3rd century onwards (Almagro-Gorbea and Lorrio). The ethnic map of Celtiberia was highly localized however, composed of different tribes and nations from the 3rd century centered upon fortified oppida and representing

720-512: The conflict, Rome took possession of the Punic empire in Spain, and some Celtiberians soon challenged the new dominant power that loomed in the borders of its territory. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus spent the years 182 to 179 pacifying the Celtiberians. Gracchus boasted of destroying over 300 Celtiberian settlements. In 155 BC, a raid into Hispania Ulterior (Farther Spain) by the Lusitani and

756-502: The consul was late in arriving and ambushed soon after, with 6,000 Romans slain. A siege of Numantia several days later, where the Segedans had taken refuge, was no more successful. Three elephants were brought up against the town walls but became frightened and turned on the Romans, who retreated in confusion. There were other setbacks, and the hapless Nobilior was obliged to withdraw to camp, where more men suffered frostbite and died of

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792-481: The defeat of two successive Roman praetors encouraged the town of Segeda in Hispania Citerior (Nearer Spain) to rebel. The following year, it refused to pay tribute or provide a military contingent to Rome but formed instead a confederacy with neighboring towns and began the construction of a defensive wall. Quintus Fulvius Nobilior was sent against the Celtiberians in 153 BC, with nearly 30,000 men. But

828-558: The established Celtiberians were controlled by a military aristocracy that had become a hereditary elite. The dominant tribe were the Arevaci , who dominated their neighbors from powerful strongholds at Okilis ( Medinaceli ) and who rallied the long Celtiberian resistance to Rome. Other Celtiberians were the Belli and Titti in the Jalón valley, and the Lusones to the east. Excavations at

864-564: The formation of the Celtiberian armies, organized along clan-structure lines, with consequent losses of strategic and tactical control. The Celtiberians were the most influential ethnic group in Iberia when the Mediterranean powers ( Carthage and Rome ) started their conquests. In 220 BC, the Punic army was attacked when preparing to cross the Tagus river by a coalition of Vaccei , Carpetani and Olcades . Despite these clashes, during

900-461: The freedom of their country. But Scipio would accept only deditio (surrender). Hearing this demand for absolute submission, the Numantines, "who were previously savage in temper because of their absolute freedom and quite unaccustomed to obey the orders of others, and were now wilder than ever and beside themselves by reason of their hardships," slew their own ambassadors. After eight months,

936-436: The increased urbanization of Celtiberian society. Many late Celtiberian oppida are still occupied by modern towns, inhibiting archaeology. Metalwork stands out in Celtiberian archaeological finds, partly from its indestructible nature, emphasizing Celtiberian articles of warlike uses, horse trappings and prestige weapons. The two-edged sword adopted by the Romans was previously in use among the Celtiberians, and Latin lancea ,

972-526: The last formal resistance of the Celtiberian cities to Roman domination, which submerged the Celtiberian culture. The Celtiberian presence remains on the map of Spain in hundreds of Celtic place-names . The archaeological recovery of Celtiberian culture commenced with the excavations of Numantia , published between 1914 and 1931. A Roman army auxiliary unit, the Cohors I Celtiberorum, is known from Britain, attested by 2nd century AD discharge diplomas . In

1008-495: The later part of the 3rd century BC, the Carpetani had evolved into a sort of federation or loose tribal confederacy whose nominal capital was set at Toletum , with several centres of power in the main towns ruled by petty kings ( Latin : Reguli ). Some of these Rulers appear to have risen to prominence in the early 2nd century BC – one king Hilernus led a coalition of Carpetani, Vaccaei , Vettones and Celtiberians against consul Marcus Fulvius near Toletum in 193 BC, but he

1044-555: The next 170 years, the Roman Republic slowly expanded its control over Hispania. This was a gradual process of economic, diplomatic and cultural infiltration and colonisation, with campaigns of military suppression when there was native resistance, rather than the result of a single policy of conquest. The Romans turned some of the native cities into tributary cities and established outposts and Roman colonies to expand their control. Celtiberians The Celtiberians were

1080-523: The remaining Carpetanian towns is either uncertain or unknown, this is true in the cases of Dipo (near Toledo?), Libora , Varada , Caracca or Characa , Rigusa , Paterniana , and Alternia . The origins of the Carpetani are obscure though their ruling elite certainly had Celtiberian and Gallic - Belgae elements, whose ancestors arrived to the Peninsula in the wake of the Celtic migration at

1116-414: The starving population was reduced to cannibalism and, filthy and foul smelling, compelled to surrender. But, "such was the love of liberty and of valour which existed in this small barbarian town," relates Appian , that many chose to kill themselves rather than capitulate. Families poisoned themselves, weapons were burned, and the beleaguered town set ablaze. There had been only about 8,000 fighting men when

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1152-527: The war began; half that number survived to garrison Numantia. Only a pitiable few survived to walk in Scipio's triumph. The others were sold as slaves and the town razed to the ground, the territory divided among its neighbors. After Numantia was finally taken and destroyed, Roman cultural influences increased; this is the period of the earliest Botorrita inscribed plaque ; later plaques, significantly, are inscribed in Latin . The Sertorian War (80–72 BC) marked

1188-404: The winter cold. Nobilior lost over 10,000 men in his campaign. In 137 BC, the Celtiberians forced the surrender of a 20,000-man Roman consular army led by Gaius Hostilius Mancinus . In 134 BC, the consul Scipio Aemilianus took charge of the demoralized Roman troops in Spain and laid siege to Numantia . Nearby fields were laid waste and what was not used burned. The stronghold of Numantia then

1224-457: Was circumvallated with a ditch and palisade, behind which was a wall ten feet high. Towers were placed every hundred feet and mounted with catapults and ballistae . To blockade the nearby river, logs were placed in the water, moored by ropes on the shore. Knives and spear heads were embedded in the wood, which rotated in the strong current. Allied tribes were ordered to send reinforcements. Even Jugurtha , who later would revolt from Rome, himself,

1260-402: Was defeated in battle and captured; another Regulus , Thurrus , ruler of Alce signed a treaty with Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in 179 BC. Prior to the Second Punic War , they opposed Carthaginian expansion in central Spain, but in 220 BC Hannibal defeated a combined force of Vaccaei , Olcades and Carpetani at the battle on the Tagus , thus completing his conquest of Hispania south of

1296-571: Was sent from Numidia with twelve war elephants. The Roman forces now numbered 60,000 men and were arrayed around the besieged town in seven camps. The Numantines, "ready though they were to die, no opportunity was given them of fighting". There were several desperate attempts to break out but they were repulsed. Nor could there be any help from neighboring towns. Eventually, as their hunger increased, envoys were sent to Scipio, asking if they would be treated with moderation if they surrendered, pleading that they had fought for their women and children, and

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