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95-605: The Chinese government has described the Chefoo Convention as an " unequal treaty ". The convention consisted of sixteen articles and was divided into three sections. The first section dealt with the resolution of the Margary Affair , calling for the punishment of the people implicated in the murder of Augustus Raymond Margary the year before and stipulating that an indemnity be paid to Margary's relatives. The second section dealt with official intercourse between

190-949: A pan-Asian opposition to Western imperialism . In Japan, Sun also met Mariano Ponce , a diplomat of the First Philippine Republic . During the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War , Sun helped Ponce procure weapons that had been salvaged from the Imperial Japanese Army and ship the weapons to the Philippines. By helping the Philippine Republic, Sun hoped that the Filipinos would retain their independence so that he could be sheltered in

285-632: A socialist -based organization in Paris , and asked it to send a team of specialists to help China set up the world's first socialist republic. The same year, Sun received the Indian communist M.N. Roy as a guest. There were then many theories and proposals of what China could be. In the political mess, both Sun Yat-sen and Xu Shichang were announced as president of the Republic of China. China had become divided among regional military leaders. Sun saw

380-472: A speech on Pan-Asianism at Kobe , Japan. For many years, it was popularly believed that Sun died of liver cancer . On 26 January 1925, Sun underwent an exploratory laparotomy at Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH) to investigate a long-term illness. It was performed by the head of the Department of Surgery, Adrian S. Taylor, who stated that the procedure "revealed extensive involvement of

475-451: A few years of local schooling, a 13-year-old Sun went to live with his elder brother Sun Mei , who would later make major contributions to overthrowing the Qing dynasty , and who financed Sun's attendance of the ʻIolani School . There, he studied English, British history , mathematics, science, and Christianity. Sun was initially unable to speak English, but quickly acquired it, received

570-671: A gathering for a "national conference" for the Chinese people. He called for the end of warlord rules and the abolition of all unequal treaties with the Western powers . Two days later, he traveled to Beijing to discuss the future of the country despite his deteriorating health and the ongoing civil war of the warlords. Among the people whom he met was the Muslim warlord General Ma Fuxiang , who informed Sun that he would welcome Sun's leadership. On 28 November 1924 Sun traveled to Japan and gave

665-477: A long time. The group has also been referred to as the "three cooperating organizations", as well as the triads . Sun mainly used the group to leverage his overseas travels to gain further financial and resource support for his revolution. In 1895, China suffered a serious defeat during the First Sino-Japanese War . There were two types of responses. One group of intellectuals contended that

760-607: A major impetus for the foreign policy of China today. Japan and Korea also use the term to refer to several treaties that resulted in a reduction of their national sovereignty. Japan and China signed treaties with Korea such as the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 and China–Korea Treaty of 1882 , with each granting privileges to the former parties concerning Korea. Japan after the Meiji Restoration also began enforcing unequal treaties against China after its victory in

855-632: A massive humiliation for the latter. Korea's first unequal treaty was not with the West, but instead with Japan. The Ganghwa Island incident in 1875 saw Japan send the warship Un'yō led by Captain Inoue Yoshika with the implied threat of military action to coerce the Korean kingdom of Joseon through the show of force . After an armed clash ensued around Ganghwa Island where the Japanese force

950-650: A permanent diplomatic mission in Britain, opening the way for a permanent foreign representation of China. The Chefoo Convention was ratified immediately by the Qing government, but was not ratified by Britain until July 1885, due to criticism and opposition from British opium merchants in Calcutta and Bombay , as well as from the government of the British Raj . Unequal treaty The unequal treaties were

1045-463: A prize for academic achievement from King Kalākaua , and graduated in 1882. He then attended Oahu College (now known as Punahou School ) for one semester. By 1883, Sun's interest in Christianity had become deeply worrisome for his brother—who, seeing his conversion as inevitable, sent Sun back to China. Upon returning to China, a 17-year-old Sun met with his childhood friend Lu Haodong at

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1140-685: A revolutionary government in Southern China to challenge the warlords who controlled much of the country following Yuan's death. In 1923, Sun invited representatives of the Communist International to Guangzhou to reorganize the KMT, resulting in the brittle First United Front with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He did not live to see his party unify the country under his successor, Chiang Kai-shek , in

1235-601: A revolutionary. The same year, he delivered a speech in which he proclaimed his Three Principles of the People as the foundation of the country and the Five-Yuan Constitution as the guideline for the political system and bureaucracy. Part of the speech was made into the National Anthem of the Republic of China . On 10 November 1924, Sun traveled north to Tianjin and delivered a speech to suggest

1330-544: A series of agreements made between Asian countries – most notably Qing China , Tokugawa Japan and Joseon Korea – and Western countries – most notably the United Kingdom , France , Germany , Austria-Hungary , Italy , the United States and Russia – during the 19th and early 20th centuries. They were often signed following a military defeat suffered by the former party, or amid military threats made by

1425-495: A single coherent party provided a better base for those who shared revolutionary ideals. Under Sun's provisional government, several innovations were introduced, such as the aforementioned calendar system, and fashionable Zhongshan suits . Yuan Shikai , who was in control of the Beiyang Army , had been promised the position of president of the Republic of China if he could get the Qing court to abdicate. On 12 February 1912,

1520-632: A tailor in Macau and as a journeyman and a porter. After finishing primary education and meeting childhood friend Lu Haodong , he moved to Honolulu in the Kingdom of Hawaii , where he lived a comfortable life of modest wealth supported by his elder brother Sun Mei . During his stay in Honolulu, Sun began his education at the age of 10, attending secondary school in Hawaii. In 1878, after receiving

1615-410: A trilateral German-Chinese-American agreement that never materialised. Thus China entered the new era of ending unequal treaties on March 14, 1917, when it broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, thereby terminating the concessions it had given that country, with China declaring war on Germany on August 17, 1917. As World War I commenced, these acts voided the unequal treaty of 1861, resulting in

1710-803: A war, and because they encroached upon China's sovereign rights ... which reduced her to semicolonial status". The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War . The first treaty between the Qing dynasty and the United Kingdom termed "unequal" was the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. Following Qing China's defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreign missionaries , at least in theory, to reside within China. Foreign residents in

1805-418: Is one of the few cities named after people in China and has remained the official name of the city during Communist rule. Sun Deming was born on 12 November 1866 to Sun Dacheng and Madame Yang . His birthplace was the village of Cuiheng , Xiangshan County (now Zhongshan City), Canton Province (now Guangdong ). He was of Hakka and Cantonese descent. His father owned very little land and worked as

1900-725: The Convention of Kanagawa under the threat of violence by the American warships . This event abruptly terminated Japan's 220 years of seclusion under the Sakoku policy of 1633 under unilateral foreign pressure and consequentially, the convention has been seen in a similar light as an unequal treaty. Another significant incident was the Tokugawa Shogunate 's capitulation to the Harris Treaty of 1858, negotiated by

1995-747: The Diocesan Boys' School ), and from 15 April 1884 he attended The Government Central School on Gough Street (now Queen's College ), until graduating in 1886. In 1886, Sun studied medicine at the Guangzhou Boji Hospital under the Christian missionary John Glasgow Kerr . According to his book "Kidnapped in London", in 1887 Sun heard of the opening of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (the forerunner of

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2090-751: The Empire of Japan , the Jiaozhou Bay concession to the German Empire and concession territory in Tientsin , Shamian , Hankou , Shanghai etc.), and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign spheres of influence , following military threats. The Chinese-American sinologist Immanuel Hsu states that the Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with Western powers and Russia as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were imposed on China after

2185-414: The First Sino-Japanese War for influence over Korea as well as China's coastal ports and territories. In China, the term "unequal treaties" first came into use in the early 1920s to describe the historical treaties, still imposed on the then- Republic of China , that were signed through the period of time which the American sinologist John K. Fairbank characterized as the "treaty century" which began in

2280-640: The Four Bandits , at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese . In 1891, Sun met revolutionary friends in Hong Kong including Yeung Ku-wan who was the leader and founder of the Furen Literary Society . The group was spreading the idea of overthrowing the Qing. In 1894, Sun wrote an 8,000-character petition to Qing Viceroy Li Hongzhang presenting his ideas for modernizing China. He traveled to Tianjin to personally present

2375-772: The Huanghuagang Uprising , also known as the Yellow Flower Mound Uprising. The Ipoh leaders were Teh Lay Seng, Wong I Ek, Lee Guan Swee, and Lee Hau Cheong. The leaders launched a major drive for donations across the Malay Peninsula and raised HK$ 187,000. On 27 April 1911, the revolutionary Huang Xing led the Yellow Flower Mound Uprising against the Qing. The revolt failed and ended in disaster. The bodies of only 72 revolutionaries were identified of

2470-617: The London Missionary Society in 1888, while he studied medicine in Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese . Sun pictured a revolution as similar to the salvation mission of the Christian church . His conversion to Christianity was related to his revolutionary ideals and push for advancement. During the Qing-dynasty rebellion around 1888, Sun was in Hong Kong with a group of revolutionary thinkers, nicknamed

2565-591: The Manchu Qing government could restore its legitimacy by successfully modernizing. Stressing that overthrowing the Manchu would result in chaos and would lead to China being carved up by imperialists, intellectuals like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao supported responding with initiatives like the Hundred Days' Reform . In another faction, Sun Yat-sen and others like Zou Rong wanted a revolution to replace

2660-622: The May 4th movement. On May 20, 1921, China secured with the German-Chinese peace treaty (Deutsch-chinesischer Vertrag zur Wiederherstellung des Friedenszustandes) a diplomatic accord which was considered the first equal treaty between China and a European nation. During the Nanjing period , the Republic of China unsuccessfully sought to negotiate an end to the unequal treaties. Many treaties China considered unequal were repealed during

2755-548: The National Assembly of the Republic of China in 1912. In May 1912, the legislative assembly moved from Nanjing to Beijing, with its 120 members divided between members of the Tongmenghui and a republican party that supported Yuan Shikai. Many revolutionary members were already alarmed by Yuan's ambitions and the northern-based Beiyang government . The Tongmenghui member Song Jiaoren quickly tried to control

2850-718: The Northern Expedition against the military at the north. He established the Whampoa Military Academy near Guangzhou with Chiang Kai-shek as the commandant of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA). Other Whampoa leaders include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin as political instructors. This full collaboration was called the First United Front . In 1924 Sun appointed his brother-in-law T. V. Soong to set up

2945-542: The Northern Expedition . Now residing in Beijing, Sun died of gallbladder cancer in 1925. A vital component of Sun's legacy is his political philosophy, known as the Three Principles of the People : the peoples' independence from foreign domination, their rights, and their livelihood. He also composed the lyrics to the National Anthem of the Republic of China . Sun's genealogical name  [ zh ]

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3040-479: The Qing dynasty . Educated overseas, Sun is considered one of the most important leaders of modern China, but his political life featured constant struggles and frequent periods of exile. After the success of the 1911 Revolution, Sun quickly resigned as president of the nascent Republic of China, relinquishing the position to the general Yuan Shikai and ultimately going into exile in Japan. He later returned to found

3135-766: The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, China became an ally with the United Kingdom and the United States, which then signed treaties with China to end British and American extraterritoriality in January 1943. Significant examples outlasted World War II: treaties regarding Hong Kong remained in place until Hong Kong's 1997 handover , though in 1969, to improve Sino-Soviet relations in

3230-613: The Territory of Hawaii , stating that "he was born in the Hawaiian Islands on the 24th day of November, A.D. 1870." He renounced it after it served its purpose to circumvent the Chinese Exclusion Act. Official files of the United States show that Sun had United States nationality, moved to China with his family at age 4, and returned to Hawaii 10 years later. On 6 April 1904, on his first attempt to enter

3325-521: The University of Hong Kong ). He immediately sought to attend, and went on to obtain a license to practice medicine from the institution in 1892; out of a class of twelve students, Sun was one of two who graduated. In the early 1880s, Sun Mei had sent his brother to ʻIolani School, which was under the supervision of the Church of Hawaii and directed by an Anglican prelate, Alfred Willis , with

3420-631: The Western Hills a few miles outside Beijing. A glass-covered steel coffin was sent by the Soviet Union to the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall at Temple of Azure Clouds as a permanent repository for the body but was ultimately declined by the family as unsuitable. The body was embalmed for preservation by Peking Union Medical College who reportedly guaranteed its preservation for 150 years. In 1926, construction began on

3515-442: The art name Yat-sen ( 逸仙 ; Yìxiān ). Sun Zhongshan ( Syūn Jūng-sāan ; 孫中山 , also romanized Chung Shan ), the most popular of his Chinese names in China, is derived from his Japanese name Kikori Nakayama ( 中山樵 ; Nakayama Kikori ), the pseudonym given to him by Tōten Miyazaki when he was in hiding in Japan. His birthplace city was renamed Zhongshan in his honour likely shortly after his death in 1925. Zhongshan

3610-720: The provisional first president of the Republic of China and the first leader of the Kuomintang (KMT). Uniquely among 20th-century Chinese leaders, Sun is revered by both the Republic of China on Taiwan (where he is officially the " Father of the Nation ") and by the People's Republic of China (where he is officially the "Forerunner of the Revolution") for his instrumental role in the 1911 Revolution that successfully overthrew

3705-446: The 1840s. The term was popularized by Sun Yat-sen . In assessing the term's usage in rhetorical discourse since the early 20th century, American historian Dong Wang notes that "while the phrase has long been widely used, it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed between China and foreign countries that should be counted as unequal." However, within

3800-407: The 1920s, both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party used the concept to characterize the Chinese experience of losing sovereignty between roughly 1840 to 1950. The term "unequal treaty" became associated with the concept of China's " century of humiliation ", especially the concessions to foreign powers and the loss of tariff autonomy through treaty ports , and continues to serve as

3895-436: The 274 seats in the upper house. In retaliation, the KMT leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated, almost certainly by a secret order of Yuan, on 20 March 1913. The Second Revolution took place by Sun and KMT military forces trying to overthrow Yuan's forces of about 80,000 men in an armed conflict in July 1913. The revolt against Yuan was unsuccessful. In August 1913, Sun fled to Japan, where he later enlisted financial aid by

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3990-409: The 86 that were found. The revolutionaries are remembered as martyrs . Despite the failure of this uprising, which was due to a leak, it was successful in triggering off the trend of nation-wide revolts. On 10 October 1911, the military Wuchang Uprising took place and was led again by Huang Xing. The uprising expanded to the Xinhai Revolution , also known as the "Chinese Revolution", to overthrow

4085-440: The Beiji Temple ( 北極殿 ) in Cuiheng, where villagers engaged in traditional folk healing and worshipped an effigy of the North Star God . Feeling contemptuous of these practices, Sun and Lu incurred the wrath of their fellow villagers by breaking the wooden idol; as a result, Sun's parents felt compelled to dispatch him to Hong Kong. In November 1883, Sun began attending the Diocesan Home and Orphanage on Eastern Street (now

4180-410: The Chinese delegate Wellington Koo refused to sign the peace agreement, with China being the only conference member to boycott the signing ceremony. Widely perceived in China as a betrayal of the country's wartime contributions by the other conference members, the domestic backlash following the failure to restore Shandong would cause the collapse of the cabinet of the Duan Qirui government and lead to

4275-412: The Chinese newspaper Qun Qiang Bao all reported the cause of death as liver cancer, based on Taylor's observation. He also left a short political will ( 總理遺囑 ), penned by Wang Jingwei , which had a widespread influence in the subsequent development of the Republic of China and Taiwan . His body then was preserved in mineral oil and taken to the Temple of Azure Clouds , a Buddhist shrine in

4370-456: The Emperor did abdicate the throne. Sun stepped down as president, and Yuan became the new provisional president in Beijing on 10 March 1912. The provisional government did not have any military forces of its own. Its control over elements of the new army that had mutinied was limited, and significant forces still had not declared against the Qing. Sun Yat-sen sent telegrams to the leaders of all provinces to request them to elect and to establish

4465-412: The Furen Literary Society was merged with the Hong Kong chapter of the Revive China Society. Thereafter, Sun became the secretary of the newly merged Revive China Society, which Yeung Ku-wan headed as president. They disguised their activities in Hong Kong under the running of a business under the name "Kuen Hang Club" ( 乾亨行 ). A "Heaven and Earth Society" sect known as Tiandihui had been around for

4560-431: The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, maintained a lifelong friendship with Sun and later wrote an early biography of him Sun wrote a book in 1897 about his detention, "Kidnapped in London." Sun traveled by way of Canada to Japan to begin his exile there. He arrived in Yokohama on 16 August 1897 and met with the Japanese politician Tōten Miyazaki . Most Japanese who actively worked with Sun were motivated by

4655-410: The Qing at Friendship Pass , which is the border between Guangxi and Vietnam . The uprising failed after seven days of fighting. In 1907, there were a total of four failed uprisings, including Huanggang uprising , Huizhou seven women lake uprising and Qinzhou uprising . In 1908, two more uprisings failed: the Qin-lian Uprising and Hekou Uprising . Because of the failures, Sun's leadership

4750-439: The Qing government. The uprising was a failure. Sun received financial support mostly from his brother, who sold most of his 12,000 acres of ranch and cattle in Hawaii. Additionally, members of his family and relatives of Sun would take refuge at the home of his brother Sun Mei at Kamaole in Kula , Maui . While in exile in London in 1896, Sun raised money for his revolutionary party and to support uprisings in China. While

4845-426: The United States and was accompanied by his closest foreign advisor, the American "General" Homer Lea , an adventurer whom Sun had met in London when they attempted to arrange British financing for the future Chinese republic. Both sailed for China, arriving there on 21 December 1911. On 29 December 1911, a meeting of representatives from provinces in Nanjing elected Sun as the provisional president . 1 January 1912

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4940-418: The United States, Sun Yat-sen landed in San Francisco . He was detained and faced with possible deportation. Sun, represented by the law firm of Ralston & Siddons, based in Washington DC , filed an appeal with the Commissioner-General of Immigration on 26 April 1904. On 28 April 1904, the acting secretary of the Department of Commerce and Labor in a four-page decision contained in the case file, set aside

5035-477: The Western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition, arousing anxiety in Japan. The new government declared to the Great Powers that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties, and that the time for such treaties was over, demanding they renegotiate all of them on equal terms. After the Boxer Rebellion and the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, Germany began to reassess its policy approach towards China. In 1907 Germany suggested

5130-474: The alliance's mouthpiece to promote revolutionary ideas. Later, he initiated the establishment of reading clubs across Singapore and Malaysia to disseminate revolutionary ideas by the lower class through public readings of newspaper stories. The United Chinese Library, founded on 8 August 1910, was one such reading club, first set up at leased property on the second floor of the Wan He Salt Traders in North Boat Quay. The first actual United Chinese Library building

5225-415: The assembly. He mobilized the old Tongmenghui at the core with the mergers of a number of new small parties to form a new political party, the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party, commonly abbreviated as "KMT") on 25 August 1912 at Huguang Guild Hall , Beijing. The 1912–1913 National assembly election was considered a huge success for the KMT, which won 269 of the 596 seats in the lower house and 123 of

5320-411: The commencement of direct support from the Nanyang Chinese. The Singapore chapter of the Tongmenghui was established on 6 April 1906, but some records claim the founding date to be end of 1905. The villa used by Sun was known as Wan Qing Yuan . Singapore then was the headquarters of the Tongmenghui. After founding the Tongmenghui, Sun advocated the establishment of the Chong Shing Yit Pao as

5415-440: The country in staging another Chinese revolution. However, as the war ended in July 1902, the United States emerged victorious from a bitter three-year war against the Republic. Therefore, Sun did not have the opportunity to ally with the Philippines in his revolution in China. On 22 October 1900, Sun ordered the launch of the Huizhou Uprising to attack Huizhou and provincial authorities in Guangdong. That came five years after

5510-443: The danger and returned to China in 1916 to advocate Chinese reunification . In 1921, he started a self-proclaimed military government in Guangzhou and was elected Grand Marshal . Between 1912 and 1927, three governments were set up in South China: the Provisional government in Nanjing (1912) , the Military government in Guangzhou (1921–1925), and the National government in Guangzhou and later Wuhan (1925–1927). The governments in

5605-409: The dissemination of his revolutionary principles and ideals among Siamese Chinese in Siam . In Bangkok, Sun visited Yaowarat Road , in the city's Chinatown . On that street, Sun gave a speech claiming that Overseas Chinese were "the Mother of the Revolution." He also met the local Chinese merchant Seow Houtseng, who sent financial support to him. Sun's speech on Yaowarat Road was commemorated by

5700-489: The dynastic system with a modern nation-state in the form of a republic . The Hundred Days' reform turned out to be a failure by 1898. In the second year of the establishment of the Revive China Society, on 26 October 1895, the group planned and launched the First Guangzhou uprising against the Qing in Guangzhou . Yeung Ku-wan directed the uprising starting from Hong Kong. However, plans were leaked out, and more than 70 members, including Lu Haodong , were captured by

5795-475: The eponymous U.S. envoy Townsend Harris , which, among other concessions, established a system of extraterritoriality for foreign residents. This agreement would then serve as a model for similar treaties to be further signed by Japan with other foreign Western powers in the weeks to follow, such as the Ansei Treaties . The enforcement of these unequal treaties were a tremendous national shock for Japan's leadership as they both curtailed Japanese sovereignty for

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5890-436: The establishment of a new imperial government. The unequal treaties ended at various times for the countries involved and Japan's victories in the 1894–95 First Sino-Japanese War convinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan as it was a great power in its own right. This view gained more recognition following the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, whereby Japan most notably defeated Russia in

5985-425: The events leading up to it are unclear, Sun Yat-sen was detained at the Chinese Legation in London , where the Chinese secret service planned to smuggle him back to China to execute him for his revolutionary actions. He was released after 12 days by the efforts of James Cantlie , The Globe , The Times , and the Foreign Office , which left Sun a hero in the United Kingdom. James Cantlie, Sun's former teacher at

6080-446: The failed Guangzhou Uprising. This time, Sun appealed to the triads for help. The uprising was another failure. Miyazaki, who participated in the revolt with Sun, wrote an account of the revolutionary effort under the title "33-Year Dream" ( 三十三年之夢 ) in 1902. In 1903, Sun made a secret trip to Bangkok in which he sought funds for his cause in Southeast Asia. His loyal followers published newspapers, providing invaluable support to

6175-400: The first Chinese "daily" newspaper, the Kwong Wah Yit Poh , in December 1910. To sponsor more uprisings, Sun made a personal plea for financial aid at the Penang conference , held on 13 November 1910 in Malaya. The high-powered preparatory meeting of Sun's supporters was subsequently held in Ipoh, Singapore, at the villa of Teh Lay Seng, the chairman of the Tungmenghui, to raise funds for

6270-455: The first Chinese central bank, the Canton Central Bank . To establish national capitalism and a banking system was a major objective for the KMT. However, Sun met opposition by the Canton Merchant Volunteers Corps Uprising against him. In February 1923, Sun made a presentation to the Students' Union in Hong Kong University and declared that the corruption of China and the peace, order, and good government of Hong Kong had turned him into

6365-417: The first time in its history and also revealed the nation's growing weakness relative to the West through the latter's successful imposition of such agreements upon the island nation. An objective towards the recovery of national status and strength would become an overarching priority for Japan, with the treaty's domestic consequences being the end of the Bakufu , the 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan, and

6460-471: The language of instruction being English. At the school, the young Sun first came in contact with Christianity. Sun was later baptized in Hong Kong (on 4 May 1884) by Rev. Charles Robert Hager an American missionary of the Congregational Church of the United States ( American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions ) to his brother's disdain. The minister would also develop a friendship with Sun. Sun attended To Tsai Church ( 道濟會堂 ), founded by

6555-429: The last emperor, Puyi . Sun had no direct involvement in it, as he was in Denver , Colorado , and had spent much of the year in the United States in search of support from Chinese Americans . That made Huang be in charge of the revolution that ended over 2000 years of imperial rule in China. On 12 October, when Sun learned of the successful rebellion against the Qing emperor from press reports, he returned to China from

6650-399: The latter. Their terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by the former party: provisions included the cession of territory, the payment of reparations, the opening of treaty ports , the relinquishment of the right to control tariffs and imports, and the granting of extraterritoriality to foreign citizens. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism in

6745-459: The liver by carcinoma " and that Sun had only about ten days to live. Sun was hospitalized, and his condition was treated with radium . Sun survived the initial ten-day period, and on 18 February, against the advice of doctors, he was transferred to the KMT headquarters and treated with traditional Chinese medicine . That was also unsuccessful, and he died on 12 March, at the age of 58. Contemporary reports in The New York Times , Time , and

6840-513: The number of Tongmenghui members reached 963. Sun's notability and popularity extended beyond the Greater China region, particularly to Nanyang (Southeast Asia), where a large concentration of overseas Chinese resided in Malaya ( Malaysia and Singapore). In Singapore, he met the local Chinese merchants Teo Eng Hock ( 張永福 ), Tan Chor Nam ( 陳楚楠 ) and Lim Nee Soon ( 林義順 ), which mark

6935-696: The order of deportation and ordered the Commissioner of Immigration in San Francisco to "permit the said Sun Yat-sen to land." Sun was then freed to embark on his fundraising tour in the United States. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen came about with the goal "to expel the Tatar barbarians (specifically, the Manchu), to revive Zhonghua , to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people" ( 驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權 ). One of Sun's major legacies

7030-443: The past imposed upon China by Western powers. So China should be sympathetic toward us. They know we cannot afford this." Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen ( / ˈ s ʊ n ˈ j ɑː t ˈ s ɛ n / ; traditional Chinese : 孫逸仙 ; simplified Chinese : 孙逸仙 ; pinyin : Sūn Yìxiān ; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925) was a Chinese revolutionary, statesman, and political philosopher who served as

7125-491: The petition to Li but was not granted an audience. After that experience, Sun turned irrevocably toward revolution. He left China for Hawaii and founded the Revive China Society , which was committed to revolutionizing China's prosperity. It was the first Chinese nationalist revolutionary society. Members were drawn mainly from Chinese expatriates, especially from the lower social classes. The same month in 1894,

7220-775: The politician and industrialist Fusanosuke Kuhara . In 1915, Yuan proclaimed the Empire of China with himself as Emperor of China . Sun took part in the National Protection War of the Constitutional Protection Movement and also supported bandit leaders like Bai Lang during the Bai Lang Rebellion , which marked the beginning of the Warlord Era . In 1915, Sun wrote to the Second International ,

7315-770: The port cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than the Chinese legal system , a concept termed extraterritoriality . Under the treaties, the UK and the US established the British Supreme Court for China and Japan and United States Court for China in Shanghai . The unequal treaties gave European powers jurisdiction over missions in China and some authority over Chinese Christians. After World War I , patriotic consciousness in China focused on

7410-515: The praise by calling Lenin a "great man" and indicated that he wished to follow the same path as Lenin. In 1923, after having been in contact with Lenin and other Moscow communists, Sun sent representatives to study the Red Army , and in turn, the Soviets sent representatives to help reorganize the KMT at Sun's request. With the Soviets' help, Sun was able to develop the military power needed for

7505-459: The reinstatement of Chinese control on the concessions of Tianjin and Hankou to China. In 1919, the post-war peace negotiations failed to return the territories in Shandong, previously under German colonial control, back to the Republic of China. After it was determined that the Japanese forces occupying those territories since 1914 would be allowed to retain them under the Treaty of Versailles ,

7600-544: The scope of Chinese historiographical scholarship, the phrase has typically been defined to refer to the many cases in which China was effectively forced to pay large amounts of financial reparations , open up ports for trade, cede or lease territories (such as Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China (including Zhetysu ) to the Russian Empire , Hong Kong and Weihaiwei to the United Kingdom , Guangzhouwan to France , Kwantung Leased Territory and Taiwan to

7695-476: The south were established to rival the Beiyang government in the north. Yuan Shikai had banned the KMT. The short-lived Chinese Revolutionary Party was a temporary replacement for the KMT. On 10 October 1919, Sun resurrected the KMT with the new name Chung-kuo Kuomintang , or "Nationalist Party of China." Sun was now convinced that the only hope for a unified China lay in a military conquest from his base in

7790-878: The south, followed by a period of political tutelage  [ zh ] , which would culminate in the transition to democracy. To hasten the conquest of China, he began a policy of active co-operation with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Sun and the Soviet Union 's Adolph Joffe signed the Sun-Joffe Manifesto in January 1923. Sun received help from the Comintern for his acceptance of communist members into his KMT. Sun received assistance from Soviet advisor Mikhail Borodin , whom Sun described as his " Lafayette ". The Russian revolutionary and socialist leader Vladimir Lenin praised Sun and his KMT for its ideology, principles, attempts at social reformation, and fight against foreign imperialism. Sun also returned

7885-551: The street later being named "Sun Yat Sen Street" or "Soi Sun Yat Sen" ( Thai : ซอยซุนยัตเซ็น ) in his honour. According to Lee Yun-ping, chairman of the Chinese historical society, Sun needed a certificate to enter the United States since the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 would have otherwise blocked him. In March 1904, while residing in Kula , Maui , Sun Yat-sen obtained a Certificate of Hawaiian Birth, issued by

7980-564: The treaties, which now became widely known as "unequal treaties." The Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party competed to convince the public that their approach would be more effective. Germany was forced to terminate its rights, the Soviet Union surrendered them, and the United States organized the Washington Conference to negotiate them. After Chiang Kai-shek declared a new national government in 1927,

8075-449: The two empires and specified the extraterritorial privileges of British subjects in China. The final section dealt with trade, prohibiting the levying of the Lijin in the treaty ports, outlawing other forms of taxes on foreign goods, and opening a number of new treaty ports. One practical result of the treaty was that the official mission of apology to Britain, led by Guo Songtao , became

8170-548: The unequal treaties imposed upon the kingdom by the West powers, Korea's diplomatic concessions with those states became largely null and void in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan . In 2018, Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad criticized the terms of infrastructure projects under the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative in Malaysia, stating that "China knows very well that it had to deal with unequal treaties in

8265-417: The wake of military skirmishes along their border , the People's Republic of China was forced to reconfirm the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Treaty of Peking . Prior to the Meiji Restoration , Japan was also subject to numerous unequal treaties. When the US expeditionary fleet led by Matthew Perry reached Japan in 1854 to force open the island nation for American trade, the country was compelled to sign

8360-478: Was Sun Deming ( Cantonese : Syūn Dāk-mìhng ; 孫德明 ). As a child, his milk name was Tai Tseung ( Dai-jeuhng ; 帝象 ). In school, the teacher gave him the name Sun Wen ( Syūn Màhn ; 孫文 ), which was used by Sun for most of his life. Sun's courtesy name was Zaizhi ( Jai-jī ; 載之 ), and his baptized name was Rixin ( Yaht-sān ; 日新 ). While at school in British Hong Kong , he got

8455-457: Was a dependency of China and granted the Chinese extraterritoriality and other privileges, and in subsequent treaties China also obtained concessions in Korea, such as the Chinese concession of Incheon . However, Qing China lost its influence over Korea following the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895. As Japanese dominance over the Korean peninsula grew in the following decades, with respect to

8550-473: Was built between 1908 and 1911 below Fort Canning, on 51 Armenian Street, commenced operations in 1912. The library was set up as a part of the 50 reading rooms by the Chinese republicans to serve as an information station and liaison point for the revolutionaries. In 1987, the library was moved to its present site at Cantonment Road. On 1 December 1907, Sun led the Zhennanguan Uprising against

8645-591: Was challenged by elements from within the Tongmenghui who wished to remove him as leader. In Tokyo, members from the recently merged Restoration society raised doubts about Sun's credentials. Tao Chengzhang and Zhang Binglin publicly denounced Sun in an open leaflet, "A declaration of Sun Yat-sen's Criminal Acts by the Revolutionaries in Southeast Asia", which was printed and distributed in reformist newspapers like Nanyang Zonghui Bao . The goal

8740-502: Was sent, which resulted in its victory, the incident subsequently forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing the Treaty of Ganghwa Island , also known as the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 . During this period Korea also signed treaties with Qing China and the West powers (such as the United Kingdom and the United States ). In the case of Qing China, it signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 with Korea stipulating that Korea

8835-451: Was set as the epoch of the new republican calendar . Li Yuanhong was made provisional vice-president, and Huang Xing became the minister of the army. A new provisional government for the Republic of China was created, along with a provisional constitution . Sun is credited for funding the revolutions and for keeping revolutionary spirit alive, even after a series of false starts. His successful merger of smaller revolutionary groups into

8930-470: Was the creation of his political philosophy of the Three Principles of the People . These Principles included the principle of nationalism (minzu, 民族 ), of democracy (minquan, 民權 ), and of welfare (minsheng, 民生 ). On 20 August 1905, Sun joined forces with revolutionary Chinese students studying in Tokyo to form the unified group Tongmenghui (United League), which sponsored uprisings in China. By 1906

9025-506: Was to target Sun as a leader leading a revolt only for profiteering . The revolutionaries were polarized and split between pro-Sun and anti-Sun camps. Sun publicly fought off comments about how he had something to gain financially from the revolution. However, by 19 July 1910, the Tongmenghui headquarters had to relocate from Singapore to Penang to reduce the anti-Sun activities. It was also in Penang that Sun and his supporters would launch

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